ET2080 Structural Mechanics

Virtual Work and Energy Methods

So far you have considered statically determinate structures that can be resolved using some
well established principles such as:

• Equilibrium

1. Reactions must be in equilibrium with the applied loads.

2. (For Trusses) Forces in members meeting at a joint must be in equilibrium.
3. (For Beams) Bending moments and shear forces must be in equilibrium with applied
loads and reactions

• Compatibility

1. Trusses members remain connected after loading.

2. Beam’s rotation and deflection at any point is the result of curvature at all points
along the beam

• Constitutive Relations

1. Stress - Strain relationship

σ
=E

2. Moment - Curvature
dθ 1 M
= =
dx R EI
However, for complex configurations such as statically indeterminate structures, alternative
approximate methods are needed. An important alternative group of methods stem from the
use of energy methods. The energy methods can be used to provide exact solutions to prob-
lems, however they are often employed to provide approximate solutions to complex engineering
problems for which exact solutions do not exist. Energy methods are fundamental to modern
computational methods such as the Finite Element Method that are nowadays used routinely in
industry for analysis. Before presenting the application of energy methods, it is worth recalling
some important concepts:

Strain Energy (Complementary Energy)

Work is done by applied loading such as tension, compression etc., when a piece of material
is deformed. On removal of the load the material returns to its original undeformed state
owing to the release of stored energy. This is termed Elastic Strain Energy and has the same
magnitude as the external work done. Consider the diagram shown below

The external work during a small increment of extension ∆y is P ∆y. In Figure 1 a small
increase in δP will cause elongation δ∆y. Therefore, the total external work done up to the
point B where deflection is yB is given as
Z ∆yB
U= P d∆y
0

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 Figure 1: (a) Member subjected to simple tension; (b) load deflection curve

which is represented by the area OBD under the load deflection curve. This strain energy
could be resulting from axial load, bending moment,etc. When the load-extension relationship
is linear the total work done by the external force is equivalent to the area of the triangle OBD
in Figure 2.
The area above the curve is known as the Complementary Energy C and from the figure,
Z P
C= ∆ydP
0

Complementary energy, has a dimension of work, but as opposed to strain energy has no physical
meaning, being only a convenient mathematical quantity. Differentiating above equations with
respect to y and P respectively gives
dU dC
= P; = ∆y
d∆y dP

Figure 2: Load deflection curve for linear elastic member

It may be seen from Figure 2 that the area OABD represnts the work done by a constant
force moving through deflection y, thus;
U + C = P ∆y
Bearing in mind the relationship above, we can show the interchangeability of strain and
complementary energy for linear load-extension curve. Suppose the curve in the figure can be

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represented by a linear function P = b∆y which corresponds to a linearly elastic member (see
Figure 2), it can be shown that

dU dC
= =P
d∆y d∆y

dU dC
= = ∆y
dP dP

The above equations are commonly known as Castigliano’s first theorem. For non-linear elastic
members the relationship is more complicated.
If a structure consists of several members, the total strain energy U is the sum of individual
strain energies of members:
n
X
U= Uj
j=1

For a general structure where axial, bending, shear and torsional internal forces are present the
total strain energy is the sum of respective strain energies.

• Strain energy for a prismatic member of length L with cross sectional area A due to axial
force P is given:

1 P 2L
U=
2 EA

• Strain energy for due to bending moment M is given:

1 Z M2
U= dl
2 EI

In general for the total strain energy we have:

1 P2 1 Z M2 1Z V2 1 Z T2
Utotal = dL + dL + dL + dL
2 EA 2 EI 2 Gar 2 GJ
where the latter two items relate to strain energy due to shear and torsion internal forces re-
spectively.

Total Potential Energy

Consider the spring-mass shown in Figure 3. Potential energy V of the spring is normally
defined as M gh where h is the height above an arbitrary datum. After deflection to an equilib-
rium position, the mass has at least an amount of potential energy equal to M g∆y (therefore
we associate deflection to loss of potential energy). Alternatively, it may be argued that the
gravitational force does work during its displacement resulting in a loss of energy. The loss of
potential energy of the load P is P ∆y (as it has produced deflection ∆y). Therefore,

V = −P ∆y

Now the total potential energy T P E can be written as:

Z y
TPE = U + V = P dy − P ∆y
0

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 Figure 3: Potential energy of a spring system (from Megson)

For a general system consisting of loads P1 , P2 , ..., Pn producing displacements ∆1 , ∆2 , ..., ∆n

the potential energy is:
n
X n
X
V = Vr = (−Pr ∆r )
r=1 r=1

Hence,
n
X
U +V =U + (−Pr ∆r )
r=1

If a particle, rigid body, or system of rigid bodies is in equilibrium, then the derivative of
its total potential energy with respect to a variable defining its position is zero.
It can be shown that TPE is a minimum for stable equilibrium a maximum when equilibrium
is unstable and at the turning point when the equilibrium is neutral.
Thus the principle of stationary total potential energy states:
The TPE of an elastic system is stationary for all small displacements when the system is in
equilibrium. It is minimum for stable equilibrium.

Virtual Work
Assume that a particle is subjected to a load system P1 , P2 , ..., Pn and that their resultant is
PR , where PR = nr=1 Pr . If the particle undergoes a real, infinitesimal displacement ∆y, the
P

incremental work done by the forces on the particle is dW = PR ∆y. If instead, we now impose
a small imaginary displacement, i.e. virtual displacement, δR, on the particle in the direction
of PR (while the forces are held constant), then by conservation of energy the virtual work done
by PR must equal

PR δR = P1 δ1 + P2 δ2 + ... + Pn δn

where δi are virtual displacements in the direction of P1 , P2 , ..., Pn produced by δR. For the
case where the particle is in equilibrium either δR = 0 or the resultant force PR = 0. Since δR
cannot be zero, PR = 0.
n
X
P r δr = 0
r=1

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 It is clear that dW = 0 for any choice of δR.

Figure 4: Principle of virtual displacements.

The principle of virtual displacements states:

If a system of forces in equilibrium is subjected to any compatible system of virtual displace-
ments, the virtual work. done is zero.

• The compatible system of displacements does not necessarily have to be due to the force
system

• The application of virtual displacement concept leads to equations of equilibrium

Example vdm-1

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 Example vdm-2
Implementing the virtual dispacements method implies application of imaginary but compatible
virtual dispacements δy. In this example a unit virtual displacement is assumed to be upwards
at support B. For compatibility such displacement will impose a proportional displacement at
C but there is no displacement at A and D.

Z C Z D
RB × δyRB − wδydz − wδydz = 0
A C

Z C Z D
3/2 3/2
RB × 1.0 − w zdz − w (L − z)dz = 0
A 3L C L
3/2 z 2 3L 3/2 z2 w 3w L2
RB × 1.0 = w |0 +w (Lz − ) |L0 = (3L)2 + (L × L − )
3L 2 L 2 4L 2L 2
9wL 3wL
RB × 1.0 = + = 3W L
4 4

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 Example vdm-3

Virtual Forces
An alternative approach is to apply a set of small virtual forces in equilibrium in the direc-
tion of the real displacements, ∆i .

Figure 5: Principle of virtual forces

The body shown in Figure 5 is subjected to a system of real loads represented byP . As
a result of the load the body will be displaced such that points 1, 2, 3, .., n move through
displacements, ∆i . If virtual load is applied before P was applied; since δP1 , δP2 , ...δPn are
imaginary they will not affect the real displacements. The total imaginary or virtual work δW ∗
done by these loads is then given by:
n
∗
X
δW = ∆1 δP1 + ∆2 δP2 + ... + ∆n δPn = ∆r δPr
r=1

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 By the law of conservation of energy, the virtual work δW ∗ is equal to the strain energy
stored δU ∗ . This strain energy is a result of small imaginary internal forces δP produced by
the external imaginary loads, moving through real internal displacements y and is given by:
Z
∗
δU = ydP
vol

Therefore, since δW ∗ = δU ∗
n
X Z
∆r δPR = ydP
r=1 vol

This is a statement of the principle of Virtual Forces:

If a system of virtual forces in equilibrium is applied to a system of compatible displacements,
the net virtual work done is zero (i.e. δW ∗ − δU ∗ = 0)
We can now combine the two principles (dropping the term virtual) to give a general state-
ment :
If a system of forces (moments, stresses etc.) in equilibrium is subjected to a system of com-
patible displacements (rotation, strains etc.), the net virtual work is zero, i.e.
Internal Virtual Work = External Virtual Work
Notice that both systems can be unrelated.

Internal Virtual Work Trusses

Assuming linear elastic behaviour for trusses, we have:

Z Z X
∆dP = P d∆ = Fi ei
vol vol memberi

where Fi =member force, ei = member i extension. Note Fi and ei are not necessarily
related. Thus, the principle of virtual displacement can be written as:
X m
X
δrvirtual Pr = eivirtual Fi
allload i=1

Similarly from the principle. of virtual forces, we have:

X m
X
∆r δPrvirtual = ei Fivirtual
alldisp i=1

It is useful to recall that for a uniform section Ai , rod of length Li the extension due to
axial force Fi is given:

Fi Li
ei =
EAi

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 Example vfm-1
Find the real vertical desplacement ∆C at C using Virtual Force method.
L
Assume that AE = 1 mm
kN

Member forces are established from the applied load (10kN ) acting at node C.
√
FoAC = 2 × 10 = 14.14kN

FoBC = −10kN

These forces produce memeber extensions:

FoAC LAC
eAC
o = = 14.14mm
EA
FoBC LBC
eBC
o = = −10mm
EA
The member forces from the unit (virtual) force acting at C are:
√
FvAC = 2 × 1.0 = 1.414kN

FvBC = −1.0kN

The virtual work equation:

eio Fvi
X
1.0 × ∆C = = 14.14 × 1.414 + (−1.0) × (−10) = 30mm

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 Internal Virtual Work Beams

Consider a small element of an elastic beam as in Figure 6 below. Virtual work done over
the element when the moments and shears are given, with rotations and deflections as shown,
is:
dM dθ
(M + δz)(θ + δz) − M θ − Sθδz =
dz dz
dθ dM dM dθ dθ
Mθ + M δz + θ δz + δzδz − M θ − Sθδz = M dz = M dθ
dz dz dz dz dz asδz→0

Figure 6 Beam element

Note that moments and shears are assumed to remain constant during deformation. Thus, the
principle of virtual displacements is:
X Z
dθ Z
1
δ∆i(virtual) Pi = M ( )virtual dz = M ( )virtual dz
allload beam dz beam R
dθ
Note that, dz = R1 (curvature and M is due to real load P and R1 = EI
M
. In general, for statically
indeterminate structures the principle of virtual forces is more useful. The principle of virtual
forces:
X Z
1
∆i δPi(virtual) = ( )Mvirtual dz
allload beam R

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 Example vfm-2
Find the expression for the deflection of the free end of the cantilever, ∆B . This statically
determinate structure is subject to point load P only and has uniform section, thus EI is con-
stant. Implement the virtual force method.

As the result of the real force P the real bending moment, Mo can be identified for the
beam. Thus the real deformation of the beam ( the curvature R1 ) is obtained.The beam itself
is a deformable body thus, curvature is the real deformation. We apply a unit (virtual) force
in the direction of real displacements, in this case ∆B .
The total virtual work ( by δP ), we refer to it as “External Virtual Work”):
We = 1.0 × ∆B
The virtual strain energy stored in the system (“ Internal virtual work”) is
ZL L
1 1 Z
Wi = ( )o Mvirtual dz = Mo Mvirtual dz
R EI
0 0

We can formulate the bending moment functions:

Mo = P × L − P × z = P (L − z)

Mvirtual = 1.0(L − z)

Following the general statement for Virtual Force Method the net virtual work is zero.
L
1 Z
We = Wi 1.0 × ∆B = Mo Mvirtual dz
EI
0

Thus we have:
L L
1 Z P Z P L3
∆B = P (L − z)(L − z)dz = (L − z)2 dz =
EI EI 3EI
0 0

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Example vfm-3
Find the expression for the deflection of the free end of the cantilever, ∆B . This statically
determinate structure is subject to point load P only and has uniform section, thus EI is con-
stant. Implement the virtual force method.

As the result of the real distributed load w the real bending moment, Mo can be identified
for the beam. Thus the real deformation of the beam ( the curvature R1 ) is obtained.The beam
itself is a deformable body thus, curvature is the real deformation. We apply a unit (virtual)
force in the direction of real displacements, in this case ∆B .
The total virtual work ( by δP ), we refer to it as “External Virtual Work”):
We = 1.0 × ∆B
The virtual strain energy stored in the system (“ Internal virtual work”) is
ZL L
1 1 Z
Wi = ( )o Mvirtual dz = Mo Mvirtual dz
R EI
0 0

We can formulate the bending moment functions:

w × (L − z)2
Mo =
2
Mvirtual = 1.0(L − z)

Following the general statement for Virtual force method the the net virtual work is zero.
L
1 Z
We = Wi 1.0 × ∆B = Mo Mvirtual dz
EI
0

Thus we have:
L L
1 Z w × (L − z)2 w Z 3 wL4
∆B = (L − z)dz = (L − z) dz =
EI 2 2EI 8EI
0 0

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