Radioactivity (1) Radioactive decay lonizing properties Many atomic nuclei are unstable. The process « by which they decay is called radioactive decay. id Every decay involves the emission of one of three diferent possible radiations from the nucleus: alpha (a), beta {or gamma iy) ‘A Alpha, bela and gamma all ‘come from the nucleus Allthree radiations are ionizing. This means that as they go through a substance, collisions occur which cause electrons to be removed from atoms. Atoms that have last or gained electrons are called ions. This ionizing property allows the radiations to be detected. also ‘explains their dangerous nature. When ianizations occur in biologically important molecules, such as DNA, the'r function can be affected, Radiation safety ‘There is no such thing as a safe dose of ionizing radiation, At the molecular level, an ionization could ‘cause damage directly to a biologically important molecule such as DNA or RNA, Aswell as molecular damage, potentially causing the cellto die, an ionization could affect the process of cell division and multiplication. Itcan even cause the transformation ofthe call into a malignant form—a cancer ‘There are three main ways of protecting yourself fromm too large a dose. + Runaway! The simplest method of reducing the dose received is to increase the distance between youand the source. Only electromagnetic radiation can travel large distances and this follows an inverse square relationship with distance + Don'twaste time! lFyou have to receive a dose, then itis important to keep the time ofthis exposure to a minimum. + Ifyou can’t run away, hide behind something! Shielding can always be used to reduce the dose received. Lead-lined aprons can also be used to mit, the exposure for both patient and operator. Random decay Radioactive decay is arandom process and is not affected by extemal conditions. For examnole, increasing the temperature of sample of radioactive material does not affect the rate of decay. This means thatis there no way of knowing whether or nota particular nucleus is going to decay within a certain period of time. All you know is the chance of adecay happening in that time. ‘Although the process is random, the large numbers of atoms involved allows you to make some accurate predictions. Fyou start with a given number of atoms, then you can expect a certain numiber to decay in the next minute. there were more atomsin the sample, you would expect the number decaying to bbe larger. On average, the rate of decay ofa sample 's proportional to the number of atoms inthe sample. This proportionality means that recioactive decay is, ‘an exponential process, The number of atoms ofa certain element, N, decreases exponentially over time: Mathematically this is expressed as: ON ow dt Nature of alpha, beta and gamma decay \When a nucleus decays the mass numbers andthe atomic numbers must balance on each side ofthe riclear equation + Alpha particles are helium nuclei, Sar or He". In alpha decay, 2 "churk’ ofthe nucieusis emitted. The portion that remains will bea different nucle IX tyes eg. SA %Nptia The atomic numbers and the mass numbers balance on each side ofthe equation (95 =93 + 2and 24] = 237+ 4) + Betapartclesare electrons, °B or Ye", emitted from the nucleus, hese elections are formed when a neutron decays. Atthe same time, another particle, called an antineutrino, is emitted [no ips SB+y Since an antineutrine has no charge and virtually no mass itdoes not affect the equation, ah + SB+¥ 2X eg. BS BY+ (Bee + Gamma rays ate unlike the other two radiations as they are part ofthe electromagnetic spectrum. After their emission, the nucleus has less energy, but its mass number and its atornic number have nat changed. Itis said to have changed from an excited state to a lower energy state. 1X axe 8y 151Radioactive decay Radioactivity (2) Antimatter ‘The nuclear model given on page 137 is somewhat simplified. One important thing that is not mentioned there is the existence of antimatter. Every form of matter has its equivalent form of antimatter. matter and antimatter came together they would annihilate each other. Not surprisingly, antimatter is rare but it does exist. For example, another form of radioactive decay that can take place is beta plus or positron decay. In this decay a proton decays into @ neutron, and the antimatter version ofan electron, a positron, is emitted, point By eg. BNeoSF+ 2B +y The position, B*, emission is accompanied by a neutrino. The antineutrino is the antimatter form of the neutrino. Properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiations Property Alpha, « | Beta, £ Gamma, y Effect on photographie fim Yes Yes ves ‘Approximatenumber ofion pairs | 10° permmtvavelled 10% permm reveled 1 per mm wavelled produced in ait Typical material needed to absorb it [o=mm: aluminium; piece of paper | A few mm aluminium 10cm lead Penetration ability low Medium High “Typical path length in air ‘Atewem Less than onem Effectively infite Deflection by E and 8 fields Behaves tke apositvecharge | Behaves tke anegative charge | Not deflected Speed About 1O7ms" [About 10tms, veryvariable [3% 10%ms" Background radiation Radioactive decay is a natural phenomenon and is going on around youallthe time. The actvity of any given source is measured in terms of the number of individual nuclear decays that take place in a unit of tirme, This information is quoted in becquerels (Bq) with 1Bq = I nuclear decay per second. Experimentally, this would be measured using a Geiger counter, which detects and counts the number of onizations taking place inside a Geiger ‘Miller tube (GM tube). A working Geiger counter will always detect some radioactive ionizations taking place even when there isino identified radioactive source: thereis a background count as 2 result of he background radiation, /A reading of 30 counts per minute, which corresponds to the detector registering 30 ionizing events, would not be unusual fara norrral safe level of background radiation. ‘To analyse the activity ofa given radioactive source, it is necessary to correct for the background radiation taking place. The background count without the radioactive source present should be recorded and this value can then be subtracted from all readings with the source present, ‘Some cosmic gamma rays will be responsible, but there will also be at, and y radiation received asa result of radioactive decays that are taking place in the surrounding materials. The pie chart below identifies typical sources of radiation, but the actual value varies from country to country and from place to place. e radon. medicine ‘nuclear industry buildings / soil i medicine -14% BE nuclear industry—1% Gi buildings/sol - 18% Di cosmic—14% natural i radon 42% radiation Ci food/ 85% drinking water —11% 152Half-life Radioactive decay ae Half-life ‘There'isa temptation to think that every quantity that, decreases with time is an exponential decrease, but ‘exponential curves have a particular mathematical property. In the graph shown below, the time taken for half of the number of nuclides to decay is always the same, whatever starting value yau choose. This, allows you to express the chances of decay happening ina property called the halflife, 7. The haltlfe of nuclide is the time taken for halfof the number of nuclides present ina sample to decay. An equivalent staternentis that the halflife is the time taken for the rate of decay (or activity) of a particular sample of nuclides tohalve. A substance with a large halFife takes a long, time to decay. A substance with a short half-life wil decay quickly. Haltlives can vary from fractions of second to millions of years. pumbs The time taken to hale from [any pointis always T. umber ef nudlides available to decay OE time “pattlte A Hattie ofan exponential decay Investigating half-life experimentally \When measuring the activity ofa source, the background rate should be subtracted, + Ifthe half-life is short, then readings can be taken of activity against time. © A simple graph of activity against time would produce the normal exponential shape. Several values ofhafife could be read from the graph and hen averaged, This method is simple and ‘Quick but not the most accurate + Agraph ot ln activity) against time could be produced, This should give a straight ine and the decay constant can be calculated from the gradient (see page 188). + Ifthe half is long, then the activiy will effectively be constant overa peviad oftime. In thiscase, you need to find a way to calculate the number of nucle present, N, and then use aN cy AN Example In simple situations, working out how much radioactive ‘materal remains isa matter of applying the halFlife property several times. A common mistake isto think. that ifthe halflife ofa radicactive material is 3 days then itwillall decay in six days. Infact, after six days (two haltlives) 2 “half ofa half” will remain, i.e. 2 quarter. : incase of stable 3 1 | decay ofradicacive "asennel mucel a “parent” nuclei 5 << 2haltves F Sherer “doughter nucle L afer 2halves Cfteong tal parent rucewill-eman ° Th time/ days 6 3 6 ¢ [a The decay of parent into daughter. e.g, The halflife of 2C is 5570 years Approximately how much time will pass before less than 1% of sample of $C remains? Time Percentage left n 50% 2T; 25% 37, 12.5% 4T, ~6.3% ST, ~3.1% eT, ~16% 77, ~0.8% hal ives 13.420 years Thalflves = 38990 years - approximately 37000 years needed ‘Simulation The result ofthe throw of dice isa random process and, ccan be used to simulate radioactive decay. The dice represent nuclei available to decay. Each throw represents unit oftime. Every six represents a nucleus decaying, which means these dice is are longer available, 153