CONTENTS

CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE NUMBER

1 The Propositional Calculus 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Propositional Connectives: Truth Tables 1
1.3 Tautologies 4
1.4 Logical consequence 4
1.5 Logical equivalence 4
1.6 Adequate Sets of Connectives 5
1.7 Disjunctive normal form (DNF) 6
1.8 Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) 6

2 Deductions 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Deduction 9
2.2.1 Deduction Rules for the Connectives ∧, ⌉ 9
2.2.2 Deduction Rules for the Connectives →, ↔ and ∨ 11
2.3 Consistency Theorem 11
2.4 Completeness Theorem 11
2.5 Independence of formulas 12

3 Turing Machine 13
3.1 Introduction 13
3.1.1 Components of the machine 13
3.1.2 Formal Definition 13
3.1.3 How the Turing Machine operates 14
3.1.4 Representation of Natural Integers 15
3.1.5 Graphical Representation of the Turing Machine 15

i
ii CONTENTS

4 Predicate Logic 17
4.1 Introduction 17
4.2 The Alphabet of Predicate Logic 17
4.3 Terms 18
4.4 Predicates 18
4.5 Formulas 18
4.5.1 Atomic Formula 18
4.5.2 Well-formed Formula 19
4.5.3 Scope of Quantifiers, Free Variables, Bound Variables 19
4.5.4 Closed Formula 20
4.5.5 Open Formula 20
4.5.6 The Closure 20
 Chapter 1

The Propositional Calculus

1.1 Introduction
One of the popular definitions of logic is that it is the analysis of methods of reasoning.
In studying these methods, logic is interested in the form rather than the content of the
argument. For example, consider these two arguments:

1. All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Hence, Socrates is mortal.

2. All cats like fish. Silvy is a cat. Hence, Silvy likes fish.

Both have the same form: All A are B. S is an A. Hence, S is a B. The truth or
falsity of the particular premises and conclusions is of no concern to logicians. They want
to know only whether the premises imply the conclusion. The systematic formalization
and cataloguing of valid methods of reasoning are a main task of logicians. If the work
uses mathematical techniques or if it is primarily devoted to the study of mathematical
reasoning, then it may be called mathematical logic. We can narrow the domain of math-
ematical logic if we define its principal aim to be a precise and adequate understanding
of the notion of mathematical proof.

1.2 Propositional Connectives: Truth Tables

Sentences may be combined in various ways to form more complicated sentences. We
shall consider only truth-functional combinations, in which the truth or falsity of the new
sentence is determined by the truth or falsity of its component sentences.

Negation
Negation is one of the simplest operations on sentences. Although a sentence in a natural
language may be negated in many ways, we shall adopt a uniform procedure: placing a
sign for negation, the symbol ⌉, in front of the entire sentence. Thus, if A is a sentence,

1
2 CHAPTER 1. THE PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS

then ⌉A denotes the negation of A. The truth-functional character of negation is made

apparent in the following truth table:

A ⌉A
T F
F T

When A is true, ⌉A is false; when A is false, ⌉A is true. We use T and F to denote the
truth values true and false.

Conjunction
Another common truth-unctional operation is the conjunction: “and”. The conjunction
of sentences A and B will be designated by A ∧ B and has the following truth table:

A ⌉A A ∧ B
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

A ∧ B is true when and only when both A and B are true. A and B are called the
conjuncts of A ∧ B. Note that there are four rows in the table, corresponding to the
number of possible assignments of truth values to A and B.

Disjunction
In natural languages, there are two distinct uses of “or”: the inclusive and the exclusive.
According to the inclusive usage, “A or B” means “A or B or both,” whereas according to
the exclusive usage, the meaning is “A or B, but not both,”. We shall introduce a special
sign, ∨, for the inclusive connective. Its truth table is as follows:

A ⌉A A ∨ B
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Thus, A ∨ B is false when and only when both A and B are false. “A ∨ B” is called a
disjunction, with the disjuncts A and B.
1.2. PROPOSITIONAL CONNECTIVES: TRUTH TABLES 3

Conditional
Another important truth-functional operation is the conditional: “if A, then B.” Ordinary
usage is unclear here. Surely, “if A, then B” is false when the antecedent A is true and
the consequent B is false. However, in other cases, there is no well-defined truth value.
For example, the following sentences would be considered neither true nor false:

1. If 1 + 1 = 2, then Algiers is the capital of Algeria.

2. If 1 + 1 ̸= 2, then Algiers is the capital of Algeria.

3. If 1 + 1 ̸= 2, then Rome is the capital of Algeria.

Their meaning is unclear, since we are accustomed to the assertion of some sort of
relationship (usually causal) between the antecedent and the consequent. We shall make
the convention that “if A, then B” is false when and only when A is true and B is false.
Thus, sentences 1–3 are assumed to be true. Let us denote “if A, then B” by “A → B”.
An expression “A → B” is called a conditional. Then → has the following truth table:

A ⌉A A→B
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

bi-Conditional
Let us denote “A if and only if B” by “A ↔ B.” Such an expression is called a bicondi-
tional. Clearly, A ↔ B is true when and only when A and B have the same truth value.
Its truth table, therefore is:

A ⌉A A↔B
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

The symbols ⌉, ∧, ∨, →, and ↔ will be called propositional connectives. Any sentence

built up by application of these connectives has a truth value that depends on the truth
values of the constituent sentences. In order to make this dependence apparent, let us
apply the name statement form to an expression built up from the statement letters A,
B, C, and so on by appropriate applications of the propositional connectives.
4 CHAPTER 1. THE PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS

Remark
1. If A and B are statement forms, then so are (⌉A), (⌉B), (A ∧ B), (A ∨ B), (A → B),
and (A ↔ B).

2. ⌉(A ∧ B) ≡ (⌉A∨⌉B)

3. ⌉(A ∨ B) ≡ (⌉A∧⌉B)

1.3 Tautologies
A statement form that is always true, no matter what the truth values of its statement
letters may be, is called a tautology. A statement form is a tautology if and only if
its corresponding truth function takes only the value T, or equivalently, if, in its truth
table, the column under the statement form contains only Ts. An example of a tautology
is (A ∨ (⌉A)), the so-called law of the excluded middle. Other simple examples are
(⌉(A ∧ (⌉A))), (A ↔ (⌉(⌉A))), ((A ∧ B) → A), and (A → (A ∨ B)).

1.4 Logical consequence

B is said to logically imply C “B ⇒ C”, or, synonymously, C is a logical consequence of
B “B |= C” if and only if every truth assignment to the statement letters of B and C
that makes B true also makes C true. For example:

1. (A ∧ B) logically implies A, (A ∧ B) ⇒ A, (A ∧ B) |= A.

2. A logically implies (A ∨ B), A ⇒ (A ∨ B), A |= (A ∨ B).

3. A ∧ (A → B) logically implies B, (A ∧ (A → B)) ⇒ B, (A ∧ (A → B)) |= B

1.5 Logical equivalence

B and C are said to be logically equivalent if and only if B and C receive the same truth
value under every assignment of truth values to the statement letters of B and C. For
example, A and (⌉(⌉A)) are logically equivalent (A ≡⌉(⌉A)), as are (A ∧ B) and (B ∧ A)
(A ∧ B ≡ B ∧ A).

Proposition
1. B logically implies C if and only if (B → C) is a tautology. (B ⇒ C) iff |= (B → C).

2. B and C are logically equivalent if and only if (B ↔ C) is a tautology. (B ⇔ C) iff

|= (B ↔ C)
1.6. ADEQUATE SETS OF CONNECTIVES 5

1.6 Adequate Sets of Connectives

Every statement form containing n statement letters generates a corresponding truth
function of n arguments. The arguments and values of the function are T or F. Logically
equivalent forms generate the same truth function. A natural question is whether all
truth functions are so generated.

Proposition
Every truth function is generated by a statement form involving the connectives ⌉, ∧, and
∨.

Example 1.6.1.

x1 x2 f (x1 , x2 )
T T F
T F T (x1 ∧⌉x2 )
F T T (⌉x1 ∧ x2 )
F F T (⌉x1 ∧⌉x2 )

f (x1 , x2 ) is: (x1 ∧⌉x2 ) ∨ (⌉x1 ∧ x2 ) ∨ (⌉x1 ∧⌉x2 )

x1 x2 x3 f (x1 , x2 , x3 )
T T T T (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 )
T T F F
T F T T (x1 ∧⌉x2 ∧ x3 )
T F F T (x1 ∧⌉x2 ∧⌉x3 )
F T T F
F T F F
F F T F
F F F T (⌉x1 ∧⌉x2 ∧⌉x3 )

f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) is: (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧⌉x2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (x1 ∧⌉x2 ∧⌉x3 ) ∨ (⌉x1 ∧⌉x2 ∧⌉x3 )

Corollary
Every truth function can be generated by a statement form containing as connectives only
∧ and ⌉, or only ∨ and ⌉, or only → and ⌉.

Proof
1. Negation: ⌉A ≡⌉A

2. Conjunction: A ∧ B ≡ A ∧ B
6 CHAPTER 1. THE PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS

3. Disjunction: A ∨ B ≡⌉(⌉A∧⌉B)

4. Conditional: A → B ≡⌉(A∧⌉B)

5. bi-Conditional: A ↔ B ≡⌉(A∧⌉B)∧⌉(B∧⌉A)

Proposition
1. A ∧ (B ∨ C) ≡ (A ∧ B) ∨ (A ∧ C)

2. A ∨ (B ∧ C) ≡ (A ∨ B) ∧ (A ∨ C)

1.7 Disjunctive normal form (DNF)

Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF) is a standardized way of expressing logical formulas
in boolean algebra or propositional logic. In DNF, a formula is represented as an OR
(disjunction) of one or more AND (conjunction) clauses, where each clause consists of
literals (variables or their negations).
A formula is in DNF if it follows this structure:
(A1 ∧ A2 ∧ · · · ∧ Am ) ∨ (B1 ∧ B2 ∧ · · · ∧ Bm ) ∨ · · · ∨ (Z1 ∧ Z2 ∧ · · · ∧ Zm )

Example 1.7.1.

x1 x2 f (x1 , x2 )
T T F
T F T (x1 ∧⌉x2 )
F T T (⌉x1 ∧ x2 )
F F T (⌉x1 ∧⌉x2 )

f (x1 , x2 ) is: (x1 ∧⌉x2 ) ∨ (⌉x1 ∧ x2 ) ∨ (⌉x1 ∧⌉x2 )

1.8 Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF)

Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) is another standardized way of representing boolean
formulas, but instead of being an OR of ANDs like DNF, CNF is an AND (conjunction)
of OR (disjunction) clauses. In CNF, each clause consists of literals, and the overall
formula is the conjunction of these disjunctive clauses.
A formula is in CNF if it follows this structure:
(A1 ∨ A2 ∨ · · · ∨ Am ) ∧ (B1 ∨ B2 ∨ · · · ∨ Bm ) ∧ · · · ∧ (Z1 ∨ Z2 ∨ · · · ∨ Zm )
1.8. CONJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM (CNF) 7

Proposition
CN F (f ) =⌉(DN F (⌉f ))

Example 1.8.1.

x1 x2 x3 f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ⌉f (x1 , x2 , x3 )
T T T T F
T T F F T (x1 ∧ x2 ∧⌉x3 )
T F T T F
T F F T F
F T T F T (⌉x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 )
F T F F T (⌉x1 ∧ x2 ∧⌉x3 )
F F T F T (⌉x1 ∧⌉x2 ∧ x3 )
F F F T F

DNF(⌉f (x1 , x2 , x3 )) is: (x1 ∧ x2 ∧⌉x3 ) ∨ (⌉x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3 ) ∨ (⌉x1 ∧ x2 ∧⌉x3 ) ∨ (⌉x1 ∧⌉x2 ∧ x3 )
so:
CNF(f (x1 , x2 , x3 )) is: (⌉x1 ∨⌉x2 ∨ x3 ) ∧ (x1 ∨⌉x2 ∨⌉x3 ) ∧ (x1 ∨⌉x2 ∨ x3 ) ∧ (x1 ∨ x2 ∨⌉x3 )
8 CHAPTER 1. THE PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
 Chapter 2

Deductions

2.1 Introduction
In Chapter 1, we learned that determining the validity of formulas in propositional calculus
relies primarily on truth tables. However, constructing the truth table for a formula is
a tedious task, especially when the formula contains multiple propositions. Proof theory
offers methods to study the validity of formulas without using truth tables.

2.2 Deduction
A deduction of a formula α from a set of formulas Γ is a sequence of formulas α1 , α2 , . . . , αn
such that αi is either an axiom, a formula from Γ, or a formula derived from the preceding
formulas using inference rules. It is denoted as Γ ⊢ α, and the formulas in Γ are called
hypotheses.

2.2.1 Deduction Rules for the Connectives ∧, ⌉

Let L be a language and (∧, ⌉) two connectives.

Rules for The Conjunction

Elimination Rule for Introduction Rule for

Rules for The Negation

Elimination Rule for Introduction Rule for

Figure 2.1: Gentzen’s Natural Deduction Rules

9
10 CHAPTER 2. DEDUCTIONS

A Gentzen natural deduction refers to any truth tree in which a conclusion is derived
from the premises by applying the following rules : (I∧), (E∧), (I⌉), (E⌉)

Remark
Let Γ = {α1 , α2 , . . . , αn } be a set of formulas where the αi are arbitrary propositions.

• Γ ⊢ α: means that there exists a deduction that concludes α, where the only
uneliminated premises are in Γ.

• ⊢ α: means that there exists a deduction that concludes α, such that all the premises
are eliminated.

• ⊢ α: means that there α is a theorem.

Example
In the formal system S = {∧, ⌉} prove ⊢ α∨⌉α
It is important to note that the ∨ connective is not present in our system of deduction
rules. We need to define its meaning in terms of the connectives ⌉ and ∧.
α∨⌉α ≡⌉(⌉α ∧ α)
Using proof-by-contradiction, we assume that ⌉(⌉α ∧ α) is false, which means that we
assume that (⌉α ∧ α) is true, and we look for a contradiction.

assumption assumption

Contraduction

Example
In the formal system S = {∧, ⌉} prove α ⊢ α ∨ β
Using proof-by-contradiction, we assume that α ∨ β is false, which means that we
assume that ⌉(α ∨ β) is true, and we look for a contradiction.
⌉(α ∨ β) is true means that (⌉α∧⌉β) is also true.
2.3. CONSISTENCY THEOREM 11

assumption hypothesis

Contraduction

Example
In the formal system S = {∧, ⌉} prove α → β, α ⊢ β
Using proof-by-contradiction, we assume that β is false, which means that we assume
that ⌉β is true, and we look for a contradiction.
Since the only system considered in this example is S = {∧, ⌉}, we need to define the
meaning of α → β in terms of the connectives ⌉ and ∧.
α → β ≡⌉(α∧⌉β).
hypothesis assumption hypothesis

Contraduction

2.2.2 Deduction Rules for the Connectives →, ↔ and ∨

2.3 Consistency Theorem

if ⊢ β then |= β
This means that a logical system is inconsistent if there exists a formula β such that:
⊢ β and |=⌉β

2.4 Completeness Theorem

Let A1 , A2 , . . . , An be propositional formulas.

1. if |= ((A1 ∧ A2 ∧ · · · ∧ An ) → A), then A1 , A2 , . . . , An ⊢ A

2. if |= A, then ⊢ A
12 CHAPTER 2. DEDUCTIONS

Rules for The Conditional

Elimination Rule for Introduction Rule for

Rules for The bi-Conditional

Elimination Rule for Introsuction Rule for

Rules for The Disjunction

Elimination Rule for Introduction Rule for

2.5 Independence of formulas

• A formula α is independent of the formulas α1 , α2 , . . . , αn if it can never be derived
from these formulas using inference rules.

• A set of formulas Γ is independent if none of its formulas can be derived from the
others.
 Chapter 3

Turing Machine

3.1 Introduction
The Turing machine is an abstract model of how mechanical computing devices oper-
ate, such as a computer and its memory. It was created by Alan Turing to provide a
precise definition of the concept of an algorithm. This model is still widely used in theo-
retical computer science, particularly to address problems of algorithmic complexity and
computability.

3.1.1 Components of the machine

The Turing machine consists of the following two parts:

1. A tape (memory) of infinite length divided into cells. Each cell contains at most
one symbol.

2. A read/write head that allows you to read or modify the content of a cell.

3.1.2 Formal Definition

We will define for each Turing machine:

• a set of symbols S = {S0 , S1 , . . . , Sn }

• a finite set of internal states E = {q0 , q1 , . . . , qf }.

• an internal state qi is associated with the Read/Write head.

Conventions
• S0 represents the blank symbol; denoted 0 or b.

13
14 CHAPTER 3. TURING MACHINE

• q0 represents the initial state.

• qf represents the final state.

3.1.3 How the Turing Machine operates

The operation of the Turing machine at time t is based on the instructions; it is defined by:

• The symbol Si read by the read head.

• The internal state qj , in which the machine is located.
Suppose that the machine is in the state qj , and the read head is positioned over the cell
containing the symbol Si . There are 3 types of instructions:
1. qi Sj Si qr : Replace the symbol Si with Sk and set the machine to state qr (no head
movement).
2. qj Si Lqr : Move the head one cell to the left and set the machine to state qr .
3. qj Si Rqr : Move the head one cell to the right and set the machine to state qr .

Starting Configuration Instruction 3 (Move to the left)

Instruction 1 (Move to the right) Instruction 3 (Move to the left)

Instruction 1 (Move to the right) Instruction 3 (Move to the left)

Instruction 1 (Move to the right) Instruction 3 (Move to the left)

Instruction 2 (Write) Instruction 4 (Move to the right)

Stop (No instruction is selectable)

Final configuration

Example
Consider the following Turing machine:
S = {0, |}, E = {q0 , q1 , q2 }
q0 1Rq0
q0 01q1
q1 1Lq1
q1 0Rq2
3.1. INTRODUCTION 15

3.1.4 Representation of Natural Integers

Consider a Turing machine with the alphabet S = {0, |, ∗}, where:

• 0 : is used to indicate that the cell is empty.

• | : is used to represent natural numbers such that n = |n+1

Remark
Let f be a function N p → N q , and let T be a Turing machine. We say that f is computable
by T if, starting from the initial configuration q0 x1 ∗ x2 ∗ · · · ∗ xp we get qf y1 ∗ y2 ∗ · · · ∗ yq
such that: f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xp ) = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yq ) where:

• xi is the representation of xi on T .

• q0 : is the initial state.

• qf : is the final state.

3.1.5 Graphical Representation of the Turing Machine

Here is the graphical representation of a set of instructions for a Turing machine:

Represents the internal state

Represents the instruction

Remark
Each state appears only once in the graph.

Example
Consider the Turing machine T.M = (S, E, I) such that:
q0 1Rq0
q0 01q1
q1 1Lq1
q1 0Rqf

Depict the machine graphically.

16 CHAPTER 3. TURING MACHINE

Example
Design the Turing machine that computes the predecessor of a binary-represented integer
n with its mirrored version.
f (n) = n − 1 ⇒ T M (n) = n − 1
f (1) = 0 ⇒ T M (1) = 0
f (4) = 3 ⇒ T M (001) = 11
f (5) = 3 ⇒ T M (101) = 001

Example
Design the Turing machine that computes the function f (n) = 0 for a binary-represented
integer n.
f (n) = 0 ⇒ T M (n) = 0
f (1) = 0 ⇒ T M (1) = 0
f (2) = 0 ⇒ T M (10) = 0
f (3) = 0 ⇒ T M (11) = 0

q0 0bq1 q0 1bq1 q0 b0qf q1 bRq0

 Chapter 4

Predicate Logic

4.1 Introduction
In propositional logic, we are restricted to propositional connectives (which combine
propositions, rather than variables and propositions). This limitation prevents us from
representing reasoning like the following:
ALL humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. THEREFORE, Socrates is mortal.
This reasoning involves the concepts of object and object properties.
The properties of objects are expressed in the form Human-being(Socrate). Here,
Human-being is the property, and Socrate is the object. Generic statements require
the use of the universal quantifier ∀. Thus, “EVERY human being is mortal” can be
translated as ∀x (human-being(x) → mortal(x)). A more general concept than that of
a property is the predicate, which makes it possible to express a relationship between
multiple objects, such as Father(Jean, Pierre) or smaller than(3, 7). A predicate can
have zero, one, or more arguments. Propositional variables are considered predicates with
zero arguments.
Predicate logic is also called first-order logic, in contrast to second-order pred-
icate logic, which allows quantification not only over objects but also over predicates,
enabling it to represent set theory (propositional logic can be viewed as zero-order predi-
cate logic). The aim of this chapter is to define first-order logic. We will first discuss its
syntax, i.e., how to write formulas, and then their semantics.

4.2 The Alphabet of Predicate Logic

The alphabet of predicate logic is made up of:
• A countable set of predicate symbols with zero, one, or more arguments, such as
p, q, r, . . . , human, mortal, father, . . .
• A countable set of object variables (or individual variables), denoted x, y, z, x1 , x2 , . . .
• A countable set of functions with zero, one, or more arguments, such as f, g, . . . , f ather of, . . .

17
18 CHAPTER 4. PREDICATE LOGIC

• The quantifiers ∀, ∃.

• The connectors ⌉, ∧, ∨, →

Remark
Functions with zero arguments are called constants and are written without parentheses
(a, b, . . . , Socrate, . . . ). Similarly, predicates with zero arguments are simply propositional
variables.

4.3 Terms
The set of terms is the smallest set of expressions formed from the alphabet of predicate
logic such that:
• Any variable (or constant) is a term.

• f (t1 , t2 , . . . , tn ) is a term if f is a function with n arguments and t1 , t2 , . . . , tn are

terms.

4.4 Predicates
In mathematical logic, a predicate of a language represents a property of the objects in
the domain under consideration, expressed within that language.

Example
• Socrates is a man.

• Socrates is mortal.

• The train whistles.

In each sentence, we can identify: a “property” part (predicate) and an “entity”

part (individual). In predicate logic, these correspond to predicate names and individual
constants, with a sentence being considered as the (functional) application of a predicate
to an individual.

4.5 Formulas
4.5.1 Atomic Formula
If p is a predicate with n arguments and t1 , t2 , . . . , tn are terms, then p(t1 , t2 , . . . , tn ) is an
atomic formula.
4.5. FORMULAS 19

Atomic formulas are those that contain only predicates (no logical symbols). In con-
trast, non-atomic formulas are sentences that include logical symbols.

4.5.2 Well-formed Formula

Well-formed formulas (or simply formulas) are described as:
• Every atomic formula is a well-formed formula.
• If A and B are well-formed formulas, then ⌉A, A → B, ∀x(A), and ∃x(A) are also
well-formed formulas.
Here are some examples of formulas in the language of predicate logic:
• “Everything is relative”.
∀x Relative(x)
• “A door is either open or closed”.
∀x (Door(x) → Open(x) ∨ Closed(x))
• “All roads lead to Rome.”
∀x (Road(x) → Lead to(x, Rome))
• “For every integer, there exists a larger integer.”
∀x (Integer(x) → ∃y(Integer(y) ∧ Greater(y, x))
• “There exists a largest integer”
∃x(Integer(x) ∧ ∀y(Integer(y) → Greater(x, y)))

4.5.3 Scope of Quantifiers, Free Variables, Bound Variables

• The scope of a quantification (a quantifier, a quantified variable) is the formula to
which the quantification is applied.
• An occurrence of a variable refers to the position where the variable appears in the
formula (except when it is within the scope of a quantifier).
• When a variable is associated with a quantifier, it is bound. In other words, any
occurrence of x within the scope of a quantifier is called bound.
• A variable is free if it is neither quantified nor bound.

Example
In ∀y((p(x) ∨ ∃x p(x)) ∧ q(y)), the first occurrence of x (in p(x)) is free, while the second
occurrence is bound. The occurrence of y is bound.
In (∀x R(x)) ∧ P (x), the first occurrence of x (in R(x)) is bound by the quantifier ∀,
while the second occurrence of x (in P (x)) remains free.
20 CHAPTER 4. PREDICATE LOGIC

4.5.4 Closed Formula

A closed formula is a formula that contains no free occurrences.

Example
The formula ∀x ∃y x < y is closed.

4.5.5 Open Formula

An open formula is a formula that contains at least one free occurrence.

Example
The formula ∀x x < y is open. (here y is free)

4.5.6 The Closure

If A is a formula containing the variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , the closure of A is the formula
∀x1 , ∀x2 , . . . , ∀xn A.
Bibliography

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