Development Anthropology (SoAn 3093) WSU, Department of social Anthropology,2023

WOLAITA SODDO UNVERSITY

Module Name: Developmental Anthropology SoAn (3093)

Instructor: Eyob Acha Tesfaye ( Assistant Professor of Social Anthropology)

Feb, 2023

Wolaita Soddo

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Development Anthropology (SoAn 3093) WSU, Department of social Anthropology,2023

Introduction

The course critically introduces the concept of development and discusses the multidimensional
nature of development. The course explores the relationship between local knowledge and global
(or scientific) knowledge vis-à-vis the meaning of development, development planning and
evaluation of development endeavors; discusses causes of underdevelopment; presents theoretical
and conceptual issues of development viz. “modernization theory”, “dependency theory”,
“grassroots” and participatory approach in development, and action anthropology. This course will
study theories of global economic development.

Topics, issues, and trends in development anthropology, classic, and contemporary development
theories, the dynamics of development and underdevelopment process, and the philosophy, e,thics
and rhetoric of development discourse in current use will be studied. The principles of popular
participation, community roles in developing the political economy of mega-development projects
and the questions of sustainability, social justice, equity, poverty, and human rights of particularly
indigenous populations will be studied.

 At the end of the course, students will be able to:

 Examine the different theoretical approaches of development anthropology
 Critically analyze the similarities and differences among the various development theories.
 Develop a scholarly approach toward development theories
 Critically analyses the position of development anthropology in development concepts and
practices

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Development Anthropology (SoAn 3093) WSU, Department of social Anthropology,2023

Chapter One: Meaning and Definition of the Term Development

The word development is used in several ways. It refers to an ongoing process. It also denotes
something that has been already achieved. Economic growth through increased production is an
important dimension of development and distributive justice is its inseparable part. To put in simple
words, 'development' is desirable replacement for underdevelopment or backwardness. For United
Nations Organization, development involves providing increasing opportunities to people for a
better future. Well known economist, Gunnar Myrdal viewed development as a process by which
poverty is alleviated, inequality reduced, and opportunities for self-actualization increased.
Marxian concept of development is based on egalitarian values, a social order free from
exploitation leading to freedom, mobility towards better quality of life, a classless society.
However, there is no general agreement on this concept. A variety of terms such as progress,
civilization, modernity, industrialization, and westernization are used loosely as synonyms for
development. For anthropologists, development is not just using new technologies for increased
production but involves a change in objectives, outlook, ideas, and relationships.

From an evolutionary perspective, early scholars constructed sequences and used dichotomous
concepts to indicate the progressive social changes in human society. Some of them are savagery,
barbarism and civilization (Henry Morgan); Reciprocity, redistribution, and market exchange
(Karl Polanyi); Status based relations to contractual relations (Henry Maine); Mechanical
solidarity to organic solidarity (Emile Durkheim); Theological to positivistic outlook (August
Comte); Religious and militaristic societies to modern and industrial societies (Herbert Spencer).
Such scholars invariably projected western society as the developed and rest of the world as yet to
catch up with the west. But, the view of evolutionary theories that underdevelopment is an early
stage, succeeded by development is no longer acceptable. Many societies and civilizations, which
were well-developed at one point of time in history, have witnessed a decline due to various
factors.

Various meanings of the term

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Development Anthropology (SoAn 3093) WSU, Department of social Anthropology,2023

As the term development may mean different things to different people. Development in human
society is a many-sided process. At the level of the individual, it implies increased skill and
capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well-being. Some
of these are virtually moral categories and are difficult to evaluate. However, the achievement of
any of those aspects of personal development is very much tied in with the state of the society as
a whole.

Development is defined as "a process of change in which an increasing proportion of a nation's

citizens are able to enjoy a higher level of material comfort," among other things. They have a
higher material standard of living, more education, and more control and choice over how they
live, and they live healthier and longer lives. (Dict Anthro, 1997:113).

Also, it is a process of fostering the progress of living standards and economic activity in a nation
or local area through efficient use of resources, technology, and knowledge (local or scientific)

Development promises: Control over nature through science; material abundance through
superior technology; effective gov’t through rational social org; peace/justice through a higher
individual morality and superior collective culture

Development also implies: a favorable change; a step from simple to complex; a step from
inferior to superior; a step from worse to better; a movement towards a desirable goal

Development is more dynamic than static … reform, replacement, etc

Freedom, responsibility, skill, etc. have real meaning only in terms of the relations of men in
society. At the level of social groups, therefore, development implies an increasing capacity to
regulate both internal and external relationships or it has meant the increase in the ability to guard
the independence of the social group (Rodney, 1973).The development also has to be more
concerned with enhancing the lives we lead and the freedom we enjoy.

Human “well-being” means being well, in the basic sense of being healthy, well nourished, or
highly literate and more broadly, having freedom of choice in what one can become and do.
Additionally, sometimes societal well-being has been defined by the income they generate, purely
subjective pleasure, and desire fulfillment (Sen, 1999b; Todaro and Smith, 2009).In the same way,
the term “development” for Todaro and Smith (2009) encompasses three fundamental elements:
change, improvement, and sustainability.

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When we conceptualize each terminology: Change is: something new or different is introduced.

For instance, changes in the number of goods and services available in society (increased
production), Changes in access to goods, opportunities, and resources can manifest change aspects
of development.

The meaning of change is more likely to be true and includes many details. Accordingly "change
is a succession of difference in time in persisting identity" (Nisbet, 1972:2, cited in Daniel,
2002).Three important facts can be observed from this meaning.

When change takes place, there is an observable difference; with observed difference, there is
reference and duration of time in which the difference appeared; and with the change that appeared,
identity of the subject under change persists.

Improvement is the state of being better than before, the process of making something better than
it was before or a change that one makes to something in order to make it better. For instance,
improved health, nutrition, and physical fitness increased educational levels, increased life
expectances and increased family income.

Sustainability also refers the change or improvement that is ongoing, not a one-time occurrence
Regular or continuous allocation of resources that support the improvement, improved capacity of
supporting structures and institutions are some.

According to Bosena (2004), development is the improvement of people's well-being, better life
and sustained capacity for better life. It enables people to take charge of their own lives and escape
from poverty. Also he states that development in the third world is not merely about increased
productivity and welfare but also it is about meeting the needs increased participation and equality.

In addition to the above view, development for Anthropologists in the twenty-first century will be
cultural. Development is not simply the more-or-less harmonious growth of the various sectors of
the economy, measured by cold statistics and profit criteria.

According to Valdes (2010), it is a more complex and encompassing process in support of the
interests and aspirations (both material and spiritual) of a people that must coherently incorporate
different socio cultural logics and historical experiences to produce a society that is cultured, just,
politically democratic and ecologically sustainable.

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Moreover, development was defined more anthropologically as follows: “socially responsible

management and use of resources, the elimination of gender subordination and social inequality
and organizational restructuring that can bring these about” (Sen and Grown, 1987:2).

The above definition more stresses the need for economic and social change, empowerment of
women and progressive changes in public-private relation to benefit women. Therefore, given that
we understand by ‘development’ both development of social and economic aspect of change,
improvement and sustainability by combining the definitions of both economists and
anthropologists.

Socio- Economic development: Social development is about the inclusiveness, social justice and
common good in the society.In addition, minimizing inequalities, poor health condition, increased
nutrition, and high level of education in society are some aspects of social development and which
all would directly or indirectly manifest in high or low economic productivity (Sen & Grown,
1987).

Economic development is the process of raising the level of prosperity through increased
production, promoting a wider distribution and consumption of goods and services within a given
area.

Development Context
The Spread of modernity & development brought prosperity/opportunity for some and poverty
and inequity for others (compare life in N & S)
When WW II & colonialism ended, Cold War began. During this time, the question of economic
growth, poverty, and inequality was internationalized. This led to the rise of
national/international agencies promoting development in developing countries • Faith in
development was shaken by environmental crisis, deepening poverty, growing inequality, etc.

Did it work? Will it work? Some believe it would work under sound policy & with anthropology
insights, while others dismiss its relevance as a western agenda. Anthropology, rarely took a
center stage, now being widely recognized as relevant to development.

Development anthropology are better equipped with competencies to understand connections

between local and global processes, to engage in development, and to critique the development
industry

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Development Advocates/Supporters

It was initiated by Harry Truman (1949), and his successor President Dwight Eisenhower
(1950s). National governments (leaders, policymakers, United Nations, donor agencies (bilateral
and multilateral), Non-state actors (NGOs, rights organizations, civic organizations), the private
sector, and the public at large.

Development Criticisms
Development was criticized on a number of grounds:

1. Modernity, harmful to man/nature, flourished on ruins of tradition, spirituality,

environmentalism, agrarian virtues, etc. Happiness is lost!

2. .Development is a western agenda (after WW II) designed to contain the spread of

communism, & promote Western political/commercial interests

3. Marxist anthropologists & dependency theorists argued ‘western development initiatives are
the cause, not the cure, of underdevelopment
4. The view that other societies can develop only by adopting western beliefs/institutions wrong
(a reference to modernization theory)

5. ‘Trickle-down’ approach encouraged investment in urban industrial, infrastructure, &

mechanized farming rather than in rural development (consistent with urban bias theory)

6 ‘Top-down’ approach failed to consider local differences and the plight of the powerless

7. Development initiatives caused displacement and impoverishment of people who lost their
resources

8. Subjective welfare standards (Western) applied universally, this led to (mis)judgment of

others.

CHAPTER TWO- DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Development is characterized by debate and controversy, especially in relation to development

theory. Theory refers to a way of organizing a body of information into a coherent form in order
to offer an explanation. A good theory should therefore make events more easily understandable
as it attempts to explain the relationships between causes and consequences. Development

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theories, in turn, are sets of propositions that aim to explain how development has taken place in
the past and how it might occur in the future.

Development theory includes analyses of development problems and the best ways to deal with
them. Just as there is no fixed definition of development, so it is not bound by a single theory.
Instead, there are suggestions of what development should or has implied in different contexts.
These are constantly redefined as the understanding of the development process deepens and as
new problems emerge (see Potter, 2008a).

Development theory

It is more concerned with change than is typical in conventional social science disciplines and is
highly interdisciplinary in nature, involving the examination of transformations in politics, the
economy, society, and culture.

Development theory has always been closely linked with development strategy in terms of the
practical applications of theory in trying to solve a problem or bring about change. As well as
academic thinking, development theories have also been influenced by the work of planners,
administrators, politicians, and activists, whether working for the state, international agencies, or
non-governmental or community-based organizations.

Modernization theories was particularly influential in the 1940s and 1950s and were still relevant
until the 1960s.Dependency theories were important in the 1960s and 1970s.

Neoliberalism and structural adjustment emerged in the 1980s and continued into the 1990s and
2000s.

Post-development developed in the 1990s and 2000s.

It is important to stress that although the earlier theories were less likely to overlap, today several
theories and approaches coexist and are expounded in different arenas.

This effectively followed the so-called ‘impasse’ in development theory in the 1980s (Schuurman,
2008), reflecting disappointment

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The Liberal International School

Its father is Adam Smith, the author of The Wealth of Nations (1776). It was for reaction to
mercantilism … the maximization of the nation’s wealth called for government control of trade,
investment, & other economic transactions

Liberalism … states have a common interest in the free flow of goods, services, and capital across
national borders. …No government intervention is needed (should be limited)

Liberalism stresses individual freedom... Also focuses on human rationality, individual property
rights, and civil rights

Adam Smith’s laisses-faire (free market) principle was reinforced by the comparative
advantage principle of David Ricardo

Failure of liberalism to address the pre-WWII economic crisis led to its replacement by fascism,
welfare state … gov’t intervention

Some even think socialism & WWII are the results of liberalism

Modernization theory

Modernization (Walt Rostow & Samuel Huntington are major advocators)

In 50s & 60s, scholars inspired by the limitless opportunities of the USA began to build on the
principle of liberalism with the hope to replicate it in the South. They argued that a wholesale
change must take place in the South in order to break the cycle of poverty, ignorance, low
productivity, poor education, etc

Developed societies are secular, universalistic, profit motivated, while developing societies are
traditional, particularistic, and unmotivated to profit

The South willing to eliminate trade barriers (to maintain close integration into world market),
cultural barriers, and hose welcoming investment and technological transfers would accelerate
their development process

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Although modernization is usually referred to as a single theory, it is more accurately a school of

thought or an approach that comprises a range of perspectives that follow the same basic argument,
namely that development is a positive and irreversible process through which all societies
eventually pass.

Development in the Global South in the second half of the twentieth century was not only
anticipated to mirror that of the earlier evolution of Europe and the USA, but actively encouraged
to do so.

In the belief that the ‘West is best’, and also to counter a growing threat of communism, Western
capital and technology diffusion and adoption of Western values were widely promoted (Power,
2008).

Origins of modernization theory I: evolutionary theory

• Modernization leant heavily on the European experience of development and relied on two
main theoretical influences: evolutionary theory and diffusionist theory.

• Evolutionary theories were characterized by an emphasis on the naturalness /genuineness

and inevitability of social change with ‘blockages’ in evolution needing to be
problematized and explained rather than the process of evolution itself.

• The intellectual roots of this theory lay in the work of nineteenth-century sociologists such
as Max Weber and Emile Durkheim.

• They drew on Darwin’s theory of evolution in the natural world in their search for
explanations for the shift from ‘traditional’ to ‘modern’ economies and focused on a need
for change in a range of social and cultural institutions.

• Durkheim concentrated on new forms of social integration in ‘modern societies’, whereas

Weber focused on the process of ‘rationalization

Whereby a goal-oriented hard-working philosophy displaced the predominance of leisure,

recreation, and culture in ‘traditional societies’

• n the post-war period, Talcott Parsons, the sociologist argued that changes in attitudes and
values were critical to economic progress and development.

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• Based on what he referred to as ‘pattern variables’, traditional societies would have to

change their orientation away from family, local community, religion, and superstition in
order to become modern, rational, and entrepreneurial.

• In other words, traditional cultures were regarded as inimical to development.

• He emphasized that most obstacles to development were internal to societies in the form
of traditional attitudes and culture, which needed to be dismantled and reconstituted in
order to emulate/follow the European example.

Origins of modernization II: diffusions theories, dualism, and models

• This had earlier roots in classical-traditional approaches which highlighted the overarching
role of economic growth and the freedom of the market in development processes, drawing
on earlier ideas associated with Adam Smith (1723–1790) and David Ricardo (1772–1823)

• This created a cycle of poverty and disadvantage whereby poor countries always imported
high value goods without ever earning enough to pay for imports. Southern countries
therefore became dependent on selling a limited range of raw materials on highly
prejudicial terms.

• In development terms, diffusionist theories described the process of shifting from tradition
to modernity through the spread of ideas, values and technology over space (rather than
time).

• A key theme here was that underdeveloped nations were dualistic, comprising the
coexistence of an advanced modern urban sector alongside a traditional rural sector.

2. Dependency theory

• The dependency school sought to overturn the views of modernization from a Southern
perspective, and more specifically, from a Latin American viewpoint.

• Most of these scholars (known as dependistas) were Latin American and therefore wrote
in Spanish.

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• The dependency theorists argued that the lack of economic development and widespread
poverty in the Global South, and in Latin America in particular, was caused by the
exploitative influence of the industrialized, advanced nations of the North.

• They also argued that the growth of the advanced countries was only possible because of
the active exploitation and underdevelopment of Southern countries (hence the fact that
dependency the theory is sometimes referred to as the underdevelopment theory

• Unlike modernization, dependency theory took the historical and global context, as well as
colonialism, into consideration (Conway and Heynen, 200

Origins of dependency theory I: Marxism and neo-Marxism

 Dependency emerged from a convergence of two major intellectual trends: Marxism and
neo-Marxism (meaning new Marxism) together with Latin American structuralism.

 As far as the former is concerned, dependency theory drew on radical rather than
bourgeois-liberal commentators with the primary inspirations coming from the work of
nineteenth-century thinkers such as Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. Dependency theorists
took the ideas of Marx and Engels and revised them from an international perspective,
thereby creating what is known as ‘neo-Marxism’.

 In essence, neo-Marxist theorists looked at the ways in which the South had been exploited
over time through different stages of capitalist expansion.

• The most important phase was colonialism which involved political, legal, and
administrative control as well as economic exploitation by European nations over countries
in the South.

• Neo-Marxists claimed that this laid the foundations for exploitation from which developing
countries found it difficult to escape.

• Even when former colonies became independent nations, they were still exploited through
a process of neo-colonialism where former colonial or other powers, especially
multinational corporations or international financial institutions, continued to shape and/or
dominate their development trajectories (Thomas, 2000).

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Origins of dependency theory II: Latin American structuralism

• Structuralism refers to a strand of thought which argues that ‘development involves

changes in underlying social and economic structures’ (Thomas, 2000, p.44).

• In the Latin American context, it relates to how, during the Great Depression of the 1930s,
Latin American exporters of raw materials and agricultural products found themselves
progressively less able to buy manufactured goods. Among the main reasons were Latin
America’s structural disadvantage in the world economy, their heavy dependence on
European and North American markets, and competition from other primary producing
regions – if Latin American countries set their prices for raw materials too high, then the
West would go elsewhere for their coffee, bananas and so on

• These basic principles of structuralism were first put forward by a group of Latin American
economists from the Economic Commission for Latin America

• Their main argument was that the international economic order was divided between an
industrial core and an agrarian periphery whereby the colonizing core countries dominated
world trade and geopolitics, and systematically deprived the colonized peripheral nations.

• Through emphasis on comparative advantage, the global economic system condemned

some countries (in the South) to being exporters of raw materials and importers of
manufactured goods in perpetuity

• This created a cycle of poverty and disadvantage whereby poor countries always imported
high value goods without ever earning enough to pay for imports.

• Southern countries therefore became dependent on selling a limited range of raw materials
on highly prejudicial terms.

• They suggested that the state should intervene in the economy through protectionism and
import substitution industrialization (ISI) by which the import of consumption goods from
the West could be replaced by domestic production.

• In this way, Latin American countries could withdraw from the global capitalist system.
However, these import-substitution policies, implemented during the 1950s, were seen to
have failed by the 1960s due to a shortage of investment funds and foreign exchange
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Neo-Liberalism: late 1970s - 1990s

From 1945 to 1970s, social democracy and welfare states became common. Continuous growth,
relatively equitable income, distribution, peace, democracy in DCs
1970s, DC economy slowed down. Neo-Liberalism surfaced and (peaked during Thatcher and
Regan)

After WWII, Liberalism adopted limited government role. But Neo-Liberalism consider
government as inefficient, corrupt, & hinder FM

1980s, WB/IMF imposed Neo-Liberalism on South. Crisis forced Africans to accept Neo-
Liberalism conditions

The fall of socialism contributed to prominence of Neo-Liberalism

Besides economy (limiting gov’t control), Neo-Liberalism had political agenda – democracy &
human rights.

Supports a reform of centralized economic institutions; formation of small governments;

privatization of state-owned firms (banks, insurance, social sector, etc.).

It was suggested that bank interest must be based on free market principle.

Government role: implement macroeconomic policies; removal of subsidies; removal of trade

barriers; controlling inflation … guard

Development = economic growth … Assumption: the free market regulates Supply & Demand -
if demand rises, price rises & production stimulated

if supply outstrips demand, price falls, production drop

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Criticism of Neo-liberalism

Growth rates were not as high as expected … instead of investment & export, reliance on
foreign debt/foreign aid.

Privatization job cuts & unemployment; selling of national assets to foreign companies (&
local elites) on cheap prices; bank loan scarce due to high interest; etc

Public sector got worse … best/brightest workers joined NGOs or left their countries in search
greener pasture

Neo liberalism accuses gov’t for corruption, nepotism, & rent seek. It fails to recognize
the inability in South to compete in FM that force the business to resort to natural
resources.

Polarization between and within countries … Power concentrated in the hands of the rich.

Developing countries made to regress than to advance in the global economy

Marxist Theory of Development: Classical

Karl Marx was interested in social classes, argued that societies move from one form to another
due to class struggle b/n dominant and subordinate

Said capitalism would spread worldwide through imperialism (a process of extending influence
thru trade, diplomacy, or military subjugation)

Foreign trade helps to prevent a fall in capitalist profit – through exploitation of natural resources
of South and selling of goods above their value

Marx was not interested in pre-capitalist societies

Rosa Luxemburg … argued that expansion of capitalism was made possible by pre-capitalist
countries: provided raw materials and markets (she stressed capitalist imperialism in the South)

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Lenin defined imperialism as the monopoly stage of capitalism. He argued ‘finance capital’
(banks) provided the basis for the centralization of the economies: local, national, and world. He
noted capitalist imperialism brought about uneven development and underdevelopment

Neo-Marxism: Underdevelopment
Drawing from Lenin, they all explained the underdevelopment of the South in terms of
imperialism. Andre Gunder Frank, a neo-Marxist, wrote on the ‘development of
underdevelopment’ based on the ideas of Paul Baran, who in turn earlier developed.
Lenin’s idea of imperialism
Baran: Development of the North took place at the expense of the underdevelopment of the
South. Solution: de-link from the world economy altogether and introduce socialist economic
planning.
Frank explained the ‘development of underdevelopment’ in terms of a capitalist world system of
metropolitan areas and satellite areas. The dominant world metropolitan areas suppress the
satellite regions through military, political, and trade agreements, and extract an economic
surplus

Within countries, the capital city subordinates the outlying satellite regions. The capital cities
in the South are underdeveloped by the world metropolitan center(s)

6. Urban Bias Theory (underdevelopment)

This theory explained uneven development within a country in terms of corrupt elites’
determination to focus on urban/industrial development and neglect of rural/agricultural
development. Michael Lipton was the the advocate. This theory is questioned (with the rise in
urban poverty)

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Developmental State

Also called ‘hard state’, ‘state development capitalism’. Contrasted against predatory state and
weak state • termed first by Chalmers Johnsen (1982)
Development State is a ‘state that focuses on economic development and takes the necessary
policy measures to ensure its development goals.”
Development State is autonomous, maintains strong political power, has a dominant party, and
controls the economy. They are against Neo Liberalists

State intervention is felt through regulatory measures, ownership of key sectors, control of fiscal
and monetary policies, extensive planning to guide econ development

Some features and goals of development state:

State-led macroeconomic planning (state regulation & more state control of econ/more
intervention)

Premise: Nationalism, presence of severe national threat

Goal: achieve/sustain fast & steady dev, attain structural transformation, avoid market failures,
attack poverty using state resources, expands econ opportunities, etc.

Success of DS depends on active involved of businesses, trade unions, various organizations,

etc.

E.g.,: Japan, S. Korea, Taiwan, China, Brazil, Botswana, S. Africa

Developmental State in Ethiopia

After collapse of socialism & demise of military gov’t, another 2 options on the table: Neo-
liberalism/free market and Developmental sate (DS). Initially, authorities leaned to West/free
market. But, couldn’t bear the conditions, changed their mind, chose DS.

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Part 3
The Link between Anthropology and Development

Application of Anthropological Knowledge

Application. Applied anthropologists use anthropological knowledge to solve practical

problems by providing info, creating policy, or taking action

Clients: governments, development agencies, NGOs, civic associations, interest groups, social
service providers, and businesses.

Expertise: researchers, policy analysts, program evaluators, needs/impact assessors, community

advocates, trainers, managers, consultants, etc.

Engagement areas: health and medicine, human rights, business, education, environmental
issues, community development disaster management, etc.

Engagement in Development Issues

In the 1950s, anthropologists were employed to facilitate the diffusion of improved technology
(e.g., Peace Corps, Green Revolution, etc.) by overcoming resistance to change. They were also
placed in many aid missions overseas.

In 1960s, many anthropologists abandoned development work due to the ethnocentric bias, the
trickledown theories, participation, also no job in development projects as the focus shifted to
the industrial sector, infrastructure, and mechanized farms

In the 1970s, anthropologists became relevant again following Neo-Marxist critiques of

underdevelopment. The critiques state that capitalism & Western development are the cause, not
the cure, of underdevelopment

In 1980s & 1990s, anthropologists became instrumental in the articulation of new development
initiatives focusing on environment and sustainability

The need for the participation of the poor & the social analysis of development increased interest

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Anthropology and Development

• Anthropologists were opposed to:

1. the restricted approach to development (modernization theory) or ethnocentric

2. the trickle-down approach that neglected rural development and urban biased, poor
unaddressed
3. the top-down approach that neglected grassroots views/interests and lack of participation
4. development projects that lead to displacement/impoverishment and Rights of
indigenous people
5. blind involvement of other anthropologists in harmful projects … called for critical
engagement
Different views within anthropology:
1. Mainstream. Involvement in development transforms the objective model of the world
to moral model
2. Critics. Uncritical acceptance existing paradigms makes anthropology part the of
problem than solution
3. Committed. Involvement is justified on certain grounds: moral, human rights, &
citizenry duty
4. Opportunistic and pragmatic. Involvement may bring positive benefit to
anthropologists (job) and the people

2.2. Varied Perspectives and Involvement of Anthropologists on development issues

The discipline of anthropology began as pursuit of knowledge about human diversity. From the initial
attempts to understand other cultures, the practitioners of anthropology have come a long way as
translators of culture, analysts, spokespersons on behalf of people, and students of change. Applied

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anthropology came into existence during the colonial period to assist the administrators in finding
solutions to practical problems. In the beginning, applied anthropology was involved in the
application of knowledge by those who were responsible for administration of colonies.
Anthropologists prepared ethnographic accounts describing the customs and practices of people,
and served as advisers. Knowledge of the language, customs, and traditions of people was found
useful by the administrators to deal with the people in the colonies they administered.
Anthropologists with their special comparative knowledge of cultures are considered to be best
suited to help in dealing with people. Anthropologists were also offering training to colonial
administrators on dealing with 'natives'. The culture contact studies of anthropologists provided
insights into communities under transformation. While applied anthropology came into existence
to deal with the people in the colonies of the European countries, in United States of America the
context was that of American Indians

Objectives of colonial governments, applied anthropology had a limited role during the colonial
period. During the Second World War, American anthropologists participated in war related
studies. After decolonization, and also with the end of Second World War, there was a boom in
development programmers in the third world countries, for bringing out deliberate transformation
of societies and economies. With liberal aid extended by the western nations to their former
colonies, anthropologists are involved in the study of development projects in the postcolonial era.
They started examining the cultural and social barriers to change. This was succeeded by the role
of production of knowledge for development policy making and implementation. Anthropologists
also started participating in the evaluation of development programmers and projects, and their
impact on people. Thus, the postcolonial era witnessed a shift in the focus, with the emergence of
studies on planned change and development programmers in the newly independent nations. The
community development projects and rural development measures led to a number of studies on
various hurdles affecting the development programmers in rural areas. Studies on tribal problems,
policies, the functioning and impact of welfare measures aimed at them received maximum
attention in India.

Instead of developing theories on socio-cultural change and human behavior, the applied
anthropologists believed in using their knowledge for ameliorating the living conditions of people.
A variant of applied anthropology has its emphasis on action. Action anthropologists do not

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influence the decisions of people, but help in providing clarifications. Ultimately, the people have
to take their decisions. The action anthropologist is one who is helping the people in goal
clarification in decision making and choice making, at the same time learning from the people.

The term 'development anthropology' was used by anthropologists like Glynn Cochrane, who felt
that the term applied anthropology had colonial connotation with limited utility. As the focus of
the countries is on development, this new label is considered as more appropriate. Development
anthropologists study the incorporation of local societies in larger, regional, national, and world
economic systems, and the resultant effects. Escobar (1997) makes a distinction between
'Development Anthropology' and 'Anthropology of Development'. Both 'Development
Anthropology' and 'Anthropology of Development' give importance to anthropological insights for
introducing and understanding development interventions. According to Escobar, 'Development
Anthropology' accepts mainstream view of development. Doing 'Development Anthropology'
involves active engagement with development institutions on behalf of the poor, with the aim of
transforming development practice from within. 'Anthropology of Development' prescribes a
radical critique of development, and prefers distancing away from development establishment.
'Anthropology of Development' questions the very notion of development. It views development
not as natural and inevitable, but asserts its historical character. This view of development as an
invention implies that the invention can be unmade and reinvented in multiple ways. The
perspective of 'Anthropology of Development' criticizes 'Development Anthropology' for its
adherence to a framework of development which aims to shape cultural transformation according
to the western Development notions of modernity (leading to western domination). On the other
hand, for 'Development Anthropology’, the perspective of 'Anthropology of Development' is
morally wrong, leading to non-involvement in a world that desperately needs anthropological
input. According to Escobar, anthropologists should offer an effective challenge to dominant
paradigms of development, contribute to a better future by engaging in critical issues (like poverty,
and environmental destruction), and strengthening at the same time progressive politics of cultural
affirmation in the midst of globalizing tendencies.

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2.3. Relevance and Contribution of Anthropology to Development

So far, the contribution made by anthropologists is in analyzing policies, studying the

implementation of projects and programmers and their impact on people, and advising planners
and administrators. They are involved in collection of data useful for planning and administration.
Frequently, the preoccupation of anthropologists can be seen in social impact assessment. In the
context of development, anthropologists emphasize respect for human and natural resources,
knowledge and experiences of people, protection of environment, and equity. In the post-colonial
period, when developed nations started offering economic and technical aid to third world nations,
anthropologists started looking into the social implications of developmental assistance.
Anthropologists assisted administrators to plan for development programmers, by applying their
knowledge of people. They played a role in understanding the resistance of to development
innovations. They analyzed the social framework of the communities as reflected in beliefs and
values, in order to suggest suitable measures to minimize resistance to development innovations.
The measures taken for planned development and their consequences are not only of applied value,
but these also help anthropologists in analyzing the socio-cultural changes resulting from
development.

The programmers aiming at development of the people will be successful, only if the
policymakers, planners, and development administrators understand the people, their culture and
pressing needs, and their aspirations. The needs and priorities of people, their capacity to absorb
development innovations, the compatibility of development innovations with the culture of people
have to be understood. The expertise of anthropologists helps in framing of policies, relevant and
meaningful to the people. The holistic approach of anthropologists makes them realize the overall
consequences of development such as changes in relations, institutions, values, etc. In a
developmental scenario, anthropologists focus on the perceptions or the points of view of the
people. Anthropology highlights the need for tolerance towards cultural variation and disapproves
of ethnocentric imposition of alien ideas and practices in the name of development.

2.4. Modernization and Development

Western scholars have pointed out that the institutions of traditional societies are obstacles to
development and are prescribed for replacing them. People living in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America are labeled as belonging to traditional societies. The dominant characteristics of
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traditional societies include: astrictive statuses, authoritarian power structure, the predominant
use of animal and human power (in contrast to mechanical devices in modern societies), the
majority of people living in rural areas; traditional values, customs, and practices are sacred and
binding on people. All these factors are considered hindrances to modernization and
development. But, anthropological studies show that traditions neither are totally replaced, nor
are they completely irrational. The incompatibility between tradition and development has been
overemphasized. They do coexist, accommodating each other, giving rise to pluralism and
syncretism. There can be technological advancement without a modern worldview.

Modernization theories have equated a shift from tradition to modernity as development. The
modernization theories revolved around the conservative features of traditional societies and the
attitudes of peasants as obstacles for development. Peasants are characterized as lacking in
innovativeness and aspirations, and having a fatalistic outlook, and parochial attitude.
Modernization theories deny any link between backwardness and colonial rule. The theories blame
the economic, political and cultural inadequacies of people of third world nations, for their
underdevelopment. The third world countries are blamed for their own backwardness and are
asked to learn from and follow the examples set by the western nations. Modernization theories
are supportive of the market ideologies of the western nations.

The traditional societies we considered as poverty ridden, conservative, fatalistic, and politically
incapable. Take-off theories proposed by economists like W.W. Rostow (Stages of Economic
growth) emphasized the importance of technology and capital coming from foreign countries,
followed by industrialization and effective governmental policies for ushering in development.
Modernization theories attributed underdevelopment to endogenous factors. They deny the
relevance and potential of traditional institutions. They prescribe that western models are to be
followed for achieving development. They emphasize institutional reforms and infrastructure
development as priorities.

In general, the role of anthropology in development started on a very limited scale during the
colonial era and became significant and diverse in later. The postcolonial period witnessed the

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newly independent nations embarking upon development plans and policies. As the programs are
meant for transforming the socio-economic conditions of people; anthropology began playing an
important role in the planning, evaluation, and implementation of development programmers,
anthropologists are not confined to government- sponsored development but participate in varied
roles and settings. The involvement of anthropologists in development is not uniform, as there are
varied perspectives within anthropology on such involvement. Development is an interdisciplinary
arena, and economists dominate all agencies dealing with development. But, anthropologists have
their own strengths and contribute in delineating the implications of development through their
qualitative studies. In India, anthropologists participate in debates dealing with the compatibility
of traditional institutions with modernization. Anthropology is playing a significant role in undoing
the negative consequences of development in the past, through recent strategies in development.
There is a need to strengthen the training given to anthropology students including hands-on
experience through the organizational internship.

The engagement of anthropology (and anthropologists) with the development program

The relationship between development and anthropology (both as an intellectual discipline and
as individuals working as professional anthropologists) is delicate and often aggravating, as it
was with colonialism before it.

We will seek to answer this week's question by through some history of the discipline's
involvement with development, and then by outlining two differing forms of engagement which
will be further explored in two subsequent questions. On the one hand, development can be
treated as a ‘social entity in its own right’, made up of development institutions, agencies and
ideologies.

This conceptualization has led to the emergence of ethnographies that study not the people to be
developed but the operation of the apparatus that does the ‘developing’. This move makes
‘development’ itself an object of historical or anthropological study. This can be referred to as
the anthropology of development.

Anthropologists of development practice a form of 'studying up,' making the social life of
development and aid organizations their 'natives.' They ask things like: who works in

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development apparatuses? What do they do? How do they do these things? For what reasons
do they do them? In attempting to respond to this week's question we will consider both the
epistemological basis of this type of research, and some examples of the ethnographies
generated by this type of fieldwork practice. In this way, the development organizations will be
studied ethnographically by anthropology.

But another avenue is development anthropology (or anthropology for development). The latter
refers to anthropologists who work for development agencies. Development anthropologists
participate in the actual formulation and implementation of development interventions.

The anthropologists of development attempt, epistemologically, to place themselves outside

debates about whether development is a 'good' or a 'bad' thing, and far from a programmatic,
policy-oriented approach (how can we better fight poverty and raise standards of living?) of
development anthropology.

In practice, by drawing lines of continuity between development and sharply condemned

practices and periods (e.g. colonialism), or demonstrating effects that many judge undesirable
(e.g. concealment of politics and the extension of bureaucratic disciplinary powers), studies in
the anthropology of development frequently turn out to be critical of development, at least by
implication. Anthropological perspectives have been central to some of the most radical
critiques of development, which are sometimes referred to as the ‘post development’ or
‘antidevelopment’ school of thought.

The contribution of anthropologists on conducting development projects!

Many people whose job title is 'anthropologist' (most anthropology graduates probably go on to
find employment as something other than anthropologists work not in academic departments but
on overseas development projects. We will explore some of the contributions they make to these
projects, as well as some of their frustrations in working on them. The inclusion of anthropologists
on project teams involved in development projects makes a difference.

The ethical obligations of Anthropologists in the workplace must be clearly stated. We are
frequently confronted with representations of human suffering, whether in the news media, charity
campaigns, or simply ethnographic writing. Is it acceptable to represent instrumentalists in this
way? How can/should we respond to such representations? How should anthropologists respond

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to depictions of violence, suffering, and death in the field? We conclude this by trying to square
the seeming ethical imperative of engagement with the 'traditional' disciplinary stance of
nonjudgmental, dispassionate observation and description.

Part -4: Culture and Development

Culture-Development Link: Western Europe & North America

Max Weber (1904; 1930; 1996). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

- Assumption: link b/n capitalism & Protestantism/Reformation

- Capitalism was not lacking; the spirit of capitalism was lacking

- Identified two types of capitalism: traditional and rational –

1. Traditional capitalism… based on luxury trade … long-distance trade, slave trade, …
to make a profit to maintain social positions. Time is Medieval and Religionis
Catholicism, which
a. Preached that salvation is possible through 'good work': praying, confession,
taking part in church rituals, giving alms, making the pilgrimage, etc. Hence, believers
felt no anxiety!
b. Divided Christians into two: monks and nuns living godly life in monasteries and
the ordinary laity. The church failed to direct religious energy/motivation to everyday
life After Reformation, Weber noticed:

2. Rational capitalism is based on mass production/marketing, saving, reinvestment, and

honest business dealing than greedy snatch - evidence of existence rational capitalist

spirit in the writings of Benjamin Franklin (in 1730s/40s)…. ‘time is money’, ‘a penny

saved is a penny earned,’ ‘Don’t waste,’ etc…

Hard work & saving are both ways of making money & ethical obligation.
Martin Luther’s notion of ‘calling’ … to work is to accept a call from above; every kind of
work in the ordinary world is a religiously sanctioned activity

John Calvin’s doctrine of ‘predestination’, which stresses that the saved/damned are pre-
determined & that nothing one does leads to salvation. However, there is one pathway: to live
godly life in every respect, every moment of the day.

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Religious energy daily life; followers became rich. Capitalism!

Max Weber in America

 He was a gifted/brilliant person expected by high profile people to make a great
academician or politician
 Was incapacitated at 33 (psychosomatic), could not work/think, & stayed idle for 7 years
receiving treatment & traveling
 After traveling to US, he got not only better but also productive
 He found America to be both most capitalist and most religious
 He was convinced that America became successful capitalist because it was so Christian
(Protestant)
 everything fell into places:
America was established by radical Protestants, the Puritans, who escaped persecution from
Europe. they promoted the value of work and success – Protestant ethic. Returned to Germany
& wrote “The Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism” – a master piece that remains relevant
to date

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Part 5: Development Perspectives & Challenges

Basic Needs Strategy

 Critics of GLD underlined the model did not pay attention to real human welfare
 A new development approach was proposed: redistribution of income and resources
downwards. This strategy was known as ‘redistribution with growth’ and later ‘basic
needs strategy

The new model had two goals:

It provides all humans, especially the needy with material needs 2) alleviating poverty. It had
elements of social justice, Later on, it was realized that development must focus beyond basic
needs. It should enable people live fuller life/human well-being.
The preoccupation with growth was replaced by a holistic idea of human welfare. Growth is
meaningful if it leads to human development

Human Development

- HD concerns: reduce deprivation, create capability, enlarge choices, not just income.
- Since choices limitless/change, HD focused on common/valued choices: leading long/healthy
life, acquiring knowledge, access to resources, freedom, being creative, enjoying self-respect,
etc.

- HD has 4 components: equity, sustainability, productivity, and empowerment

- Identifying indicator poses a challenge because HD scope is broad, human choices are
multiple, HD concept is dynamic, etc.

- Limited variables that capture the essence of HD developed...called HD Index & is measured
based on 3 basic elements of human life: longevity (life expectancy at birth), knowledge
(literacy rate), and decent living (purchasing power-adjusted real GNP & PCI)

- HDI measures income, education, and health … better national mean

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Criticism of Human Development

• The goals set to broaden people’s choice is ambitious, HD confines itself in

measuring three variables only

• HD does not pay attention to empowerment, equity, security, and sustainability,

which are vital for making choices

• Economic and social indicators should not be combined into a single figure as HDI

• It is difficult to determine what choices constitute HD

The HD concept has been designed by economists, hence, the social aspects (e.g., socio-political
institutions, etc.) ignored

Sustainable Development

- Since econ development means speedy use of earth’s resources, how long can the earth
sustain such depletion of finite resources?

The first official definition of Sustainable Development was given by the UN World
Commission on Environment & development (1987) in the Brundtland Commission Report
called ‘Our Common Future.’
Sustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

- SD represents a shift in growth-oriented development a model which is destructive to itself.

It questions the sustainability of resource- intensive lifestyle. But even under slow growth,
resources will be exhausted. So, what kind of model is advocated by SD?

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Globalization & Sustainable development

Globalization reduces the use of resources

 Closed states achieve growth by higher use of natural resources

 (Causing depletion and globalization ends state monopoly.
 Trade and investment increases access to efficient technology
 Transnational corporations tend to standardize technologies
 Exports have to adapt to stricter environmental standards of North
 Global economy allows production to be efficient in resource use

Globalization affects environment

- foreign investment, uses fossil fuel, increases CO2 emissions

- Because of global competition, pressure on nature increases

- During currency crisis, natural were resources exported extensively

- Electronic waste toxic; physical transport needs resources, space

- Patenting gives control to corporations; genetic engineering affects bio-diversity;

polluting industries relocated to South

Criticism of Sustainable Development

• Sustainability of the environment & sustainability of development are mutually

exclusive concepts put together in a contradiction

• The term Sustainable development created a terrain of semantic ambivalence because it

shifted focus of sustainability towards dev’t, away from nature

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• Sustainability has different connotations for different fields or professions (e.g.,

economists, environmentalist, etc.)

• ‘Needs’ in Sustainable development is not specified/clarified. Whose needs: of the haves

or have not? Who will ensure the rights and how?

• Sustainability cannot exist forever. Then, what is the time frame?

• Sustainable development based on utilitarian worldview of nature; assumes knowledge

of carrying capacities of ecosystems; and does not question the traditional worldview of
progressive materialism/individualism

• Sustainable development political tool of North to concoct others to share their wrongs

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Part 5- Project Management

Project Definition

A project in general refers to a new endeavor with a specific objective and varies so widely that it
is very difficult to precisely define it. Some of the commonly quoted definitions are as follows. A
project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service or result.
(AMERICAN National Standard ANSI/PMI99-001-2004)

Project is a unique process, consisting of a set of coordinated and controlled activities with start
and finish dates, undertaken to achieve an objective conforming to specific requirements, including
the constraints of time cost and resource
(American National Standard Ansi/Pmi99-001-2004)

Project Characteristics

Project works share the following common characteristics. Projects are Unique in nature. Have
definite objectives (goals) to achieve. Requires set of resources. Have a specific time frame for
completion with a definite start and finish. Involves risk and uncertainty. Requires cross-
functional teams and an interdisciplinary approach

The major Causes for failure of a given Project work

Failure to establish an upper-management commitment to the project

a. Lack of organization’s commitment to the system development methodology

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b. Taking shortcuts through or around the system development methodology

c. Poor expectations management
d. Premature commitment to a fixed budget and schedule
e. Poor estimating techniques
f. Over-optimism
g. Inadequate people management skills
h. Failure to adapt to business change
i. Insufficient resources and Failure to “manage to the plan”
The major steps in project work are stated as follows:
Step 1: Identify and meet with stakeholders,
Step 2: Set and prioritize goals,
Step 3: Define deliverables,
Step 4: Create the project schedule,
Step 5: Identity issues and complete a risk assessment Step
6: Present the project plan to stakeholders

The structure of the Project Proposal Must Include the Followings:

1. Organization (title page, table of contents, section headings, etc.)
2. Writing skills (flow of the sentence, paragraphs, grammar, spelling, punctuation, choice
of words)
3. Page layout (margin, font, line spacing, and page number)
4. Referencing fine (consistency& standard style all must be included

The major components of the project proposal

The major project work components

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The project summary/Executive summary is the last component written but will be the first read
by an application reviewer. The project summary should not exceed one single-spaced page and
should reflect the essence of the entire project. The summary section should include the following:
As projects are a means to achieving certain objectives, there may be several alternatives
projects that will meet these objectives. It is important to indicate all the other alternatives
considered with justification in favor of the specific project proposed for consideration.
Sectoral studies, opportunity studies, support studies, and project identification essentially
focuses on screening the number of project ideas that come up based on information and data
available and based on expert opinions and to come up with a limited number of project options
which are promising

Background and Justification

 The rationale must be explained to other relevant programs
 Significance must be clearly stated
 Need assessment must be done
 The relationship between the project
Setting Goals and Objectives
 Once you have determined how you are going to implement your project, you can begin
developing your objectives. Objectives are specific, measurable accomplishments designed
to address the stated problems and attain your project goal. An objective is an endpoint,
not a process, to be achieved within the proposed project period. Completion of objectives
must result in specific, measurable outcomes that benefit the community and directly
contribute to the achievement of the stated project goal. At this step, you will give finer
detail to the initial broad ideas and set them in a project charter as reference points for your
project as it proceeds.
 S.M.A.R.T Of the Objectives has the following characteristics:

Specific -Start with an action verb (strengthen, train, develop, teach, implement) and
specify the outcome; state what you will do to achieve your goal and meet your identified
need.
Measurable -The objective must include measurable outcomes and describe measurable

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changes in community conditions including social, cultural, environmental, economic, and

governance conditions
Achievable -The objective must be realistic and attainable, something you can expect to
achieve given your available resources and project strategy.
 Relevant and Results-oriented— your objective should address your project goal and therefore
the long term goals of your organization.
Time-bound —The objective should reflect a time period in which it will be accomplished

Project Activities
 Activities must be clearly identified (what will be done, who will do it, when it and will
be done?)
 Role of actors’ (stakeholders) shall be explained
A clear statement of direct linkage between the activities must be stated

Defining Project Scope

The scope of your project is an outline set it is and isn’t setting out to achieve. It is necessary to
delineate the boundaries of your project to prevent “scope creep”, i.e. your resources going
towards something that’s not in your project’s goals

Setting Project Beneficiaries

The direct beneficiary, sometimes called a primary beneficiary, is someone who is directly
involved with your project and benefits from it. Depending on your project this could be people
who participated in your training, students of the school you built, or women who received
livestock. The important thing is that the direct beneficiaries are connected with the project. Since
they are so closely intertwined with the project, direct beneficiaries should be easy to count and
describe.

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An indirect beneficiary, sometimes called a secondary beneficiary, is someone who is not directly
connected with the project, but will still benefit from it. This could be other members of the community or
from the area or family members of the participants. Most projects are not planned around indirect
beneficiaries, and so they are more difficult to describe precisely.

Selecting a Project Approach/Strategy

Once you have determined your project goal, you are ready to develop your project
approach or strategy. Based on the information gathered in the previous steps, develop
a list of possible strategies for addressing your problem and achieving your goal and then
select a strategy that represents the best method for implementing your project. This
the strategy will be the basis for developing your objectives and activities.

(Project Preparation and Appraisal, IV. Edition, Rehber, E., 1998.)

Conduct Feasibility Study

Feasibility Study forms the backbone of Project Formulation and presents a balanced picture
incorporating all aspects of possible concern. The study investigates practicalities, ways of
achieving objectives, strategy options, and methodology, and predict likely outcome, risk and
consequences of each course of action. It becomes the foundation on which project definition and
rationale will be based so that the quality is reflected in subsequent project activity. A well-
conducted study provides a sound base for decisions, clarifications of objectives, logical planning,
minimal risk, and a successful cost-effective project. Assessing the feasibility of a proposal requires
an understanding of the STEEP factors. These are Social, Technological, Ecological, Economic, and
Political.

The project feasibility studies focus on:

1. Economic and Market Analysis

2. Technical Analysis

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3. Market Analysis
4. Financial Analysis
5. Economic Benefits
6. Project Risk and Uncertainty
7. Management Aspects

Sustainability Strategy

Sustainability is not simply about generating new grant dollars, it also involves outlining a specific
strategy and action plan for continuing your project. Significant attention is placed on this section
of your application because the funding source does not want the project to fail once support is
complete. Some projects lend themselves more to sustainability strategies, however all projects
include benefits to the community that can be continued after implementation is complete.

Plan to Ensure Community Participation

Actors/stakeholders must be clearly stated. How the stakeholder communities were (and are
being) involved in

 Project planning and design

 Project implementation
 Project monitoring and evaluation

Project Monitoring & Evaluation

Monitoring and Evaluation is a process of continued gathering of information and its analysis,
in order to determine whether progress is being made towards pre-specified goals and objectives,

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and highlight whether there are any unintended (positive or negative) effects from a
project/program and its activities.

Monitoring is a continuous process of collecting, analyzing, documenting, and reporting

information on progress to achieve set project objectives. It helps identify trends and patterns,
adapt strategies, and inform decisions for project or program management

Evaluation is a periodic assessment, as systematic and objective as possible, of an on-

going or completed project, program or policy, its design, implementation and
results. It involves gathering, analyzing, interpreting, and reporting information based
on credible data. The aim is to determine the relevance and fulfillment of objectives,
developmental efficiency, effectiveness, impact, and sustainability

Potential Challenges and Developing a Contingency Plan

Every project has the potential to run into challenges that can impede progress and prevent or delay
successful completion. The development of a contingency plan requires that you identify and
prepare for potential challenges that may cause your project to be late in starting up or to fall
behind schedule and/or over budget.

Developing a contingency plan as a fallback position, or “just in case”, will leave you better
prepared to handle challenges. By identifying potential challenges and planning ahead, you will
be more likely to overcome challenges with minimal disruption and cost to your project.
Identification of potential challenges and development of a contingency plan should be done by a
team that includes project stakeholders

Project Cost Estimate

The project budget is a program and fiscal document. The budget reflects the costs necessary to
perform the activities of the project. The budget is the dollar expression of the project being
proposed and must be reasonable and tied to the project objectives and work plan. The budget
should not be prepared until the organization’s policies, priorities, and plans have been established.
Without clearly stated goals and objectives financial projections cannot be made nor should
budgeting substitute for planning. Approval of the budget should be regarded as a commitment on

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the part of the governing body and the administration to carry out the policies, respect the priorities,
and support the plans that have been translated into dollars through the budget.

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