ST.

LOUIS UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE, DOUALA CAMPUS

2024/2025 ACADEMIC YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER, LEVEL 400 (COMBINED)
COURSE INSTRUCTORS: Dr. FLORENCE /Mr. FONCHA

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (BNS 413)

LECTURE NOTES

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Lecture outline Learning objectives
o Introduction At the end of the lectures, the students will be able to:
o Definitions  Define key terms/concepts: data, data collection, data
o Types of data collection methods, etc
o Data collection methods  Know the different types of data.
 Surveys  List data collection methods
 Interviews  Know the Understand strengths & limitations of various
 Observations methods.
 Focus group discussions  Know how to design a questionnaire
 Record/chart reviews  Apply the principles of data collection methods to the
 Designing data design and implementation of a research project.
collection tools

1. Introduction

Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting research. It enables the
researcher to find answers to research questions. There are different types of data and several
data collection methods, techniques and tools accordingly. Each data collection method has
its own strengths, limitations. The choice of data collection method directly influences the
quality and reliability of the data collected and subsequently impacts the validity and
generalizability of the study's findings. It is therefore important for researchers to have a
mastery of the various methods, their merits and demerits, to be able to select the most
appropriate methods based on the research questions/objectives and contexts. It is worth

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 noting that there is no ideal method of data collection. Hence, rsearchers often use a
combination of methods, known as mixed methods, to gain a comprehensive understanding
of a health issue under investigation.

2. Definitions

i. Data (datum-singular) is a Latin word. Data are values of qualitative or quantitative

variables that can be measured, reported, and analyzed into meaningful information in
order to describe variables. Data are considered to be raw, unorganized, meaningless
facts, that must be analysed to generate information. Data may be numbers, letters,
words, text, photographs, sound, signs, etc.
‘You can have data without information, but you cannot have information without
data’
ii. Data collection is the process of systematically gathering information on variables of
interest from various sources, in order to answer stated research questions or test
hypotheses.
iii. Data collection method refers to the strategy or approach used to gather data in
research. It encompasses the overall framework or plan for how data will be collected.
iv. Data collection technique refers to a specific approach or procedure employed within a
particular data collection method to gather information for research.

NB: The terms "data collection method" and "data collection technique" are often
used interchangeably, but they can have slightly different connotations depending on
the context. The method is the broader concept that describes the overall approach for
gathering data, while the data collection technique refers to the specific approach used
within that method to collect the data. E.g. For Surveys is a method, its techniques
are: paper-based questionnaires, online surveys, face-to-face interviews, or
telephone interviews.

v. Data collection tools: Devices/ instruments used by the researcher to collect data. There
are different tools for various data collection methods.
vi. Data sources: These are sources from where data are collected (people, records, objects,
nature, etc)

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3.Types of data

There are 02 main categories of data in research: Qualitative & Quantitative data

3.1 Quantitative data

Qualitative data refers to number-based or numerical data, that can be counted or

measured using different scales (nominal, ordinal, interval & ratio). Quantitative data are
analysed using statistical methods to quantify quantitative variables, identify patterns,
trends, and relationships within the data.

3.2 Qualitative data

Qualitative data refers to non-numerical data. They are often descriptive in nature,
collected as text (words & sentences), pictures, sounds, signs, videos, etc. They can be
arranged into categories (categorical data). Qualitative data is often analyzed using thematic
analysis, content analysis, or other qualitative methods to identify themes, patterns, and
relationships within the data. Qualitative data provide insights into people's experiences,
beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours.

Based on data collection methods, qualitative and quantitative data may be classified as
primary or secondary data

Primary data are those which are collected for the first time by the researcher (original
data), for the purpose of the study.
Secondary data are existing data that had already been collected-by someone else for a
different purpose, but can be used for research purposes.

Sources of secondary data include: institutional records, medical reports, diaries,

personal records, public data bases (government agencies , NGOs, etc).

Both types of data have their advantages and disadvantages as presented in Tables 1 and 2.

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Table 1: Strengths and weaknesses of primary data

Strengths Weaknesses
i. Data are tailored according to i. Expensive & time-consuming to collect.
research question. ii. May not be readily available when needed
ii. Data are current. iii. May be difficult to obtain from source due
iii. Reliability & Validity is high ethical constraints, unwillingness of
iv. Can be checked and validated participants etc.
v. Completeness of data is ensured
Table 2: Strengths and weaknesses of secondary data

Strengths Weaknesses
i. Cheaper & readily available i. Data may not be suitable for the
ii. Easier and quicker to obtain research question
iii. May be very accurate, when obtained ii. Data may be out-dated (not current).
from credible sources iii. Data Reliability & validity is uncertain
iv. Less ethical concerns iv. Incomplete or Missing information
v. Must suitable for historical events. v. Possibility of errors during extraction
from the hand written records.

3.4. Data collection methods

Two broad categories: Quantitative & Qualitative methods.

a) Quantitative data collection methods involve collecting numerical data that can be
analyzed statistically (Table 3). Quantitative data collection methods seek to address
the ‘what’ research questions. They are more standardized and structured. The methods
are often used to quantify prevalence, incidence, treatment outcomes, or associations
between variables.
b) Qualitative data collection methods focus on gathering non-numerical, descriptive data
to understand social and contextual factors (Table 3). Qualitative methods address the
‘Why & How’ questions. They are less structured and are suitable for gathering in-depth
information on feelings, opinions, perceptions, and attitudes. Qualitative methods provide
insights into patients' experiences, healthcare practices, or the social determinants of
health.

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Table 3: Data Collection methods

Quantitative methods Qualitative methods

o Surveys o In-depth interviews
o Structured interviews o Focus group discussions
o Observation
o Biological/Physiological
o Chart reviews (Document analysis)
measures o Case studies
o Experiments/Tests o Ethnography
o Diaries Method
o etc
o Participatory Rural Appraisal/
Assessment
o Rapid Rural Appraisal/ Assessment
o etc
NB: All are primary data collection methods with the exception of Records/Chart review
that is used for collecting secondary data.

3.5. Data collection methods in health research

Surveys, interviews, focus group discussions, observations, experiments, and Record

reviews are commonly used in health research.

4.1 SURVEYS

 Definition:
A survey is a method of gathering information from a representative sample of individuals
or the entire population, using a questionnaire (set of standardized questions in a
structured format)

‘A Survey is the most widely used methods to collect primary quantitative data’

 Types of surveys

There are several types of surveys, including cross-sectional surveys, longitudinal surveys,
and panel surveys. Cross-sectional surveys gather data from a sample at a single point in
time, while longitudinal surveys gather data from the same sample over time.

 Tools for surveys

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A questionnaire is the main tool for surveys. A questionnaire is a research instrument
that consists of a set of questions to collect information from a respondent on the
phenomenon under study.

Based on who administers the questionnaire, a questionnaire is either a self-administered

questionnaire or an interviewer-administered questionnaire. On the bases of the method of
administration, a questionnaire is Paper-based, On-line or Mailed.

 Techniques for surveys (Administering questionnaires)

i. Direct Administration: Paper-based questionnaires are distributed to the respondents
by the researcher to complete (self-administered questionnaires)
ii. Face-to-face or in-home interviews (interviewer-administered questionnaire).
iii. Telephone interviews
iv. Online or Electronic surveys: E-mail and Internet (Mailed questionnaire)

‘Choose a survey administration method that is appropriate for the target population’.

 Strengths & limitations of surveys:

Strengths of surveys:

i. Surveys are useful for collecting large amounts of quantitative data quickly and
efficiently from a large number of participants.
ii. Surveys are useful for collecting data on a wide range of topics, including attitudes,
behaviours, and beliefs/perceptions related to health.
iii. Surveys can be standardized and easily replicated across different settings.
iv. They have the potential for providing reliable and valid data.
v. Survey data are easy to analyse (statistical analysis).

Limitations/Weaknesses of surveys

i. Social desirability bias

ii. Recall bias: Surveys rely on self-reported data, which may be subject to
iii. Low response rates
iv. Literacy skills is a barrier
v. Surveys may not provide in-depth information on the reasons behind participant
responses (do not answer the WHY & HOW questions)

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 vi. Surveys may be limited by the quality of the survey instrument, including question
wording and response options.
vii. Difficulty in capturing complex responses.

 Application of Surveys in health research:

Surveys are suitable for gathering large amounts of quantitative primary data on:

i. Population characteristics (E.g demographic)

ii. Prevalence and risk factors of disease conditions
iii. People’s attitudes, behaviours, and experiences on a particular topic.
iv. Trends, patterns, and relationships within a specific population.

4.2 INTERVIEWS

 Definition of interview

An interview is a verbal communication between the researcher (interviewer) and the

respondent (interviewee) during which information relevant for the research question is
provided by the interviewee. Both quantitative and in-depth qualitative data can be
obtained.

‘Interview is the most common method of gathering in-depth qualitative data’

 Types of interviews

Depending on the research question and objective, there are 03 main types of interviews are:
structured, semi-structured and unstructured.

a) Structured interviews

Structured interviews involve asking the same questions, in the same order, and in the same
manner to all respondents, using a structured interview guide. Also referred to as focused
interviews.

Characteristics of Structured interviews

i. An interview guide with a set of pre-decided closed-ended questions with a limited

set of responses.

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 ii. All participants are exposed to same questions and response options
iii. No room for variation in responses.
iv. No follow-up questions to responses needing further elaboration (No probing)
v. No explanation of unclear questions to interviewee.
vi. The interviewer plays a neutral role (no opinion)
vii. No flexibility

Strengths and limitations of structured interviews

Strengths

i. Relatively quick & easy to administer

ii. Literacy skills for respondents not required (for all interviews)
iii. Provide accurate & comparable data
iv. Data are easy to record, code and analysed
v. It increases the reliability and credibility of data.

Limitations

i. Information obtained is not detailed

ii. Exploration of data is limited.
iii. It may not cover all the possible responses or respondent views.
iv. No room for unanticipated or new information

Application of Structured Interview in health research

Structured interviews are typically used:

i. When in-depth information is not required

ii. When the research question is clear and specific.
iii. Primary quantitative data is required to answer the ‘What questions’
iv. Higher response rates compared to survey (for all interviews)

b) Semi-structured interviews:

Semi-structured interviews involve asking both a set of closed-ended and open-ended

questions to respondents, and the interviewer is allowed to probe and ask follow-up
questions to gain a deeper understanding of the participants' responses.

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Characteristics

i. Semi-structured Interview guide with both open-ended & close-ended questions

ii. Possibility for interviewer to probe for more information
iii. Explanation of unclear questions to interviewee
iv. Moderate degree of flexibility

iii. Strengths and Limitations of Semi-Structured Interviews

Strengths

i. Less costly & less time consuming compared with unstructured interview
ii. Provides both qualitative and quantitative data.
iii. Rich information compared to structured interview

Limitations

i. Time consuming compared to structured interviews

ii. Interviewer’s bias (interviewers’ opinion & presence) (applies to all interviews)
iii. Social desirability bias

Application of semi-structured Interviews in health research

i. Useful when both qualitative & qualitative data is needed (answer the What, Why and
How Questions).
ii. Useful when the research question is less clear or when the interviewer wants to
explore new topics.

Used most frequently in health research compared to the other types of interviews

c) Unstructured interviews:

Unstructured interview involves a more open-ended and free-flowing conversation between

the interviewer and participant, to gain a deeper understanding of their experiences,
perceptions, and attitudes. The interviewer has a general topic to discuss, but the
conversation is allowed to develop naturally. Also referred to as "in-depth" interviews

Characteristics:

i. No interview guides.

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 ii. The interviewer has a clear plan in mind to guide the discussion
iii. Interview starts with an opening question & subsequent questions depend on the
interviewee’s response.
iv. Probing by the interviewer for more information
v. Questions tend to be open-ended.
vi. High degree of flexibility

Strengths and Limitations of unstructured Interviews

Strengths

i. In-depth Interviews generate rich and detailed information on personal experiences,

opinions, and perspectives.
ii. Explorative: Provides detailed information where virtually nothing is known about
the topic
iii. Data accuracy can be checked
iv. Clarify mis-understanding: Probing and follow-up questions can provide
clarification on ambiguous or incomplete responses.
v. High potential for uncovering new perspectives and ideas
vi. High flexibility to questioning and adaptation
 Interview can be tailored to the specific research question and participant
characteristics.
 Interviewer freely asks the questions when required or omit the certain questions.
 Subjects are encouraged to talk freely and only very few questions asked to direct
the trend of the interview.

Limitations

i. Time-consuming (often lasting several hours) and resource intensive

ii. Difficult to manage without a guide
iii. Subject to social desirability bias, and interviewer bias
iv. Interviews may be limited by the skill and experience of the interviewer.
v. May go out of topic if not well managed
vi. Data is relatively more difficult to analyze
vii. Data interpretation based on researcher’s perception and subjective feelings.
viii. Limited sample size

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ix. Difficulty in generalizing findings to larger populations.

Application of Unstructured Interviews in health research

i. Suitable for exploratory qualitative studies to gain a deep understanding of people’s

experiences, attitudes, and perceptions on a particular topic.
ii. Useful in answering the Why and How Questions to gain a deep understanding of
iii. Useful for identifying themes, trends, and patterns within a specific population.
iv. Can be used to generate ideas and hypotheses for further research (all interviews)
 Tools for Interviews
 Tape recorders for recording interviews
 An interview guide designed to elicit responses that are relevant to the research
question and objectives
 Notebooks for note-takers.
 Interviews techniques

Interviews can be conducted: in person (face-to-face) where questions are asked directly to
respondents, over the telephone, or via video conference.

a) Face-to-face interviews (individual or group) interviews

Face-to face interviews involve the physical presence of both the interviewer and the
interviewee.

Strengths and Limitations of Face-to-face interviews

Strengths

i. Enables interviewer to establish rapport with participants thus enhances cooperation

ii. Probing can be done to provide rich data for semi-structured and structured
interviews.

iii. Non-verbal data collected through observation

iv. Complex and unknown issues can be explored

v. Lliteracy requirements of participants is not an issue

vi. High response rates compared to self-administered questionnaires.

Limitations

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 i. Expensive and time consuming

ii. Training of interviewers is necessary ensure effectiveness & to reduce interviewer

bias

iii. Prone to interviewer bias (interviewer, interviewee, interpreter-if used)

iv. Sensitive issues may be challenging to discuss face-to-face

b) Telephone and Video interviews

Telephone are cconducted over the phone, particularly when face-to-face interviews are not
possible or practical. Video interviews are conducted using videoconferencing software, such
as Skype or Zoom. Video interviews are useful when face-to-face interviews are not possible
or practical, but the researcher wants to observe the participant's nonverbal behaviour.

Strengths and Limitations of Telephone and Video interviews

Strengths:

i. Cheaper & faster than face-to-face (easier access to respondents)

ii. Suitable for sensitive topics (anonymous)
iii. Less interviewer bias (no influence)
iv. Useful for collecting data from geographically dispersed participants.
v. Possibility to collect non-verbal data (Video interviews)

Limitations

i. Telephone interviews are time consuming if need for repeated calls

ii. Selection bias (Only accessible to the population with a telephone)
iii. No opportunity for collection of non-verbal/ observation information (telephone
interviews)
 Preparation and Conducting an interviews
i. Design and pilot-test structured and semi-structured interview guides.
ii. Choose venue, time, duration, and language of communication
iii. Determine field staff quality, number, recruit, train and have them practice.
iv. Determine the sample size and select study participants
v. Obtain informed consents from all participants
vi. Conduct the interview:

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  Introducee the interviewer and note-taker to the participant and explain their roles
and responsibilities
 Establish rapport and set ground rules for the interview to enhance respectful
discussion, confidentiality, and active participation.
 Follow the interview protocol
 Ask open-ended questions and probe for more information to elicit detailed and
meaningful responses from the participant.
 Encouragee participation and managee dominant or passive participants for
group interviews to ensure that all perspectives are represented.
 Record and document the intervieww using audio or video recording equipment.
Detailed notes should be taken by the note-taker.

4.3. OBSERVATION

 Definition

Observation involves systematically selecting, watching and recording the behaviour,

characteristics, interactions, and experiences of the study population in natural or controlled
settings. It is used of phenomena that can be observed through the senses, with or without
mechanical devices.

The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to
behavioural sciences.

 Types of observation

Observations can be: Structured or Un-structured observation; Participant or Non-

participant Observation; Controlled or Uncontrolled; Overt or Covert.

a) Structured observations involve the use of an observation guide (protocol) and check
list with predetermined set of criteria for observing and recording behaviour. Structured
observations are useful when the research question is clear and specific.
b) Unstructured observations: Unstructured observations involve a more open-ended
approach to observing and recording behaviour. The observer does not follow a specific
protocol and records data based on what they observe in the natural setting. Unstructured
observations are more flexible, and are useful when the research question is exploratory
and the researcher wants to gain a deep understanding of the behaviour being observed.
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c) Participant observations involve the observer actively participating in the setting being
observed. The observer takes on the role of a participant and observer. The observer takes
part (participates)in the situation he or she observes. Example: A student researcher
assisting in a wound dressing, observing the procedure and collecting data.Participant
observations are useful when the researcher wants to gain an insider's perspective on the
behaviour being observed.
d) Non-participant observations involve the observer observing behaviour from a distane
without participating. E.g. A student researcher observes a child delivery and collecting
data without participating in the delivery. Non-participant observations are useful when
the researcher wants to maintain an objective perspective on the behaviour being
observed.
e) Overt observation: The observer observes behaviour with the knowledge or consent of
the participants. Participants are aware that they are being observed. e.g. A student
researcher observing a tooth extraction procedure with the dentist’s consent.
f) Covert observations involve the observer concealing their identity or purpose from the
setting being observed. E.g., A student observing taxi driver’s interaction with clients
without the knowledge of the drivers. Covert observations are controversial and are
generally considered unethical unless there is no other way to obtain the necessary data.
g) Controlled Observation: When observation takes place under controlled conditions. It is
generally done in laboratory (experiments).
h) Uncontrolled Observation: When the observation takes place in natural setting. It is
done to get spontaneous picture of life and persons.

Each observation type has its strengths and weaknesses and should be chosen based on the
specific research needs.

 Observation Tools

The tools that are used for observation are:

Audio or video recording equipment

Observational guide and Check list
Field notebook
The choice depends on the type of observation.

 Preparation and Conducting the Observation

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 i. Determine the purpose of the observation activity
ii. Determine what/who will be observed & How
iii. Determine what aspects to observed (characteristics, attributes, behaviours, etc.).
iv. Determine where (the site), when (time of day, date), and duration of observation.
v. Prepare and pre-test observation tools & check lists; field notebook and pen.
vi. Recruit and select field staff quality, number, train have them practice.
vii. Consider how you will present yourself (appearance, overtly or covertly)
viii. Plan how and if you will take notes during the participant observation.
ix. Conduct the observation (Collect the data).
x. Record the observations (e.g., field notes, audio or video recording).

 Strengths & Weaknesses of Observation

Strengths

i. Observations can capture non-verbal behaviour and environmental factors that

may not be captured by surveys or interviews.
ii. Observations are free of the information/recall biases inherent in the self-report
data (objective data)
iii. Observations can be useful for generating hypotheses or validating self-reported
data.
iv. Observations have the ability to capture real-time data: describing behaviour
occurring in the present rather than the past. Ability to study complex or sensitive
topics.
v. Flexibility and adaptation: the method can easily be adapted or modified depending
on what is being observed.
vi. Does not rely on people’s willingness or ability to provide information.
vii. Validity of data is more.

Weaknesses:

i. Time-consuming, labor intensive and costly

ii. Requires specialized training and equipment.
iii. Howthrone Effect if participants are aware that they are being observed
iv. Susceptible to observer’s biases or subjectivity ( observer choosing what he wants
to observe)

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 v. Limited information on the reasons/rational behind observed behaviours. Hence,
difficulties in interpreting the meaning underlying the observations.
vi. Sampling can be a problem
vii. Difficulty in generalizing results
viii. Ethical issues: observing people without their knowledge and informed consent, no
respect of privacy or invasion of privacy, etc.
 Application of observation method in health research
Observation involves systematically watching and recording behaviours, events,
or phenomena in real-time.
i. Valuable method for studying people's behaviours, social interactions, and
experiences in natural or controlled settings, and environmental factors
related to health.
ii. Suitable for investigating complex or sensitive topics that cannot be easily
measured through other methods.

Key points

 Data collection is an important step in health research

 Two main categories of data: quantitative & qualitative
 Existing data is primary data and freshly collected data is secondary data.
 Quantitative data collection methods involve collecting numerical data that can be
analyzed statistically. Examples: Surveys, structured interviews, and experiments.
 Quantitative data collection methods are often used to quantify prevalence,
incidence, treatment outcomes, or associations between variables.
 Qualitative data collection methods focus on gathering non-numerical, descriptive
data to understand social and contextual factors. Examples: in-depth interviews,
focus groups, and observations.
 Qualitative methods provide insights into patients' experiences, healthcare practices,
or the social determinants of health.
 Surveys involve the systematic collection of data through questionnaires or interviews
to gather information from a sample or population.
 Surveys can be conducted in various formats, such as paper-based, online, or
telephone surveys.
 Interviews involve direct conversations between the interviewer and the respondent to
collect detailed information.
 They can be structured (with pre-determined questions) or unstructured (allowing for
open-ended responses, or a hybrid.
 Observations involve systematically watching and recording behaviours, events, or
phenomena in their natural settings.

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  It can be done through direct observation or using tools like video recording or field
notes.

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION & RECORD REVIEW

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)

Definition
A focus group discussion (FGD) is a qualitative research method that involves a group of
people, typically 6-12 participants, who are brought together to discuss a specific topic in a
structured setting.
The aim is to obtain in-depth information on, beliefs, opinions, attitudes, perceptions and
ideas of a group

Characteristics of FGDs
Homogenous groups (in terms of age, literacy, gender, socioeconomic status, etc) to
facilitate better interaction (group dynamics) and free discussion.
6-12 participants
Discussions last for 1 and 2 hours
Trained facilitator or Moderator to guide the discussion & Notetaker
Discussion guide & Check list to stay focussed.
Tape recording of discussion and notes taking
Tools for FGDs
 FGD Guide with open-ended questions
 Checklist
 Video and Audio equipment,
 Note book
Preparation and conducting FGDs
o Formulating the research question/objectives
o Preparation and pre-testing of the discussion guide and check list
o Determining the quality, recruit, and train the Moderator & Notetaker

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 o Recruitment & informed consent of participants (Convenient sampling)
o Physical arrangements: convenient venue and sitting space.
o Conducting FGDs

o Introduction of the moderator and note-taker to the group and explain their roles and
responsibilities.
o Establishing rapport and setting ground rules for respectful discussion,
confidentiality, and active participation
o Facilitating the discussion and keep the group on track, ensuring that the
discussion guide and questions are covered.
o Encouraging participation and managing dominant or passive participants to
ensure that all perspectives are represented.
o Probing and following up on participant responses to elicit more detailed
information.
o Recording and documenting the discussion using audio or video recording
equipment, and taking detailed notes.
Strengths and Limitations of FGD
Strengths
1. FGDs generate rich and detailed data in a short period of time
2. Provide a deeper understanding and meaning of the phenomenon being studied
3. Less expensive compared with other methods
4. Do not require participants to be literate
5. Useful for exploring complex issues
6. Useful for gathering information on collective views.
7. Potential for uncovering new perspectives and idea
8. Generate hypotheses for further research.

Limitations
1. FGDs are prone to social desirability bias
2. The potential for groupthink is high (no personal opinion as people tend to centre on
what is generally or socially acceptable.
3. Requires a well-trained facilitator (Difficult to conduct if team is not well trained)
4. Lack of privacy/anonymity (ethical concerns)

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 5. Challenges in balancing the group to ensure homogeneity.
6. Risk of domination by one or two persons.
7. Not suitable for sensitive topics (members may hesitate to talk freely).
8. Time consuming to conduct
9. Data analysis is challenging and time-consuming.
10. Difficulties in generalizing results.

Application of FGDs in Health research:

Suitable for deep understanding of shared people's experiences, attitudes, and perceptions
on a particular topic.
Suitable for developing hypotheses for further research.
RECORD REVIEW
Definition:
Record review, also known as Chart review, is a secondary data collection method that
involves examining, analyzing and extracting data related to the research question.
Unlike primary data collection methods, record review is an unobtrusive method since there
is no direct involvement of study participants.
Record review is commonly used in various research disciplines, such as social sciences,
healthcare, education, and legal studies.
Sources of Secondary Data for Reviews
Record review can involve various types of physically or online documents.
1. Published sources: Books, academic journals, newspapers, magazines, patient
records, etc
2. Research Literature: Existing research studies, in journals, etc
3. Government and Official Statistics: Information on demographics, economics,
health, education, such as census data, Demographic health surveys reports.
4. Institutional data: data collected by organizations, institutions, or companies
such as sales, customer records, financial reports, and administrative records.
5. Online Databases: Numerous online databases provide access to a wide range of
secondary data, such as research repositories, data archives, and data portals.
6. Online Surveys and Social Media Data: Researchers can access publicly available
data, such as survey responses or social media posts, for analysis.

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 7. Historical Records: Historical records provide information preserved from the past,
including historical documents, manuscripts, archives, diaries, photographs, and oral
histories.

Preparation & Conducting Record Reviews

1. The process of record review typically involves the following steps:
2. Determination of research question and objectives
3. Identification of data sources relevant to the research objectives.
4. Preparation of a data collection form.
5. Obtaining permission to gain access to documents.
6. Access and retrieval of the documents for analysis
7. Screening and selection of the documents that meet the inclusion criteria for their
study to ensure that the chosen documents align with the research objectives.
8. Data extraction and analysis: Ssystematically extract relevant data from the selected
documents and analyze the information to derive insights, identify patterns or themes,
and answer research questions or hypotheses.
9. Data synthesis and interpretation of extracted data

Strengths and limitations of Record review

Strengths
 Cost-effective compared to collecting primary data, since data is readily available.
 Large sample size: Records often provide access to a large sample size. This can
increase the statistical power and generalizability of the findings.
 Suitable for studying trends, changes, or patterns over time. Record review enables
the collection of longitudinal or historical data.
 Rich and comprehensive information: Records can contain a wealth of detailed and
comprehensive information about individuals, organizations, events, or processes.
 Unobtrusive research: Record review is does not require direct interaction with
participants, hence most suitable for sensitive or confidential topics.
 Cross-validation and triangulation: Record review can serve as a valuable method
for cross-validating or triangulating findings obtained from other data collection
methods.

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Limitations
 Limited access and availability: Access to the relevant records can be a challenge,
particularly if they are restricted, classified, confidential, or stored in different
locations.
 Researchers may need to navigate legal or ethical considerations, obtain permissions,
or negotiate access with data holders.
 Data quality and reliability: Issues such as incomplete or missing information,
inaccuracies, inconsistencies, or biases in the records can affect the validity and
reliability of the findings.
 Researchers need to critically evaluate the data sources and consider potential
limitations.
 Time-consuming and resource-intensive when dealing with a large volume of
documents or complex data sources.
 Missing data: Records may not always contain all the desired information, and there
may be missing data or gaps in the records.
 Selective reporting: where certain information is omitted or not recorded, can
introduce bias or limit the comprehensiveness of the review
 Lack of data standardization and incompatibility: Records obtained from different
sources may have variations in format, structure, or terminology.
 Researchers may need to invest time and effort in data cleaning, standardizing, and
reconciling differences to ensure data consistency.
 Ethical and privacy considerations: Record review may involve sensitive or
personal information, raising ethical and privacy concerns.

General Steps for Effective Data collection

1. Defining the research question and objectives
2. Selecting a suitable data collection method
3. Defining the target population and sample.
4. Developing data collection tools
5. Piloting the data collection tool to ensure that it is feasible and reliable.
6. Training data collectors to facilitate data collection, and ensure data quality.
7. Administration of the data collection tool (data collection)

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Ethical Considerations
Obtaining administrative and Ethical clearance from appropriate institutions.
Obtaining informed consents for adults and assents for children.
Protecting the confidentiality and privacy of participants throughout the process, and
removing and keeping confidential any identifying information.
Minimizing harm and discomfort to participants.
Avoiding potential biases and conflicts of interest such as the interviewer’s personal
beliefs or preferences.
Guidelines for Selecting an Appropriate Data Collection method
When selecting a data collection method in health research, researchers should consider
several criteria to ensure the method is appropriate and aligned with the research objectives.
Here are some key criteria to consider:
Research question and purpose: The data collection method should directly address the
research question and purpose of the study.
Study design: Different designs may require different data collection methods to capture the
desired information.
Practical considerations (Feasibility and resources): Consider the practicality and
feasibility of implementing the data collection method within the available resources,
including time, budget, availability of necessary equipment or personnel/expertise.
Data type and measurement: Determine the type of data (quantitative, qualitative, or
mixed) and assess whether the chosen method can collect the required data accurately.
Data quality, Validity and reliability: Choose a method that has been validated and shown
to produce reliable results in previous studies.
Researchers should employ standardized protocols, validated measurement tools, and
appropriate sampling techniques to minimize bias and measurement errors.
Population diversity/characteristics: Consider the characteristics and diversity of the target
population, including age, gender, health status, ethnicity, cultural background, etc. The
chosen method should be suitable for the population under study and can provide valid and
reliable data from the chosen sample.
Data analysis requirements: Consider the compatibility of the data collection method with
the planned data analysis techniques. Ensure that the collected data can be appropriately
analyzed to address the research objectives.

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Ethical considerations: Ensure the data collection method adheres to ethical principles and
safeguards the rights and privacy of research participants.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is an example of quantitative data?
(a) Interview transcripts describing customer experiences
(b) Customer satisfaction ratings on a scale of 1-5
(c) Open-ended responses about a new product design
(d) Photos of a research participant's workspace
2. Qualitative data is best suited for which of the following research goals?
(a) Testing a hypothesis about a cause-and-effect relationship
(b) Understanding user experience with a new app
(c) Determining the average income of a population
(d) Measuring the effectiveness of a new teaching method
3. Data collected directly from the source for the first time is considered:
(a) Secondary data
(b) Tertiary data
(c) Primary data
(d) Processed data
4. Which of the following is NOT a common method for collecting quantitative data?
(a) Surveys with closed-ended questions
(b) Observations with pre-defined categories
(c) Interviews with ranking scales
(d) Focus groups with open-ended discussions
5. Mixed methods research involves using both:
(a) Quantitative and qualitative data in a single study
(b) Primary and secondary data sources
(c) Interviews and surveys only
(d) Observation and chart reviews exclusively
6. A researcher wants to understand patient experiences with a new medication. Which
method would be most appropriate?

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 (a) Online survey
(b) Structured observation
(c) Semi-structured interview
(d) Chart review of medical records
7. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a good survey question?
(a) Leading
(b) Clear and concise
(c) Multiple choice with a "don't know" option
(d) Open ended for in-depth responses
8. A researcher observes children playing in a playground. To ensure objectivity, they
should:
(a) Focus on a single child
(b) Record detailed notes with interpretations
(c) Use a pre-defined observation checklist
(d) Engage in conversation with the children
9. The best method for collecting historical data on economic trends would likely be:
(a) Structured interviews with economists
(b) Content analysis of government reports
(c) A large-scale online survey
(d) Observation of financial institutions
10. Focus groups are most beneficial for:
(a) Collecting a large amount of data quickly
(b) Encouraging in-depth discussions and group dynamics
(c) Obtaining statistically representative data
(d) Administering standardized questionnaires
11. Which of the following is NOT a common type of survey question format?
a) Open-ended
b) Dichotomous
c) Multiple choice (single answer)
d) Multiple choice (multiple answer)
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 e) True/False
12. A survey with a low response rate is more likely to suffer from:
a) Increased generalizability
b) Sampling bias
c) Improved validity
d) Reduced cost
e) Faster data collection
13. Pilot testing a survey is important for:
a) Identifying potential leading questions
b) Checking the clarity of instructions
c) Estimating the time needed to complete
d) All of the above
e) None of the above
14. When developing a survey, it's important to:
a) Use technical jargon to ensure accuracy
b) Keep questions concise and easy to understand
c) Offer incentives for participation regardless of the research topic
d) Limit the number of open-ended questions
e) Both b & d
15. Which of the following best describes the purpose of a survey?
a) To gather in-depth information from a small group
b) To collect data from a large sample population
c) To observe behavior in a natural setting
d) To analyze existing medical records
e) To explore a research topic through open-ended discussion
16. Interviews are well-suited for:
a) Gathering large amounts of quantitative data
b) Obtaining detailed information and exploring experiences
c) Distributing questionnaires to a large sample

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 d) Observing behavior in a natural setting
e) Analyzing medical records
17. Which of the following is NOT a best practice for conducting interviews?
a) Actively listening and allowing the participant to elaborate
b) Using leading questions that suggest a desired answer
c) Maintaining a neutral and objective stance
d) Tailoring questions based on the participant's responses
e) Recording the interview with informed consent
18. One advantage of structured interviews is:
a) Increased flexibility in questioning
b) More standardized and comparable data
c) Deeper exploration of participant experiences
d) Reduced need for training in interviewing techniques
e) Improved anonymity for participants
19. Semi-structured interviews are beneficial because they allow for:
a) A rigid question order and standardized format
b) Following a predetermined list of questions
c) Probing deeper based on participant responses
d) Minimal interaction with the participant
e) Distributing the interview via email
20. When conducting interviews, it's important to:
a) Offer incentives for participation without prior disclosure
b) Maintain confidentiality of the participant's identity
c) Pressure participants to finish within a specific timeframe
d) Focus on your own research agenda and disregard participant responses
e) End the interview abruptly if the participant provides unexpected information
21. Participant observation, where the researcher becomes part of the group, is most
appropriate for:
a) Large-scale surveys
b) Analyzing medical charts
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 c) Understanding a culture from within
d) Collecting quantitative data on behavior
e) Distributing questionnaires electronically
22. Non-participant observation allows the researcher to:
a) Directly influence the behavior being observed
b) Maintain a more objective stance
c) Gather detailed information about participants' thoughts
d) Reduce the potential for observer bias
e) Both b & d
23. When conducting observations, it's important to:
a) Clearly define what behaviors will be observed
b) Maintain a neutral and unobtrusive presence
c) Take detailed notes throughout the observation period
d) All of the above
e) None of the above
24. A major limitation of observational research is:
a) Wide applicability across different research questions
b) The potential for observer bias
c) The ability to collect large amounts of data quickly
d) The ease of data analysis
e) The ability to generalize findings to a larger population
25. Which of the following is an advantage of using chart reviews for data collection?
a) It provides real-world data on patient experiences.
b) It allows for in-depth exploration of individual cases.
c) It is a cost-effective way to gather large amounts of data.
d) It is well-suited for collecting subjective information.
26. A potential limitation of using chart reviews for research is:
a) Easy access to electronic medical records.
b)Incompleteness or inaccuracies in the recorded data.

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 c) Ability to gather data on a wide range of variables.
d) Reduced burden on participants compared to surveys.
27. Before conducting a chart review study, researchers should:
a) Obtain informed consent from each patient. (Not applicable for retrospective studies)
b) Ensure they have proper access authorization to the medical records.
c) Develop a standardized data extraction form.
d) All of the above.
28. Which of the following is NOT a common type of data collected through chart reviews?
a) Demographic information (age, gender)
b) Medical history and diagnoses
c) Laboratory test results
29. When analyzing data from chart reviews, researchers should be aware of:
a) The potential for selection bias in the sample.
b) The generalizability of findings to other populations.
c) The influence of the reviewers' own biases.
d) All of the above.
30. The ethical principle of informed consent requires that participants:
a) Are compensated for their involvement in the study.
b) Are not pressured to participate.
c) Understand the risks and benefits of the research.
d) Have their identities revealed in the research report.
31. Which of the following is NOT a way to protect participant confidentiality?
a) Anonymizing data collection and analysis.
b) Using data only for the intended research purposes.
c) Storing data securely with restricted access.
d) Sharing data freely with other researchers without consent.
32. Researchers have a responsibility to:
a) Conduct research that is likely to produce positive results.
b) Minimize potential risks to participants.

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 c) Focus on personal gain from research findings.
d) Ignore ethical guidelines if they hinder progress.
33. When conducting research involving vulnerable populations (e.g., children, elderly),
researchers should take extra precautions to ensure:
a) They are able to participate actively in the research design.
b) Their decision-making capacity is not compromised.
c) They receive the same level of benefits as other participants.
d) The research has direct relevance to their specific needs.
34. A researcher discovers unexpected findings during their study. They should:
a) Ignore them if they don't fit the original hypothesis.
b) Report all findings accurately, regardless of their impact.
c) Focus only on the positive results to maintain funding.
d) Withhold the findings if they could potentially harm the reputation of a particular
group.

Structural Questions
1. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative data. Explain how each type of data
contributes to research findings.
2. Provide two examples of each:
- Quantitative data (e.g., numerical data, counts)
- Qualitative data (e.g., text responses, observations)
3. Compare and contrast probability sampling and non-probability sampling. When would
you choose one over the other?
4. Describe two data collection methods that are well-suited for gathering information about:
- Public opinion on a new policy (e.g., surveys, focus groups)
- Employee experiences in a workplace (e.g., interviews, observations)
5. What are the different types of survey questions (e.g., open-ended, closed-ended)? Explain
the advantages and disadvantages of each type.
2. Design a brief survey question (closed-ended) to measure participant satisfaction with a
new product. Indicate the type of data (nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio) the question would
generate.
6.Differentiate between structured interviews, semi-structured interviews, and unstructured
interviews. Explain the level of control the interviewer has in each type.

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7. Imagine you are interviewing a participant about their childhood memories. What are some
strategies you would use to conduct a successful in-depth interview?
8. Distinguish between participant observation and non-participant observation. Provide an
example of each.
9. What are some potential challenges associated with using observation as a data collection
method? How can researchers minimize these challenges?
10.Compare and contrast using chart reviews with conducting surveys for data collection.
When would one method be preferred over the other?
11.Describe the steps involved in developing a standardized data extraction form for a chart
review study.
12.Explain the concept of informed consent in research. What information should be included
in an informed consent form?
13. Describe two ethical considerations specific to research involving vulnerable populations
(e.g., children, elderly). How would you address these considerations in your research
design?

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