SENSORS & INSTRUMENTATION

Dr. Snigdha Chaturvedi

Assistant Professor
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

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 SENSOR & INSTRUMENTATION
SYLLABUS

UNIT I
Sensors & Transducer: Definition, Classification & selection of sensors,
Measurement of displacement using Potentiometer, LVDT & Optical
Encoder, Measurement of force using strain gauge, Measurement of
pressure using an LVDT-based diaphragm & piezoelectric sensor
UNIT II
Measurement of temperature using Thermistors, Thermocouples & RTD,
Concept of thermal imaging; Measurement of position using Hall effect
sensors; Proximity sensor: Inductive, Capacitive & Photoelectric, Use of
proximity sensor as accelerometer and vibration sensor; Flow Sensor:
Ultrasonic & Laser; Level Sensor: Ultrasonic & Capacitive.

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UNIT III
Virtual Instrumentation: Graphical programming techniques, Data
types, Advantages of Virtual Instrumentation techniques, Concept of
WHILE & FOR loops, Arrays, Clusters & graphs, Structures: Case,
Sequence & Formula nodes, Need of software-based instruments for
industrial automation.
UNIT IV
Data Acquisition Methods: Basic block diagram, Analog and
Digital IO, Counters, Timers, Types of ADC: successive
approximation and sigma-delta, Types of DAC: Weighted Resistor
and R-2R Ladder type, Use of Data Sockets for Networked
Communication.
UNIT V
Intelligent Sensors: General Structure of smart sensors & its
components, Characteristic of smart sensors: Self calibration, Self-
testing & self-communicating, Application of smart sensors:
Automatic robot control & automobile engine control. 3
 Books

• DVS Murthy, Transducers and Instrumentation, PHI 2nd Edition

2013

• D Patranabis, Sensors and Transducers, PHI 2nd Edition 2013.

• S. Gupta, J.P. Gupta / PC interfacing for Data Acquisition &

Process Control, 2nd ED / Instrument Society of America, 1994.

• Gary Johnson / Lab VIEW Graphical Programing II Edition /

McGraw Hill 1997.
 UNIT-01
Sensors & Transducer

• Definition of sensors.
• Classification and selection of sensors.
• Measurement of displacement using:
• Potentiometer.
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).
• Optical Encoder.
• Measurement of force using a strain gauge.
• Measurement of pressure using:
• LVDT-based diaphragm.
• Piezoelectric sensor.

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 Definition & Purpose
• Definition: Sensors are devices that detect and
measure physical quantities such as temperature,
force, pressure, or motion, and convert them into
signals that can be understood and processed by
systems.
• Purpose: They serve as an interface between the
physical world and electronic systems, enabling
accurate data collection and analysis for
automation, monitoring, and decision-making.
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 Example:
• In a mercury-based glass thermometer, the input is
temperature. The liquid contained expands and
contracts in response, causing the level to be
higher or lower on the marked gauge, which is
human-readable.
• Similarly, a smartphone screen has a touch sensor
that detects where your finger touches

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Automatic Temperature Control

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 Definition of Transducers

• The device which converts one form of

energy into another is known as the transducer.
• The process of conversion is known
as transduction.
• The conversion is done
by sensing and transducing the physical
quantities like temperature, pressure, sound, etc.

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 Definition of Transducers
• The electrical transducer converts the mechanical
energy into an electric signal.
• The electrical signal may be voltage, current and
frequency.
• The production of the signal depends on the
resistive, inductive and capacitive effects of the
physical input.

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 Difference Between Sensors and
Transducers

Sensors measure physical quantities like

temperature or pressure and generate signals.
Transducers take those signals and convert them
into another form of energy.
Example:
• A thermistor (sensor) detects temperature but does not convert it into
another form of energy.
• A thermocouple (transducer) converts heat into electricity.

The key takeaway—while all transducers are sensors, not all sensors are
transducers!
 Needs of Transducer
• It is quite difficult to determine the exact magnitude of
the physical forces like temperature, pressure, etc.
• If the physical force is converted into an electrical
signal, then its value is easily measured with the help
of the meter.
• The transducers convert the physical forces into an
electrical signal which can easily be handled and
transmitted for measurement.

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 Parts of Transducer
The transducer consists of two important parts.\

• Sensing or Detector Element – It is the part of the

transducers which give the response to the physical
sensation. The response of the sensing element
depends on the physical phenomenon.

• Transduction Element – The transduction element

converts the output of the sensing element into an
electrical signal. This element is also called the
secondary transducer.
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Advantages of Electrical Transducers:

• The attenuation and amplification of the

electrical signals are very easy.
• The electrical signal produces no friction error.
• The small power is required for controlling the
electrical systems.
• The electrical signals are easily transmitted and
processed for measurement.
• The component used for measuring the
electrical signal is very compact and accurate.
• The electrical signals are used in telemetry.
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 Basic Instrumentation System

Printer
Input
Measurand
Data Data
Transducer/ Signal
Transmission Presentation Display
Sensor Conditioner
Element Element

Power To
Supply controller

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 Signal Conditioning Unit
➢Function: Processes the signal from the sensor to
make it suitable for further stages.
➢Includes:
▪Amplification: Boosts the signal strength
▪Filtering: Removes noise
▪Linearization: Converts nonlinear output into linear
form
▪Isolation: Prevents interference between stages

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 Data Transmission Stage
• The conditioned signal is transmitted to the place where it is
to be monitored, recorded, or controlled. This may be within
the same device or over a distance (remote monitoring).
❖Wired or wireless transmission
❖Analog or digital signals
❖Converters may be used (A/D or D/A)
❖Protocols used: 4–20 mA current loop, RS-232, Modbus,
etc.
• Example:
Transmitting a 4–20 mA current signal from a pressure
sensor in a plant to a central control room.
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 Data Presentation Stage

• The signal is converted into a human-readable form- either

numerically or graphically.
• Modes of presentation:
• Digital display (e.g., 7-segment or LCD)
• Analog meter (dial and needle)
• Computer screen (GUI, SCADA, graphs, charts)
• Example:
Displaying room temperature as "25.3 °C" on a digital
screen.

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 Storage / Control / Decision
Stage
• If in a control loop:
The system compares the measured value with a setpoint
and takes corrective action.
• If monitoring only:
The data may be logged or stored for analysis.

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EXAMPLE : ECG SYSTEM

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Smart thermostats use sensors, algorithms, and Wi-Fi connectivity to
learn your temperature preferences and automatically adjust your
home's heating and cooling, offering remote control and potential
energy-saving. 22
 Examples

• Case 1: Digital Thermometer

• Sensor → Signal Conditioning →Microcontroller →
LCD Display
• Case 2: Smart Water Level Monitoring (IoT-based)
• Ultrasonic Sensor → ESP32 → Wi-Fi → App Display

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 Characteristics of Instruments
1) Static Characteristics: Some applications involve the
measurement of quantities that are either constant or
varies slowly with time. These criteria are called static
characteristics.
2) Dynamic Characteristics: Many measurements are
concerned with rapidly varying quantities and therefore,
for such cases we must examine the dynamic relations
which exist between the output and the input. This is
normally done with the help of differential equations.
Performance criteria based upon dynamic relations
constitute the dynamic characteristics.
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 Static Characteristics

Accuracy
The accuracy of an instrument is defined as the degree of
closeness of the measured value to its true value.
Accuracy is usually expressed in term of percentage error
with respect to full-scale reading.

Accuracy means-
➢ Limits of Error
➢ Conformity to truth

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 Precision

It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurement,

i.e. given a fixed value of a quantity. Precision is a
measure of the degree of agreement within a group of
measurements.

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 Let’s say the actual room temperature is
25°C.
Measurement Device A (High Device B (High
Attempt Accuracy) Precision)
1 25.2°C 27.4°C
2 24.9°C 27.5°C
3 25.1°C 27.4°C
4 25.0°C 27.5°C

•Device A: Values are close to 25°C → High Accuracy

•Device B: Values are very close to each other but far from actual
value → High Precision, but Low Accuracy
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 Static Sensitivity
Static sensitivity is the ratio of the change in output of a
measuring instrument to the change in input (measurand) when
the system is in a steady state (i.e., not changing with time).

Change in output (Δq0)

Static Sensitivity (s) = -------------------------------- × 100
Change in input (Δqi)

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 Example: Temperature Sensor
(Thermocouple)
Let’s say a thermocouple gives the following readings:
• At 100°C → Output = 25 mV
• At 200°C → Output = 50 mV
Then:
Δ Output = 50 mV - 25 mV = 25 mV
Δ Input = 200°C - 100°C = 100°C
Static Sensitivity = Δ Output / Δ Input
= 25 mV / 100°C = 0.25 mV/°C
This means for every 1°C increase in temperature, the
output increases by 0.25 mV.
 Resolution

▪ Smallest value which can be measured with

certainly

▪ The smallest change in a measurement variable to

which an instrument will respond.

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 Example: Resolution in a Sensor

A digital thermometer displays temperature with a

resolution of 0.1°C.
• If the temperature changes from 25.2°C to 25.3°C, the
change is detected and shown.
• But if the temperature changes by 0.05°C, the display
may not update.

So, the resolution is 0.1°C – the smallest step the sensor

can detect or display.
 Linearity
It is normally desirable that the output reading of
an instrument is linearly proportional to the
quantity being measured.

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 Threshold
• The threshold is the smallest value of the input (measurand) that
causes a noticeable change in the instrument’s output.

• If the input signal is below this value, the instrument gives no

response or an unreliable/zero output.

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 Stability
The ability of an instrument to retain its
performance throughout its specified operating life.

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Classification of Transducer
 Active Transducer

• Active Transducer
• These transducers do not need any external source of power
for their operation. Therefore, they are also called self-
generating type transducer.
• Examples:
• Piezo-electric, Photovoltaic, Piezoelectric, Electromagnetic,
Thermocouple
•
 Passive Transducer
• Passive Transducer
• The transducers need an external source of power for their
operation. So, they are not self-generating type transducers.

• Examples
• Resistive, Inductive, and Capacitive transducers.
 Analog and Digital Transducer
• Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer
changes the input quantity into a continuous
function. The strain gauge, L.V.D.T, thermocouple,
thermistor are the examples of the analogue transducer.

• Digital Transducer – These transducers convert an

input quantity into a digital signal or in the form of the
pulse. The digital signals work on high or low power.
Example- optical Encoder

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 Primary and Secondary Transducers
▪ Some transducers consist of a mechanical device along with an
electrical device. In such types of transducers, the mechanical device
acts as a primary transducer and converts physical quantity into the
mechanical signal.
▪ The mechanical signal produced by the primary transducer converts
into an electrical signal by the electrical device and it is called a
secondary transducer.
•
 Transducer and Inverse Transducer

• Transducers are those that convert electrical quantity into

non electrical quantity whereas inverse transducer converts
electrical quantity into non-electrical quantity.

• Example of Transducer
• A microphone is a transducer that converts the sound
signal into an electrical signal
• Example of Inverse Transducer
• A loudspeaker converts an electrical signal into a sound
signal is an inverse transducer.
On the basis of the transduction form used

The transduction medium classifies the

transducer.
• Resistive: Potentiometer, Thermistor
• Inductive: LVDT
• Capacitive: Touch screen

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Classification of Sensors
 Selection criteria for sensors
Range:
• Difference between Maximum and Minimum value which can be
sensed by the sensor. What is the minimum value you need to sense?
What is the maximum value you need to sense?
Resolution:
• The smallest change which can be sensed by the sensor. High is good
but not always. If it is too high, it would pick up even very minute
fluctuations which would then require additional processing.
Sensitivity:
• Ratio of change in output to a unit change in the input. Again, high is
good, but too high could be a problem. Also, the higher the
sensitivity, the more will be the cost in most cases.
Error:
• Difference between the Measured Value and True Value. You want
this value to be low. All sensors have a margin of error.
 Selection criteria for sensors
Accuracy:
• How close the sensor reading is to the True Value. (Should be high).
Precision:
• Ability to give/reproduce accurate value repeatedly. If a sensor is
giving different values for the same physical conditions, it is not a
good choice.
Response Time:
• Time lag between the Input and Output. (Should be Minimum)
Signal-to-noise Ratio:
• Ratio between the magnitude of the signal and the noise at the output.
Calibration:
• As sensors need frequent calibration, so it should be easy to calibrate.
Cost:
• It shouldn’t be expensive.
 Selection criteria for sensors
Environment:
• It is one of the most important parameters because not all sensors
can work in extreme conditions. Sensors can get affected due to
non-ideal conditions(like temperature, humidity, etc.) which may
affect the output of the sensor.
Flexibility:
• The flexibility of a sensor is a measure of its ability to adapt to
changes in its environment
Interfacing:
• It should be compatible to use with a wide range of instruments.
Some sensors need an external power source to produce an output,
so it is important to provide the power source so that additional
errors aren’t introduced.
Size and Weight:
• Sensors should be compact and lightweight.
 Resistive Transducer
The resistive transducer element works on the principle that the
resistance of the element is directly proportional to the length of the
conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor.

Where,
R – resistance in ohms.
A – cross-section area of the conductor in meter square.
L – Length of the conductor in meter square.
ρ – the resistivity of the conductor in materials in an ohm meter.
The resistive transducer is designed by considering the variation of
the length, area, and resistivity of the metal.

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Measurement of Displacement using
Potentiometer

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• A resistive potentiometer, or simply a pot, (A potentiometer used for
the purposes of voltage division is called a pot) consists of a
resistance element provided with a sliding contact.
• This sliding contact is called a wiper. The motion of sliding contact
may be translatory or rotational.
• Some pots use the combination of the two motions, i.e. translational
as well as rotational. These potentiometers have their resistive
element in the form of helix and thus, are called Helipots.

Figure 2 Rotational Figure 3 Helipot 48

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 Applications of Potentiometers

• Volume Control in Audio Devices

• Light Dimmers
• Position Sensors
• Game Controllers & Joysticks
• Calibration and Tuning Circuits
• Voltage Divider
• Automotive Applications
• Measuring EMF in Laboratory Experiments

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 LVDT (Linear Variable Differential
Transformer)
• The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
(also called linear variable displacement transformer,
linear variable displacement transducer, or
simply differential transformer) is a type of
electrical transformer used for measuring linear
displacement (position).
• This is the most widely used inductive transducer for
translating linear motion to electrical signals.
• The output of the transformer is obtained because of
the difference of the secondary voltages, and hence it is
called a differential transformer.
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 Construction of LVDT
The P is the primary winding of the LVDT and S1 and
S2 are the secondary winding of the transformer. The
secondary winding is wound on the cylindrical former. The
secondary winding has an equal number of turns, and it is
placed identically on both the side of the primary winding.

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• The alternating current source is applied to the primary
winding. The soft iron core is placed inside the former.
• The displacement to be measured is attached to the arm
of the iron core.
• The high permeability metal is used for the core so that
the harmonics are less and null voltage is easily obtained.

Working

• The LVDT works on the mutual induction principle.

• The current is applied to the primary winding which
produces the magnetic field, and this field induces the
current in the secondary windings.
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The output voltage of the secondary winding S1 is ES1 and
that of the S2 is ES2. The secondary voltage signal is
converted into an electrical signal by connecting the
secondary winding in series opposition as shown in the
figure below. The output voltage of the transducer is
determined by subtracting the voltage of the secondary
windings.

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When the core is in the middle, 𝑬𝒔𝟏 = 𝑬𝒔𝟐
Both voltages are equal and net voltage is equal to zero.
𝑬𝑶 = 𝑬𝒔𝟏 − 𝑬𝒔𝟐 = 0

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• Case 1 ( Core moves towards left) :
• Flux linked in S1 is more as compared to S2.
• The output voltage of the winding S1 is more than the
S2 but it is in phase with the primary voltage.
• 𝑬𝒔𝟏 > 𝑬𝒔𝟐 , therefore, 𝐸𝑜 is positive

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• Case 1 ( Core moves towards Right) :
• Flux linked in S2 is more as compared to S1.
• The output voltage of the winding S2 is more than the S1,
The output voltage is -180ºC out of phase with the
primary winding.
• 𝑬𝒔𝟏 < 𝑬𝒔𝟐 , Therefore, 𝐸𝑜 is negative.
.

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Working of an LVDT

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LVDT Connection and Sockets

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 Characteristics of LVDT

Right
Left
movement
movement
of the core
of the core

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 Sensitivity of LVDT

Sensitivity = Change in Output/ Change in Input

Sensitivity of LVDT= Output Voltage/ Core Displacement

(mv/mm)

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 Advantages & Disadvantages of LVDT
Advantages:
• The LVDT has low power consumption.
• It has high sensitivity.
• It has ruggedness.
• It has a wide range.
• It has low hysteresis.
Disadvantages:
• Large primary voltage produces distortion in the output.
• Temperature affects the performance.
• Sensitive to stray magnetic field.
• Large displacement is required to get the considerable
differential output.
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 Applications of LVDT

The following are the major applications of LVDTs.

• It is used for measuring the displacement having a
range from few mm to cm.
• The LVDT directly converts the displacement into an
electrical signal.
• It is also used as the secondary transducer.
• The LVDT is used as a device for measuring the force,
weight, and pressure.
• Link:
https://youtu.be/70zKj9n9LOc?feature=shared
• https://youtu.be/0IYjuKIAgag?feature=shared64
 Force-summing devices/Pressure-measuring
Devices
Force-summing devices serve as primary transducers and
convert the pressure applied at the input into displacement,
which then can be measured by means of a secondary
transducer. The lists of most widely used force-summing
devices are
• Diaphragms
• Bellows
• Bourdon tubes

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 Diaphragms
• Any thin metal whose ends are fixed between two parallel
plates is referred to as a diaphragm.
• It is one of the pressure-measuring elements.
• The operating principle is the applied pressure is converted
into proportional displacement.
• The materials used to make diaphragms are phosphor
bronze, nickel, beryllium copper, stainless steel, etc. These
can be available in flat or corrugated shapes.

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Diaphragms

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 Bellows
• Bellows, the pressure measuring elements are formed by the series
combination of capsules. The working principle of bellows is the
same as that of diaphragms i.e., the applied displacement is
converted into proportionate mechanical displacement. The
materials used to construct bellows are beryllium copper, brass,
monel, stainless steel, and nickel.

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 Bourdon Tubes
• The bourdon tubes are available in different shapes such as spiral,
helical, twisted, and C-shaped. However, all the tubes have non-
circular cross-sections. Also, the materials used and working of all
these types are the same. The materials used in the construction of
bourdon tubes are brass, steel, and rubber.

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Measurement of Pressure using LVDT
Based Diaphragm

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 Measurement of Pressure using LVDT
Based Diaphragm
Pressure Input:
• The pressure from a fluid or gas is applied to the sensor.
• This pressure acts on the measurement diaphragm.
Measurement Diaphragm:
• It is a flexible membrane that deflects or moves when pressure is applied.
• The amount of deflection is proportional to the applied pressure.
• This diaphragm is mechanically connected to the LVDT core.
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer):
• LVDT Core: The yellow movable part inside the coil assembly. It is attached
to the diaphragm and moves with it.

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 Measurement of Pressure using LVDT
Based Diaphragm
• LVDT Coil Assembly: A stationary set of coils that surrounds the core.
• It consists of one primary coil and two secondary coils.
• As the core moves linearly (due to diaphragm deflection), the output
voltage of the secondary coils changes.
Electron Beam Weld:
• Used for sealing and strong bonding between components, ensuring leak-proof
operation and durability.

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 Measurement of Force: Strain Gauge

• A strain gauge is a device used to measure strain.

• The resistance of a strain gauge varies with applied force and, it

converts parameters such as force, pressure, tension, weight, etc.
into a change in resistance that can be measured later on.

• If a metal conductor is stressed or compressed, its resistance

changes on account of the fact that both the length and diameter of
the conductor change. If there is a change in the value of resistivity
of the conductor when it is strained and this property is called
piezoresistive effect.

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 Types of Strain Gauges

• Wire-wound Strain Gauge

• Foil-type Strain Gauge
• Semiconductor Strain Gauge

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 Semi-Conductor Strain Gauge

• Semiconductor strain gauges are used when high value of gauge

factor is desired. This gauge factor is 50 times as high as that of
wire gauges.
• In semiconductor gauges, the resistivity of the semiconductor
changes because of the force applied.
• Semiconductor materials used are Germanium and Silicon.

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 Wire-Wound Strain Guage

• In an electrical resistance strain gauge, the device consists of a thin wire

placed on a flexible paper tissue and is attached to a variety of materials to
measure the strain of the material.
• This change in resistance is proportional to the strain and is measured using a
Wheatstone bridge.
• It is simple and inexpensive.
• Lower gauge factor as compared to other types, making them less sensitive.

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 Foil type Strain Gauge

• These gauges utilize a thin, conductive foil, typically made of a metal alloy,
etched into a grid pattern on a flexible substrate.
• Similar to wire gauges, the foil's length and cross-sectional area change with
strain, resulting in a change in electrical resistance.
• Higher gauge factor than wire gauges, providing better sensitivity. More
stable under temperature extremes and prolonged loading compared to wire
gauges.
• Can be more expensive than wire gauges.

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 Load Cell
• The primary use of strain gauges is in manufacturing force and
pressure transducers like load cells, which are transducers that gauge
the mechanical load on an item by converting it to electronic signals
that can be easily interpreted.
• Load cells employing strain gauges are the dominant load cell type
and are predominantly used to measure weight.
• In weighing scenarios, strain gauge load cells are affixed to a
structural member that deforms under applied weight. Contemporary
load cells often combine several strain gauges to increase
measurement precision.
• Apart from weight assessment, strain gauge load cells find use in
automation, process control, biomechanics, equipment monitoring,
structural integrity evaluation, bulk material weighing, testing, and
quality assurance.
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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Strain
Gauge
Advantages Disadvantages
High accuracy in detecting small strain Sensitive to temperature changes
Wide measurement range Requires careful and precise installation
Compact and lightweight Fragile – easily damaged if mishandled
Suitable for various materials and Needs signal amplification (low output
applications voltage)
Fast response time for dynamic
Prone to electrical noise interference
measurements
Durable in harsh environments (with Long-term use may lead to creep and
protection) hysteresis errors
Cost-effective for basic measurement
needs

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 Application Area Description
Used in bridges, buildings, dams to monitor stress and
Structural Health Monitoring
prevent failure
Measures stress in components like axles, chassis, and
Automotive Industry
crash testing systems
Tests stress and strain on wings, fuselage, and engine
Aerospace Engineering
components
Measures load, torque, and pressure in mechanical
Mechanical Testing
parts and prototypes
Used in prosthetics, orthopedics, and even in wearable
Biomedical Field
health monitoring
Monitors strain in rotating shafts, gearboxes, and
Industrial Machinery
machinery under load
Forms the basis of load cells, pressure transducers,
Load and Pressure Sensors
and force sensors
Monitors turbine blade stress and structural
Power Generation
deformation in power plants
Measures stress on tracks and wheels to enhance
Railway Systems
safety and performance

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 Optical Encoder
An optical encoder is an electromechanical device that converts a
shaft or axle's angular or linear position into an electronic signal using
light. It's widely used in motion control systems to track the position,
speed, and direction of moving parts.

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 Types of Optical Encoders

• Generates pulses as the shaft

Incremental moves.
Optical • Measures change in position only

Encoder

• Generates a unique digital code for

Absolute each shaft position.
Optical • No need for referencing

Encoder
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Incremental Optical Encoders

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 Incremental Optical Encoders

• The incremental encoder shown above consists of a disc that

rotates along with the shaft.
• The rotatable disc has a number of windows through which a beam
of light can pass and be detected by a suitable light sensor.
• When the shaft and disc rotate, a pulsed output is produced by the
sensor, with the number of pulses being proportional to the angle
through which the disc rotates.
• The angular displacement of the disc and hence the shaft rotating it
can therefore be determined by the number of pulses produced in
the angular displacement from some datum position.
• Typically, the number of windows on the disc varies from 60 to
over a thousand, with multi-tracks having slightly offset slots in
each track.
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 Resolution of an Incremental Encoder

• For example, consider 60 slots occurring in 1 revolution

• 1 revolution is a rotation of 360°, the minimum angular
displacement, i.e., the resolution that can be detected is
360°/60 = 6°.
• The resolution of incremental encoders typically varies
from about 6° to 0.3° or even better than this.

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 Absolute Encoder
• While the incremental encoder detects changes in displacement from some
datum position, the absolute encoders provide the actual position.
• The absolute encoder gives an output in the form of a binary number of
several digits, each digit representing a particular angular position.
• The figure below shows a basic form of an absolute encoder for the
measurement of angular position.

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 Resolution of an Absolute Encoder

• Typical encoders tend to have up to 10 or 12 tracks.

• The number of bits in the binary number will be equal to the
number of tracks.
• Therefore, with 10 tracks, there will be 10 bits and hence the
number of positions that can be detected is 210 , i.e., 1024, a
resolution of 360°/1024 = 0.35.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Incremental Encoders
Advantages:
1.Simple Design – Easier to manufacture and integrate.
2.Cost-Effective – Generally less expensive than absolute encoders.
3.High Resolution – Can provide fine position feedback.
4.Fast Response – Suitable for high-speed applications.
5.Compact Size – Small and lightweight options are available.
Disadvantages:
1.Position Reset on Power Loss – Loses position data when power is off.
2.Requires Homing – Needs a reference point at startup.
3.More Complex Signal Processing – Needs counting electronics and logic.
4.Susceptible to Noise – Especially in long cable runs.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Absolute Encoders
Advantages:
1.Retains Position on Power Loss – No need for homing.
2.Unique Outputs for Each Position – Accurate and immediate position
feedback.
3.Robust Data Transmission – Especially with digital communication (e.g.,
SSI, CANopen).
4.Ideal for Safety-Critical Applications – No loss of data during restart.
Disadvantages:
1.More Expensive – Higher cost due to complex electronics.
2.Larger in Size – Typically bulkier than incremental types.
3.Slower Response (in some models) – Especially in low-resolution versions or
when using serial data output.
4.More Complex Interface – Needs more advanced hardware/software to
interpret signals.
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 Piezoelectric Transducer
• It is used for measuring physical quantity like force, pressure,
stress, etc., which is directly not possible to measure.
• The piezo transducer converts the physical quantity into an
electrical voltage which is easily measured by analogue and digital
meter.
• The piezoelectric transducer uses the piezoelectric material which
has a special property, i.e. the material induces voltage when the
pressure or stress applied to it. The material which shows such
property is known as the electro-resistive element.
• The word piezoelectric means the electricity produces by the
pressure.
• The Quartz is the examples of the natural piezoelectric crystals,
whereas the Rochelle salts, ammonium dehydration, phosphate,
lithium sulphate, dipotassium tartrate are the examples of the man-
made crystals. 98
 Piezoelectric Effect

• The EMF develops because of the displacement of the

charges. The effect is changeable, i.e., if the varying
potential applies to a piezoelectric transducer, it will
change the dimension of the material or deform it. This
effect is known as the piezoelectric effect.
• The pressure is applied to the crystals with the help of
the force summing devices, for example, the stress is
applied through mechanical pressure gauges and
pressure sensors, etc.
• The deformation induces the EMF, which determines the
value of applied pressure.
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The polarity of the charge depends on the direction of
the applied forces.
piezo-transducer-equation-1

Where, d – charge sensitivity of the crystals

F – applied force in Newton
100
101
102
 Advantages of Piezoelectric transducer
•No External Power Required:
They generate their own voltage when subjected to force or pressure, so no need for
external excitation.
•Small Size and Lightweight:
Ideal for use in compact and portable systems, such as in medical ultrasound probes
and aerospace sensors.
•High Sensitivity:
Sensitive to minute changes in pressure, force, or strain.
•Wide Range of Applications:
Used in medical devices (like ultrasound), industrial vibration monitoring,
accelerometers, and sound detection.
•Rugged and Durable:
Can operate under harsh environmental conditions, including high temperatures and
pressures

103
 Disadvantages of a Piezoelectric
Transducer
•Cannot Measure Static Quantities:
Only suitable for dynamic measurements because the charge leaks away over time
(can’t measure constant forces or pressures).
•High Impedance Output:
Requires impedance matching or signal conditioning circuits (like charge
amplifiers) for accurate measurements.
•Temperature Sensitivity:
Performance can vary with temperature changes, unless temperature compensation
is added.
•Brittleness:
Piezoelectric crystals are often fragile and can break under mechanical shock or
improper handling.
•Cost:
High-precision piezoelectric transducers and their amplifiers can be expensive.
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