5 The circulatory system

Humans need to constantly exchange substances with their environment. They need to take in
useful substances and get rid of waste. The circulatory system provides a means of transporting these
substances between the surfaces where they are exchanged and the body cells. The circulatory
system is composed of the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system.
The need for a transport system in the human body
The absorption and transport of substances in humans is affected by two factors:
• Their surface area to volume ratio.
• The limitations of simple diffusion.
Humans have a small surface area to volume ratio. Diffusion through their body surface is not
adequate to supply all their body cells with their requirements and remove their waste. In addition,
most of their body is too far from its surface for substances to move through it by simple diffusion.
Humans have, therefore, developed a transport system to carry useful substances from specialised
organs that absorb them, e.g. the lungs and ileum, to body cells, and to carry waste substances from
body cells to specialised organs that excrete them, e.g. the kidneys and lungs.

Materials transported around the human body

The following materials are transported around the human body:
• Useful substances: oxygen, water, digested food (mainly glucose and amino acids), vitamins,
minerals, hormones, antibodies and plasma proteins. Heat is also carried.
• Waste substances: carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste, e.g. urea.
The cardiovascular system
The cardiovascular system consists of:
• Blood, which serves as the medium to transport substances around the body.
• Blood vessels, which are tubes through which the blood flows to and from all parts of the body.
• The heart, which pumps the blood through the blood vessels.
Blood
Blood is composed of three types of cells:
• red blood cells
• white blood cells
• platelets
These cells are suspended in a fluid called plasma. The
cells make up about 45% by volume of the blood and the
plasma makes up about 55%.

Figure 5.1 Red blood cells

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Composition of plasma
Plasma is a yellowish fluid composed of about 90% water and 10% dissolved substances. The dissolved
substances consist of:
• Products of digestion, e.g. glucose, amino acids, vitamins and minerals.
• Waste products, e.g. dissolved carbon dioxide and urea.
• Hormones, e.g. insulin and thyroxine.
• Plasma proteins, e.g. fibrinogen, prothrombin, albumen and antibodies.
Functions of plasma
The main function of plasma is transporting the following:
• Products of digestion, from the ileum to the liver and the body cells.
• Carbon dioxide, from body cells to the lungs.
• Urea, from the liver to the kidneys.
• Hormones, from the glands that produce them (endocrine glands) to target organs.
• Heat, from the liver and muscles to all parts of the body.
Serum
Serum is plasma without fibrinogen and other factors needed for the blood to clot (see page 48).
Serum is the part of the blood that is left over after red and white blood cells, platelets and clotting
factors have been removed.
serum = plasma – clotting factors
Blood cells
Table 5.1 Structure and functions of blood cells
Cell type and structure Formation of cells Functions
Red blood cells (erythrocytes) • Formed in the red • Transport oxygen as
bone marrow found oxyhaemoglobin from
cell in flat bones, e.g. the the lungs to body cells.
membrane pelvis, scapula, ribs, • Transport small
sternum, cranium and amounts of carbon
vertebrae; and in the dioxide from body cells
ends of long bones,
e.g. the humerus and to the lungs.
cytoplasm
cy femur.
rich in hhaemoglobin,
an iron-containing
iron-co protein
• Broken down mainly
in the liver and
• Biconcave discs with a thin centre and spleen.
relatively large surface area to volume
ratio so gases easily diffuse in and out.
• Have no nucleus, therefore they only live
for about 3 to 4 months.
• Contain the red pigment haemoglobin.
• Slightly elastic allowing them to squeeze
through the narrowest capillaries.

5 The circulatory system 47

 Cell type and structure Formation of cells Functions
White blood cells (leucocytes)
Slightly larger than red blood cells and less
numerous; approximately 1 white blood cell
to 600 red blood cells. There are two main
types; 25% are lymphocytes and 75% are
phagocytes.
Lymphocytes • Develop from cells • Produce antibodies to
in the red bone destroy disease-causing
cell membrane marrow and mature bacteria and viruses
in other organs, e.g. (pathogens).
large, round nucleus lymph nodes, spleen, • Produce antitoxins
thymus gland. to neutralise toxins
non-granular cytoplasm
produced by pathogens.
• Have a rounded shape.
• Have a large, round nucleus that controls
the production of antibodies.
• Have only a small amount of cytoplasm.
Phagocytes • Formed in the red • Engulf and destroy
bone marrow. pathogens.
cell membrane • Engulf pathogens
lobed nucleus destroyed by
granular cytoplasm antibodies.

• Have a variable shape.

• Move by pseudopodia; can move out of
capillaries through their walls and engulf
pathogens using pseudopodia.
• Have a lobed nucleus.
Platelets (thrombocytes) • Formed from cells in • Help the blood to clot
the red bone marrow. at a cut or wound (see
cell membrane Blood clotting, below).
cytoplasm

• Cell fragments.
• Have no nucleus and only live for about
10 days.
Blood clotting
When the skin is cut and bleeds, the blood quickly clots. The following events occur to form the clot:
• Platelets in the blood at the cut become spiky in shape, stick to each other and begin to plug the
cut. They also release an enzyme called thrombokinase or thromboplastin.
• Thrombokinase, with the help of calcium ions (Ca2+) and vitamin K in the blood, converts the
inactive plasma protein, prothrombin, into active thrombin.
• Thrombin converts the soluble plasma protein, fibrinogen, into insoluble fibrin which forms fibres.
48 5 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology
• The fibrin fibres form a network across the cut, which
traps blood cells and forms a clot.
• The clot dries and develops into a scab. New skin forms
below the scab and the scab drops off.
Clotting is important because:
• The clot prevents further blood loss.
• The clot prevents pathogens from entering the body.
Blood groups
Blood can be classified into different blood groups based
on chemicals present on the surface of red blood cells
known as antigens. There are two grouping systems: Figure 5.2 Red blood cells and platelets
• The ABO system, which divides blood into four groups; trapped in a network of fibrin fibres
group A, group B, group AB and group O.
• The rhesus system, which divides blood into two groups; rhesus positive and rhesus negative.
Blood vessels
There are three main types of blood vessels:
• arteries
• capillaries
• veins

artery

direction of
blood flow
organ
arteriole –
small artery
heart
capillary

venule –
small vein
vein
oxygenated blood
deoxygenated blood

Figure 5.3 The relationship between the different blood vessels

5 The circulatory system 49

 Arteries carry blood away from the heart. On entering an organ, an artery branches into smaller
arteries called arterioles which then branch into a network of capillaries which run throughout the
organ. Capillaries then join into small veins called venules which join to form a single vein which leads
back from the organ towards the heart.
Table 5.2 Arteries, capillaries and veins compared
Arteries Capillaries Veins
Transport blood away from Transport blood throughout Transport blood back towards
the heart to body tissues and all body tissues and organs, the heart from body tissues and
organs. linking arteries to veins. organs.
Blood flows through under high Blood flows through under low Blood flows through under low
pressure. pressure. pressure.
Blood moves in pulses created Blood flows smoothly. Blood flows smoothly.
as the ventricles contract.
Blood flows rapidly. Blood flows very slowly. Blood flows slowly.
Blood is oxygenated, except in Blood becomes deoxygenated as Blood is deoxygenated, except
the pulmonary arteries. it travels through capillaries. in the pulmonary veins.
Most lie deep within the body Run throughout all tissues and Many lie close to the body
so they are protected. organs. surface.
Do not possess valves, except Do not possess valves. Possess valves to prevent the
the aorta and pulmonary artery low pressure, slow flowing
as they leave the ventricles of blood from flowing backwards.
the heart.
free-flowing back-flowing
blood – valve blood – valve
open closed

Have walls composed of three The walls are composed of Have walls composed of
layers. The walls are thick and a single layer of endothelial three layers. The walls are thin
elastic to withstand the high cells so substances pass easily because they do not have
pressure of the blood. between the blood and body to withstand high pressure.
cells. They are extremely The lumen is wide so it does
fibrous layer – fairly
thick and elastic
narrow and branch repeatedly not resist the flow of low
muscle and elastic
so that all body cells are close pressure blood.
layer – thick to capillaries.
endothelium – one fibrous layer – thin
cell thick and elastic
lumen – narrow muscle and elastic
layer – thin
endothelial endothelium – one
cell cell thick
lumen – wide

lumen –
extremely narrow

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The heart
The pumping action of the heart maintains a constant circulation of blood around the body. The
walls of the heart are composed of cardiac muscle which contracts without nerve impulses, i.e. it is
myogenic, and it does not get tired.
The heart is divided into four chambers. The two on the right contain deoxygenated blood and are
completely separated from the two on the left, which contain oxygenated blood, by the septum.
• The top two chambers, called atria, have thin walls and they collect blood entering the heart from
the anterior and posterior vena cavae and the pulmonary veins. Their walls are thin because they only
have to pump blood a short distance into the ventricles.
• The bottom two chambers, called ventricles, have thick walls and they pump blood out of the heart
via the pulmonary artery and aorta. Their walls are thick because they have to pump blood longer
distances around the body and to the lungs. The wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the wall of
the right ventricle because it has to pump blood longer distances (see Figure 5.4).
Valves are present between each atrium and ventricle and in the pulmonary artery and aorta as they
leave the ventricles to ensure that blood flows through the heart in one direction.
pulmonary artery – carries deoxygenated
blood to the lungs
aorta – carries oxygenated
anterior vena cava – blood to the body
carries deoxygenated
blood from the head left atrium – collects oxygenated
blood from the lungs
right atrium – collects pulmonary veins – carry oxygenated
deoxygenated blood from blood from the lungs
the head and body
posterior vena cava – semi-lunar valves – prevent the backflow
carries deoxygenated of blood into the ventricles when they relax
blood from the body
bicuspid valve or mitral valve – same function
tricuspid valve – as the tricuspid valve
prevents the blood flowing
back into the atrium when tendons – prevent the valve turning
the ventricle contracts inside out
right ventricle – pumps left ventricle – thicker walled than
deoxygenated blood to the right ventricle to pump
the lungs oxygenated blood longer
cardiac muscle distances around the body
septum

deoxygenated blood oxygenated blood

Figure 5.4 Longitudinal section through the human heart showing the function of the parts

The heart’s pacemaker (sinoatrial node)

A group of specialised cells in the wall of the right atrium, called the pacemaker or sinoatrial node,
spontaneously produce electrical impulses which travel through the heart muscle causing it to
contract about 75 times per minute. This rate can be modified by nerve impulses or the hormone
adrenaline, e.g. the rate increases during exercise or when nervous.
An artificial pacemaker is a small, battery-operated device that generates electrical impulses to
regulate heartbeat. It is implanted under the skin and connected to the heart via tiny wires and may
be used if the heartbeat is too slow, too fast or irregular, or if a person has suffered a heart attack
(see pages 121–22).
5 The circulatory system 51
 Cardiac cycle
The atria and ventricles at the two sides of the heart contract and relax together. The contraction of a
chamber is called systole and its relaxation is called diastole. One cardiac cycle or heartbeat involves
the following:
• Diastole – the atria and ventricles relax together, the semi-lunar valves close, the atria fill up with
blood from the anterior and posterior vena cavae and pulmonary veins, and the blood flows into
the ventricles. This takes 0.4 seconds.
• Atrial systole – the atria contract together forcing any remaining blood through the tricuspid and
bicuspid valves into the ventricles. This takes 0.1 second.
• Ventricular systole – the ventricles contract together, the tricuspid and bicuspid valves close and blood
is forced through the semi-lunar valves into the aorta and pulmonary arteries. This takes 0.3 seconds.
Blood pressure
Blood pressure is the pressure of circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels. It is usually measured
in the large arteries in millimetres of mercury or mm Hg. It is expressed as:
blood pressure (mm Hg) = systolic pressure (highest pressure when the heart contracts)
diastolic pressure (lowest pressure when the heart relaxes)
Ideal blood pressure is between 90/60 mm Hg and 120/80 mm Hg. High blood pressure or hypertension
results if a person’s pressure rises to 140/90 mm Hg or above. This can be caused by a variety of
factors (see page 122).
Circulation
During one complete circulation around the body, the blood flows through the heart twice,
therefore, humans have a double circulation:
• In the pulmonary circulation, blood travels from the right ventricle through the pulmonary arteries to
the lungs to pick up oxygen and lose carbon dioxide, i.e. it becomes oxygenated. It then travels back
via the pulmonary veins to the left atrium.
• In the systemic (body) circulation, blood
travels from the left ventricle through lungs
the aorta to the body where it gives
up oxygen to the body cells and picks
up carbon dioxide, i.e. it becomes
deoxygenated. It then travels back via pulmonary artery pulmonary vein
the anterior or posterior vena cava to the
right atrium.
right atrium left atrium
A double circulation is necessary because
blood loses pressure when it passes left ventricle
through the lungs, so it goes back to right ventricle
the heart to be given enough pressure vena cava aorta
to reach body organs to supply them
with oxygen. As it loses pressure passing
through organs, the blood goes back body
to the heart again to be given enough deoxygenated blood oxygenated blood
pressure to reach the lungs to get rid
of waste carbon dioxide and pick up
more oxygen. Figure 5.5 Double circulation in the human body

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 head
jugular vein carotid artery

arms

anterior vena cava

lungs

pulmonary artery pulmonary vein

aorta

posterior vena cava

heart

liver
hepatic vein hepatic artery
hepatic portal vein
intestines
mesenteric artery

kidneys
renal vein renal artery

legs

deoxygenated blood oxygenated blood

Figure 5.6 The major blood vessels in the human body

Causes and effects of heart attacks
The main cause of a heart attack or myocardial infarction is atherosclerosis. This occurs when fatty
deposits containing cholesterol, known as atheromas, build up on the inside of the walls of the coronary
arteries that supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle. The atheromas cause the lumens of the
arteries to narrow, and their walls to harden and become less elastic. A blood clot, known as a coronary
thrombosis, may then form in one of the narrow arteries (see Figure 12.2, page 122). This clot can partially
or completely block the blood flow through the artery and the section of the heart muscle supplied by
the artery cannot get oxygen so starts to die, and a heart attack occurs.
The risk of a heart attack is increased if a person has hypertension (high blood pressure) or is exposed
to risk factors that can lead to hypertension, including:
• Being overweight or obese.
• Smoking.
• Too much salt or too much fat in the diet.
• Consumption of too much alcohol.
5 The circulatory system 53
 • Lack of physical exercise.
• Stress.
Symptoms of a heart attack include:
• Chest pain or discomfort as the chest feels as if it is being pressed or squeezed.
• Upper body pain or discomfort, e.g. in the arms, shoulders, neck, jaw or back.
• Shortness of breath.
• Feeling weak, lightheaded or dizzy.
In some cases the heart stops beating, known as cardiac arrest, and it can result in death.
The lymphatic system
The lymphatic system consists of:
• Lymph, which serves as the transporting medium.
• Lymph vessels or lymphatic vessels, which are tubes through which lymph flows.
Lymph vessels begin inside tissues. They have thin muscular walls, valves to prevent the backflow of
low pressure lymph and oval-shaped swellings along their length called lymph nodes or lymph glands.
Lymph nodes form clusters in various parts of the body, especially in the neck, armpits and groin.
Lymphocytes and phagocytes are numerous in lymph nodes.
Lymph is a colourless watery fluid that contains lymphocytes. It is formed in body tissues from tissue fluid
which is constantly being formed from plasma. Lymph rejoins the plasma in the subclavian veins from the
arms just before they join the anterior vena cava. Lymph flows in one direction from tissues towards the
heart and its flow is helped by the contraction of surrounding muscles, especially during exercise.
lymph capillary – walls 1 Plasma containing oxygen and
are one cell thick nutrients is forced out of blood
capillaries where they branch from
2 arterioles. This forms tissue fluid.
arteriole
3 Blood cells and plasma proteins remain
1 2
lymph vessels in the blood. Body cells absorb the
oxygen and nutrients from the tissue
1 fluid and give out carbon dioxide
and other cellular waste.
3 2 Some tissue fluid containing carbon
3 dioxide and other waste flows back into
2 the blood capillaries before they join into
venule venules. This reforms plasma.
2 3 The remaining tissue fluid containing
carbon dioxide and other waste flows
body cells surrounded 1 into lymph capillaries and forms lymph
by tissue fluid 1
blood capillary which flows into larger lymphatic vessels.

Figure 5.7 The formation of tissue fluid and lymph

Functions of the lymphatic system
Functions of lymph
• Lymph removes cellular waste and cell debris from around body cells.
• Lymph drains excess tissue fluid from tissues, which helps to prevent fluid from building up in them.
• Lymph helps maintain normal blood volume and pressure.
• Lymphocytes in lymph defend the body against pathogens.
• Lymph in the lacteals (lymph capillaries) in the ileum absorbs fatty products of digestion.
54 5 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology
Functions of lymph nodes
• Lymphocytes and phagocytes in lymph nodes help destroy pathogens in lymph.
• Lymph nodes filter dead cells and cancerous cells out of lymph.
• Lymph nodes release lymphocytes into lymph during times of infection.

Revision questions
1 a Explain why the human body needs a transport system.
b Name FOUR materials transported around the human body.
2 Explain the relationship between plasma and serum.
3 a By means of TWO labelled and annotated diagrams, give THREE differences
between the structure of a red blood cell and a phagocyte.
b State the function of EACH of the cells you have drawn in a above.
4 Explain how the loss of blood at a cut is prevented.
5 State THREE differences between the structure of an artery and a vein and provide a
reason for EACH difference.
6 Explain:
a How blood flow through the heart is maintained in one direction.
b Why the wall of the left ventricle of the heart is thicker than the wall of the right
ventricle.
c How the beating of the heart is controlled.
7 Distinguish between systole and diastole.
8 Explain to Naomi why humans need a double circulation.
9 Draw a simple flow diagram to show the pathway that a red blood cell takes as it
journeys from the lungs around the body and back to the lungs.
100 What happens during a heart attack and how is it caused?
11 Explain the relationship between blood plasma, tissue fluid and lymph.
122 Give FOUR functions of the lymphatic system.

5 The circulatory system 55