CHAPTER 2: LIMITS

The limit of a function is the value a function approaches as the variable approaches a value.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
→

The statement defines the limit of a function f(x) at a point a. L is the value that the function has as the
point a is approached.
General Rule
Limits involving algebraic operations are often performed by replacing sub expressions by their limits. The
resulting definite value is the limit of the function desired. The Function is said to be increasing or
decreasing without limit if the resulting is positive infinity or negative infinity respectively.
Sample Problem #1

Evaluate
We will choose values of x that get closer and closer to x=2 and plug these values into the function. Doing
this gives the following table of values

Note that we made sure and picked values of x that were on both sides of x = 2 and that
we moved in very close to x = 2 to make sure that any trends that we might be seeing are
in fact correct.
Also notice that we can’t actually plug in x = 2 into the function as this would give us a
division by zero error. This is not a problem since the limit doesn’t care what is
happening at the point in question.
From this table it appears that the function is going to 4 as x approaches 2, so:
Let’s look at the graph:

First, notice that there is a rather large open dot at x = 2. This is there to remind us that the function
(and hence the graph) doesn’t exist at x = 2.
As we were plugging in values of x into the function we are in effect moving along the
graph in towards the point as x = 2. This is shown in the graph by the two arrows on the
graph that are moving in towards the point.

Sample Problem # 2

Solution:
The first thing to note here is that this is exactly the same function as the first example with the exception
that we’ve now given it a value for x = 2. So, let’s first note that: g (2) =6.

As far as estimating the value of this limit goes, nothing has changed in comparison to the first
example. We could build up a table of values as we did in the first example or we could take a
quick look at the graph of the function. Either method will give us the value of the limit.
Lets’ first take a look at a table of values and see what that tells us. Notice that the presence of
the value for the function at x = 2 will not change our choices for x. We only choose values of x
that are getting closer to x = 2 but we never take x = 2. In other words the table of values that
we used in the first example will be exactly the same table that we’ll use here. So, since we’ve
already got it down once there is no reason to redo it here.

From this table it is again clear that the limit is,

The limit is NOT 6! Remember from the discussion after the first example that limits do not care
what the function is actually doing at the point in question. Limits are only concerned with what
is going on around the point. Since the only thing about the function that we actually changed
was its behavior at x = 2 this will not change the limit.

Let’s also take a quick look at this functions graph to see if this says the same thing.

Again, we can see that as we move in towards x = 2 on our graph the function is still approaching a y value
of 4. Remember that we are only asking what the function is doing around x = 2 and we don’t care what
the function is actually doing at x = 2 . The graph then also supports the conclusion that the limit is

Sample Problem #3:

Solution:
This function is often called either the Heaviside or step function. We could use a table of values to estimate
the limit, but it’s probably just as quick in this case to use the graph so let’s do that. Below is the graph of
this function.
We can see from the graph that if we approach t = 0 from the right side the function is moving in towards
a y value of 1. Well actually it’s just staying at 1, but in the terminology that we’ve been using in this
section it’s moving in towards 1…

Also, if we move in towards t = 0 from the left the function is moving in towards a y value of 0. According
to our definition of the limit the function needs to move in towards a single value as we move in towards t
a = (from both sides). This isn’t happening in this case and so in this example we will also say that the limit
doesn’t exist.
Note that the limit in this example is a little different from the previous example. In the previous
example the function did not settle down to a single number as we moved in towards t = 0. In
this example however, the function does settle down to a single number as t = 0 on either side.
The problem is that the number is different on each side of t = 0. This is an idea that we’ll look
at in a little more detail in the next section.

Right Side and Left Side Limits

Sample Problem # 1

In this case, regardless of which side of x = 2 we are on the function is always approaching a value of 4
and so we get,
Sample Problem #2
Sample Problem #3

Given the function:

Compute the following limits.

Solution:
a.)
In this case there really isn’t a whole lot to do. In doing limits recall that we must always look at what’s
happening on both sides of the point in question as we move in towards it. In this case y = 6 is completely
inside the second interval for the function and so there are values of y on both sides of y = 6 that are also
inside this interval. This means that we can just use the fact to evaluate this limit.

b.)
This part is the real point to this problem. In this case the point that we want to take the limit for is the
cutoff point for the two intervals. In other words we can’t just plug y = -2 into the second portion because
this interval does not contain values of y to the left of y = -2 and we need to know what is happening on
both sides of the point.
To do this part we are going to have to remember the fact from the section on one-sided limits
that says that if the two one-sided limits exist and are the same then the normal limit will also exist and
have the same value.
Notice that both of the one sided limits can be done here since we are only going to be looking at one side
of the point in question. So let’s do the two one-sided limits and see what we get.

So in this case, we can see that, and so since the two one sided limits aren’t
the same, does not exist.
Theorems on limits
1. Limit of a constant

- The limit of a constant is itself

lim 𝐾 = 𝐾
→

2. Limit of a constant and a function

lim 𝐾[𝑓(𝑥)] = K lim[𝑓(𝑥)]
→ →

3. Sum and difference of two or more functions

lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim [𝑓(𝑥)] ± lim [𝑔(𝑥)]
→ → →

4. Product of two or more functions

lim [𝑓(𝑥) · 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim [𝑓(𝑥)] · lim [𝑔(𝑋)]
→ → →

5. Quotient of two or more functions

𝑓(𝑥) lim [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝐿

lim = → =
→ 𝑔(𝑥) lim [𝑔(𝑋)] 𝐾
→

Note: K≠0
6. Limit of a Root of a function

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim [𝑓(𝑥)]

→ →

Note: n = any positive integer and f(x) > 0 if n is even

7. Limit of a power of a function
lim [𝑓(𝑥)] = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)]
→ →

Sample Problem #1:

Find lim [𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 4]
→

Solution:

lim [𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 4] = lim [𝑥 ] + lim [3𝑥] + lim [4] by Theorems on limits #3

→ → → →

= [lim 𝑥] + 3 lim [𝑥] + lim [4] by Theorems on limits #2, 7, 1

→ → →

= 2 + 3(2) + 4,
= 14
Sample Problem #2:

Find lim (𝑥 + 4)√2𝑥 + 5

→

Solution:

lim (𝑥 + 4)√2𝑥 + 5 = lim [(𝑥 + 4)] lim √2𝑥 + 5 by Theorems on limits #4

→ → →

= (lim 𝑥 + lim 4) lim 2𝑥 + 5 by Theorems on limits #3, 6

→ → →

= (lim 𝑥 + lim 4) 2lim 𝑥 +lim 5 by Theorems on limits #3

→ → → →

= (lim 𝑥 + lim 4) lim 2𝑥 + 5 by Theorems on limits #2

→ → →

= (2 + 4) 2(2) + 5 by Theorems on limits #1

= 18
Sample Problem #3:
Find lim (3𝑥 + 4)
→

Solution:

lim (3𝑥 + 4) = [lim (3𝑥 + 4)] by Theorems on limits #7

→ →

= [lim (3𝑥) + lim (4)] by Theorems on limits #3

→ →

= [3lim (𝑥) + lim (4)] by Theorems on limits #2

→ →

= [3(3) + 4] by Theorems on limits #1

= 169

Note: The limits of the functions in the above examples can be obtained by straight substitution.
Indeterminate forms
Note: Indeterminate forms if the expression obtained after substituting the limit to a given function does
not give enough information to determine the original limit.
1. 00 5. ∞ - ∞
2. ∞0 6. 0 · ∞
3. 1∞ 7. ∞/∞
4. 0/0
Suppose that we have one of the following cases:
( )
Case 1: lim ( )
=
→

( )
Case 2: lim ( )
=
→

Obtaining any of these forms by straight substitution does not necessarily mean that f(x) has no limit. The
limit is usually found by changing the expression defined by f(x) into a form to which theorems on limits
can be used.
Sample Problem #1:

Find lim
→

Solution:
The numerator both approach 0. However, u2-25 can be factored to (u+5)(u-5).

Then, lim
→

( )( )
= lim
→

= lim [𝑢 + 5]
→

=5+5
= 10
Sample Problem #2:

Find lim
→

Solution:
This cannot be evaluated by straight substitution since x = 2, we have

= = , which is meaningless. That is, at x=2, the function assumes the indeterminate form .
However, if x ≠ 2, then
( )( )
= =𝑥+2

Therefore, to evaluate the limit of the given function, we proceed as follows:

( )( )
lim = lim
→ →

= lim [𝑥 + 2]
→

=2+2
=4
Limit at Infinity

Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = . It can be shown that approaches a finite limit (the number zero) as x
increases without bound. That is, .→0 as x→∞

We can now say that: lim

→

Sample Problem #1:

Evaluate lim
→

Solution:

lim = lim [ ∙ ∙ ]
→ →

= lim ∙ lim ∙ lim

→ → →

=0
Sample Problem #2:

Evaluate lim
→

Solution:

lim = 4 lim
→ →

= 4lim[ ∙ ]
→

=4 lim ∙ lim
→ →

=0

From the example above, we can also say that lim , that is if n is any positive number.
→

( )
A function 𝑓(𝑥) = may assume the indeterminate form when x is replaced by ∞. However, the limit
( )
if f(x) as x comes infinite may be definite. To find this, we first divide N(x) and D(x) by the power of x.
Then evaluate the limit by use of lim
→

Sample Problem #3

Evaluate lim
→

Solution:

The function assumes the indeterminate form when x is replaced by ∞. Dividing the numerator and
denominator by 𝑥 , we get:
 lim = lim
→ →

=2

Continuity
The function is said to be continuous at the point x=a if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. f(a) is defined
2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists
→

3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

→

If any of these conditions is not satisfied, then f(x) is said to be discontinuous at x=a.
Theorems on Continuity
1. The polynomial function f(x) is continuous if it is continuous for all values of x.
2. The rational function: f(x)/g(x) is continuous everywhere EXCEPT for values of x which make the
denominator g(x) equal to zero.
Sample Problem #1:

Is the function 𝑓(𝑥) = continuous over the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5?

Solution:
No, since at x=2, f(2) is undefined.
Sample problem #2:

The function 𝑓(𝑥) = is continuous at x = 3 because lim = 𝑓(3) = . It is, however, discontinuous at
→
x=0 since lim = ∞. The graph of the function contains a break at x=0.
→