Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 1067–1076

Improving the quality of municipal organic waste compost

a,b,* a,b a
C. Tognetti , M.J. Mazzarino , F. Laos
a
CRUB, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Quintral 1250, 8400 Bariloche, Argentina
b
CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Received 20 January 2005; received in revised form 6 April 2006; accepted 6 April 2006
Available online 5 July 2006

Abstract

The effects of different municipal organic waste (MOW) management practices (shredding, addition of carbon-rich materials and inoc-
ulation with earthworms) on organic matter stabilization and compost quality were studied. Four static piles were prepared with: (i)
shredded MOW; (ii) shredded MOW + woodshavings; (iii) non-shredded MOW; and (iv) non-shredded MOW + woodshavings. After
50 days, a part of each pile was separated for vermistabilization, while the rest continued as traditional thermophilic composting piles. At
different sampling dates, and in the finished products, the following parameters were measured: pH, electrical conductivity, carbon diox-
ide evolution, and concentrations of organic matter, total nitrogen, water-soluble carbon, nitrate nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, and
extractable phosphorus. Shredded treatments exhibited faster organic matter stabilization than non-shredded treatments, evidenced spe-
cially by earlier stabilization of carbon dioxide production and shorter thermophilic phases. Woodshavings addition greatly increased
quality of final products in terms of organic matter concentration, and pH and electrical conductivity values, but decreased total nitrogen
and available nutrient concentrations. Vermicomposting of previously composted material led to products richer in organic matter, total
nitrogen, and available nutrient concentrations than composting only, probably due to the coupled effect of earthworm activity and a
shorter thermophilic phase.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Shredding; Woodshavings addition; Composting; Vermicomposting; Stability; Maturity

1. Introduction extended to MOW compost (Zucconi and de Bertoldi,

1987).
Improving the management practices of municipal Compost stability and maturity indexes, however, are
organic waste (MOW) composting to produce high quality generally not regulated. Compost stability refers to the
products is essential for the successful utilization of these resistance of compost organic matter to further rapid deg-
wastes in agriculture (He et al., 1995; Chefetz et al., radation, and can be directly measured by respiration rates
1996). Quality criteria include a variety of parameters, such (Eggen and Vethe, 2001; Hue and Liu, 1995; Sullivan and
as pathogen reduction levels, stability and maturity Miller, 2001). Compost maturity is related to suitability
indexes, and concentrations of trace metals, organic matter for plant growth, although some authors also relate it to
and total and available nutrients. humification (Adani et al., 1997; Hue and Liu, 1995; Sulli-
Pathogen levels and trace metal concentrations are van and Miller, 2001; Tomati et al., 2000). During the last
strictly regulated for biosolids compost (Council Directive, two decades scientists have been looking for reliable
1986; USEPA, 1993), and these regulations are also parameters to determine compost maturity, for example,
plant growth, respiration rates, humification index, and
*
water-soluble C/total N ratio (Eggen and Vethe, 2001;
Corresponding author. Address: CRUB, Universidad Nacional del
Comahue, Quintral 1250, 8400 Bariloche, Argentina. Fax: +54 2944
Hue and Liu, 1995; Laos et al., 2002; Rynk, 2003). How-
422111. ever, it is unlikely that one single parameter will be found
E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Tognetti). to assess compost maturity, mainly because of the great

0960-8524/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2006.04.025
1068 C. Tognetti et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 1067–1076

variety of composting feedstocks and management prac- ded MOW + woodshavings (1:1 v/v). Temperature during
tices. Moreover, the meaning of maturity indexes may vary composting was monitored daily at a depth of 60 cm. Piles
depending on compost end use (Brewer and Sullivan, 2003; were turned with a front-end loader at 30, 50, 70, and
Eggen and Vethe, 2001; Rynk, 2003; Wu and Ma, 2002). 130 days after establishment, to ensure that all material
Regardless of the accuracy of maturity indicators, their was exposed to high temperatures (Zucconi and de Ber-
importance to describe the composting process and prod- toldi, 1987). After the second turning (day 50), piles were
uct quality must not be overlooked. watered, and 0.5 m3 was separated from each pile for ver-
Content and nature of compost organic matter are mistabilization, which was carried out in open ground beds
essential for determining product quality (Grigatti et al., (3 m · 0.8 m · 0.45 m). Four kg of Eisenia fetida worms
2004; He et al., 1995). In MOW compost, it is common were added to each bed, which were kept at 70% moisture.
to find relatively low levels of organic matter (Garcı́a Temperature of the material which was spread out in the
et al., 1991; Pascual et al., 1997). In a previous work (Tog- beds descended to ambient values after approximately
netti et al., 2005), we have attributed these low values to the 1 week, while temperature in the original piles continued
lack of C-rich bulking agents (as used in biosolids com- to be thermophilic for a longer period. The eight treat-
post), and/or to the loss of C-rich components by sieving ments established (four compost piles plus four ground
(e.g. orange peels, corncobs). This is a clear example of beds) are described in Table 1.
how feedstocks and management practices can affect prod-
uct quality. 2.2. Compost and vermicompost sampling
Another subject currently discussed is the effect of vermi-
composting on finished product quality. During this pro- At 50, 70, 90, 110, and 130 days from initiation, 4 com-
cess, coupled activity of earthworms and microorganisms posite samples of 3 sub-samples (approximately 1 kg each)
stabilize organic matter (Domı́nguez et al., 1997; Edwards, were collected from each pile/bed. A subset of the compos-
1995). Though it is well documented that vermicompost ite fresh samples was used for assessing CO2 evolution; the
is adequate for use as amendments and/or potting media rest was air dried and ground for characterization. Final
(Arancon et al., 2004; Atiyeh et al., 2000; Subler et al., products were sampled 150 days after pile establishment
1998), there is scarce scientific evidence regarding the qual- (4 composite samples), sieved by a 5-mm mesh, and air
ity of vermicompost versus compost. For example, there are dried for characterization.
not many studies comparing compost and vermicompost
from the same feedstock and the results from existing stud- 2.3. CO2 evolution
ies are contradictory. Using MOW as source material, Tog-
netti et al. (2005) found that vermicompost had higher Evolution of CO2 was evaluated using a modification of
nutrient concentrations and, when mixed with the soil, a method for soil respiration (Anderson, 1982; Cooper-
induced higher microbial population size and activity than band and Middleton, 1996; Hue and Liu, 1995). A part
traditional compost. However, other authors have reported of each sample was weighed and dried for gravimetric
no differences for the same source material between both moisture content determination. Unsieved, fresh samples
types of products (Serra-Wittling et al., 1996). The objective equivalent to 10 g dry weight, were put in 250 mL plastic
of this work was to study the effects of different MOW man- containers, and brought to 60% moisture using deionized
agement practices (shredding, addition of C-rich materials water. They were then placed in 1.5 L glass jars, which were
and inoculation with earthworms) on organic matter stabil- sealed and pre-incubated at 25 C for 24 h. After the
ization and finished compost quality. pre-incubation period, a vial containing 10 mL of NaOH
(1 N) was placed in each of the jars, which were then
2. Methods resealed and incubated at the same temperature for 48 h.
After 24 h, the NaOH-containing vial was removed and
2.1. Compost pile and vermicompost bed establishment titrated with HCl (0.5 N). Vials were replenished with fresh

The MOW used in this study was obtained in spring at a

waste treatment facility in NW Patagonia (Argentina). This Table 1
Treatment abbreviation codes used in the text
facility receives mixed organic and inorganic domestic
waste, including yard trimmings and grass clippings. Upon Abbreviated code Description
arrival, the inorganic fraction is manually separated from SC Shredded MOWa compost
the organic fraction. Because this material is not source SWC Shredded MOW + woodshavings compost
NC Non-shredded MOW compost
separated, it inevitably contains some non-decomposable NWC Non-shredded MOW + woodshavings compost
contaminants (glass, plastic and metal). SV Shredded MOW vermicompost
Four static piles (8.5 m3) were prepared: (i) shredded SWV Shredded MOW + woodshavings vermicompost
MOW (1–3 cm particle size); (ii) shredded MOW + wood- NV Non-shredded MOW vermicompost
shavings (1:1 v/v; MOW volume was measured before NWV Non-shredded MOW + woodshavings vermicompost
a
shredding); (iii) non-shredded MOW; and (iv) non-shred- Municipal organic waste.
 C. Tognetti et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 1067–1076 1069

NaOH and placed in the jars for the second 24 h incuba- (Fig. 1). These temperatures were maintained for 85–
tion period. Average CO2 production rate (mg CO2-C/kg 95 days, and gradually descended to ambient values
dry matter/h) of the two incubation periods was used. thereafter. Thermophilic phase lasted 10 days longer in
The CO2-C evolved per organic matter unit was also calcu- non-shredded (NC, NWC) than in shredded treatments
lated (Sullivan and Miller, 2001). (SC, SWC). Material that had completed a 40-day thermo-
philic phase and was extended in ground beds for vermi-
2.4. Chemical and physical–chemical analyses composting, rapidly descended to ambient temperatures
(data not shown).
Electrical conductivity (EC), pH, water-soluble carbon Compost and vermicomposts pH values were alkaline,
(WSC), NO þ
3 -N and NH4 -N were determined in aqueous ranging between 7.8 and 8.9 (Fig. 2a and b); the lowest val-
extracts (1:10) (Laos et al., 2002). The WSC was assessed ues corresponded to woodshavings addition treatments
as chemical oxygen demand (COD) by the wet digestion and the highest to non-shredded compost and vermi-
method (K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4) and measured spectrometri- compost (NV > NC). No general pH trend was observed
cally; NO þ
3 -N and NH4 -N were determined by copperized throughout the measured period (50–130 days). While sev-
Cd reduction and the Berthelot reaction, respectively eral treatments showed a significant pH increase (SWC,
(Sparks et al., 1996). Organic matter (OM) was evaluated SWV and NV), others evidenced either a pH decrease
by dry combustion at 550 C (Navarro et al., 1990), and (SV) or no differences (SC, NC, NWC and NWV) over
total N (TN) by semi-micro Kjeldahl analysis (NO 3 -N val- time. Electrical conductivity, which varied between 1 and
ues were added). Phosphorus was analyzed only in the final 3 mS/cm, decreased in all treatments between first and last
products; it was extracted in NaHCO3 0.5 M (1:100) and sampling dates (Fig. 2c and d). Two products, NC and
determined by the molybdate-ascorbic method (Sparks NWC followed very similar patterns, with a sudden drop
et al., 1996). between days 70 and 90 (Fig. 2c).
At day 50 (first sampling date), the highest OM values
2.5. Statistical analyses corresponded to the shredded + woodshavings treatments.
In all treatments, OM decreased over time (Fig. 3a and b).
In order to better understand the effects of the different Loss of OM was greater in composts (25–44%) than in ver-
treatments, data corresponding to final product quality micomposts (7–20%). Total N concentrations in composts
were subjected to a principal component analysis (PCA), generally showed an overall decrease throughout the mea-
using SPAD 4.5 (2000) software. The variables included sured period (Fig. 3c). Total N loss was specially noticeable

were: pH, EC, TN, WSC, NHþ 4 -N, NO3 -N, OM, extract- for non-shredded composts (NC and NWC), which exhib-
able-P, TOC/TN and WSC/TN. Each sample was con- ited a sudden drop between day 70 and 90; however, total
sidered as an individual observation, so a total of 32 N in vermicomposts did not decrease over time (Fig. 3d).
observations (4 samples per each of the 8 treatments) were Total C/TN ratios decreased in all treatments from day
used. The variables were standardized because they differed 50 to day 130, the highest ratios corresponded to SWC
in their measurement units. and SWV (Fig. 3e and f).
The highest initial concentrations of NHþ 4 -N corre-
3. Results sponded to the non-shredded + woodshaving treatments
and the lowest to the shredded treatment. In all treatments,
3.1. Changes in composting process, maturity, and NHþ 4 -N decreased during the process, reaching similarly
stability parameters low values at day 70 (vermicompost) or day 90 (compost)
(Fig. 4a and b). Conversely, nitrate (NO 3 -N) concentra-
The four composting piles achieved thermophilic tions increased throughout the process, with greatest values
temperatures (>45 C) shortly after pile establishment in the shredded compost and vermicompost (SV > SC),

70
65
60
Temperature °C

55
50 45 °C
45
40
35
30 SC SWC
25
20 NC NWC
15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Days
Fig. 1. Temperature changes during composting. Arrows indicate turnings.
1070 C. Tognetti et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 1067–1076

SC SWC NC NWC SV SWV NV NWV

9 9
8.8 8.8
8.6 8.6
8.4 8.4

pH

pH
8.2 8.2
8 8
7.8 7.8
7.6 7.6
50 70 90 110 130 50 70 90 110 130
(a) Days (b) Days

3 3
EC (mS/cm)

2.5 2.5

EC (mS/cm)
2 2

1.5 1.5

1 1
50 70 90 110 130 50 70 90 110 130
Days (d) Days
(c)

Fig. 2. Changes of pH (a and b) and electrical conductivity (c and d) during composting and vermicomposting.

SC SWC NC NWC SV SWV NV NWV

70 70
Organic matter (%)
Organic matter (%)

60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
50 70 90 110 130 50 70 90 110 130
(a) Days (b) Days

1.5 1.5
1.3 1.3
Total N (%)

Total N (%)

1.1 1.1
0.9 0.9
0.7 0.7
0.5 0.5
50 70 90 110 130 50 70 90 110 130
(c) Days (d) Days

30 30
25 25
TOC/TN

TOC/TN

20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
50 70 90 110 130 50 70 90 110 130
(e) Days (f) Days

Fig. 3. Changes of organic matter (a and b), total N (c and d) and total organic C/total N (e and f) during composting and vermicomposting.

and lowest values in the shredded + woodshavings treat- SWV > SWC). Treatments which contained woodshavings
ments (SWV > SWC) (Fig. 4c and d). Compost and vermi- also had higher CO2 production rates compared to the
compost containing non-shredded MOW had intermediate same treatment without woodshavings (e.g. SWC > SC).
values, and followed similar patterns. The rate of CO2 per OM unit (mg CO2-C/g OM/day) also
Production of CO2 decreased rapidly between days 50 decreased markedly between days 50 and 90, indicating
and 90, reaching stable values thereafter (Fig. 5a and b). an increase of OM stability (Fig. 5c and d).
When comparing the same source materials, vermicompost Initial WSC concentrations and WSC/TN ratios (day
had higher CO2 production rate than compost (e.g. 50) were highest for products containing woodshavings
 C. Tognetti et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 1067–1076 1071

SC SWC NC NWC SV SWV NV NWV

200 200

NH4 -N (mg/kg)

NH4 -N (mg/kg)
150 150

100 100

+
50 50

0 0
50 70 90 110 130 50 70 90 110 130
(a) Days (b) Days

1200 1200
1000 1000
NO3 -N (mg/kg)

NO3 -N (mg/kg)
800 800
600 600
400
-

-
400
200 200
0 0
50 70 90 110 130 50 70 90 110 130
(c) Days (d) Days


Fig. 4. Changes of NHþ
4 -N (a and b) and NO3 -N (c and d) during composting and vermicomposting.

SC SWC NC NWC SV SWV NV NWV

400 400
350 350
CO2-C (mg/kg/h)

CO2-C (mg/kg/h)

300 300
250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
50 70 90 110 130 50 70 90 110 130
(a) Days (b) Days

25 25
CO2-C (mg/g OM/day)

CO2-C (mg/g OM/day)

20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
50 70 90 110 130 50 70 90 110 130
(c) Days (d) Days

Fig. 5. Evolution of CO2-C per compost unit (a and b) and per organic matter unit (c and d) during composting and vermicomposting.

(Fig. 6). These parameters decreased between days 50 and variables most correlated with it were: TN, EC, extract-
90, though the decrease was much less marked for SC and able-P, and WSC/TN. The second axis explained 30%, with

SV. After this date, values of shredded products continued pH, NHþ 4 -N, NO3 -N, TOC/TN and OM being the most
to decrease (SC, SWC, SV, SWV), while values of non- correlated variables. The third axis (24%) was most corre-
shredded compost and vermicompost increased, specially lated with pH, WSC, and WSC/TN (Table 3).
noticeable for NV. Fig. 7 shows the simultaneous representation of the vari-
ables and observations. Only variables that were highly
3.2. Final product quality correlated with the axes (P0.6) were included in the facto-
rial planes. Likewise, only observations with good repre-
Final product quality parameters, measured at 150 days sentation quality were retained. The closer a data point
in 5-mm mesh-sieved products, are shown in Table 2. These (observation) is to an axis, the better its representation
data were subjected to a PCA. Because the PCA was run on that axis is. Thus, the representation quality of an
on standardized variables, variable coordinates of each observation (relative contribution of an observation to an
component were the same as their correlation coefficient axis), can be evaluated using the squared cosine of the
with each component (Table 3). angle formed between the axis and the vector joining the
According to PCA, the three first axes explained 90% of origin and the data point. It was considered that an obser-
the total variation. The first axis explained 36% and the vation was adequately represented on a given plane when
1072 C. Tognetti et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 1067–1076

SC SWC NC NWC SV SWV NV NWV

16
15
14
12

WSC g/kg
WSC g/kg
10 10
8
6 5
4
2
0 0
50 70 90 110 130 50 70 90 110 130
(a) Days (b) Days

1.4 1.4
1.2 1.2
1
WSC/TKN

WSC/TKN
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
50 70 90 110 130 50 70 90 110 130
(c) Days (d) Days

Fig. 6. Changes in water-soluble C (a and b) and WSC/TN (c and d) during composting and vermicomposting.

Table 2
Quality of finished MOW compost and vermicompost (sieved by 5-mm mesh)
Treatments
SC SWC NC NWC SV SWV NV NWV
pH 8.1 7.8 8.3 7.9 7.9 7.9 8.5 7.7
EC mS/cm 2.4 1.9 1.7 1.6 2.6 1.9 2.3 1.8
OM % 26 40 19 25 33 48 26 28
TN % 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.7 1.4 1.3 1.2 0.9
NHþ4 -N mg=kg 15 22 17 20 23 38 31 28
NO3 -N mg=kg 746 131 465 390 1179 186 615 648
Ext-P mg/kg 151 126 128 102 228 314 263 143
WSC g/kg 2.2 2.5 2.9 2.2 2.2 3.0 3.9 2.1
TOC/TN 14 24 15 19 13 21 12 17
WSC/TN 0.21 0.27 0.42 0.31 0.15 0.23 0.34 0.24
EC = Electrical conductivity; WSC = water-soluble C; TOC = total organic C, calculated as OM/1.8; TN = total N; Ext-P = extractable P.

Table 3
Addition of woodshavings to this treatment (NWC)
Correlation between variables and first three components from the PCA increased OM and TOC/TN ratio, and decreased NO 3 -N

PC1 (36%)b PC2 (30%) PC3 (24%)

concentration. Decrease of pH, and slight decreases of
c
EC and extractable-P were also registered. Combination
pH 0.04 0.64 0.70
ECa 0.82 0.41 0.12
of shredding and addition of woodshavings (SWC),
TN 0.98 0.12 0.03 increased OM, TOC/TN, TN, EC, and extractable-P, while
WSC 0.12 0.08 0.97 markedly decreasing NO 3 -N concentration. When this
Ammonium-N 0.48 0.56 0.46 treatment was combined with vermicomposting (SWV)
Nitrate-N 0.54 0.68 0.38 there was an increase of OM, TN, extractable-P, NO 3 -N,
OM 0.41 0.88 0.02
Extr-P 0.81 0.24 0.49
and NHþ 4 -N. Shredded vermicompost (SV), had character-
TOC/TN 0.40 0.86 0.02 istically high NO 3 -N and EC values. Comparison of SV
WSC/TN 0.66 0.21 0.67 versus SWV showed that woodshaving addition again
a
Abbreviations as in Table 2. increased OM and TOC/TN ratio, and decreased NO 3 -N
b
Percent of total variance in data set attributed to principal component concentration, pH, and EC.
1 (PC1), 2 (PC2), and 3 (PC3). On the second factorial plane (Fig. 7b), three new treat-
c
High correlations (P0.6) are represented in bold type. ments were characterized (NV, SC, and NWV), while 3
treatments were repeated (NWC, SWV and SWC). Two
the sum of the relative contributions to each axis forming treatments (NC and SV) had poor representation quality,
the plane was P0.6. and were thus discarded. As observed for SV on the previ-
On the first factorial plane (Fig. 7a), 5 of the 8 treat- ous plot, shredded compost (SC), was associated to highest
ments were adequately represented. Non-shredded com- NO 3 -N concentrations. Non-shredded vermicompost
post (NC) had the lowest values of TN and OM. (NV) showed highest pH values. Adding woodshavings
 C. Tognetti et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 1067–1076 1073

Fig. 7. (a) First (PC1 versus PC2), and (b) second (PC2 versus PC3) principal components plots. Indicated along each PC axis are variables that strongly
correlated with it, asterisks indicating negative correlation. Observations with poor representation quality were discarded, as were variables that poorly
correlated with PC.

to the latter treatment (NWV), again increased OM and 4. Discussion

TOC/TN and decreased NO 3 -N concentration and pH.
The OM increase was not as remarkable as the increase 4.1. Changes in composting process, maturity, and
observed when woodshavings were added to shredded stability parameters
MOW (SWV).
In summary, Table 2 and PCA analysis show that, Duration of high temperatures is consistent with results
regardless of the type of material (compost or vermicom- from other MOW composting studies, and reflects the high
post), adding woodshavings increased OM, while decreas- proportion of degradable substances, as well as the self-
ing pH, EC, NO 3 -N, extractable-P, and in some cases insulating capacity of this type of waste (Cooperband
TN (e.g. SC versus SWC). The greatest OM increases were and Middleton, 1996; Levanon and Pluda, 2002; Sundberg
obtained when the woodshavings were added to shredded et al., 2004). The highest temperatures usually achieved
MOW (SWC versus SC; SWV versus SV). Shredding was during composting reach 60–70 C. Nevertheless, these
associated with the highest values of EC, and tended to temperatures do not correspond to optimum biological
increase TN and OM (e.g. NWC versus SWC). Vermicom- activity (around 40 C), but are rather a consequence
posting generally increased EC, TN, OM and available of heat accumulation in the solid substrate (Sundberg

nutrients (NHþ 4 -N, NO3 -N and extractable-P). et al., 2004; Tremier et al., 2005). Excessive duration of
1074 C. Tognetti et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 1067–1076

thermophilic phase (beyond 5–6 weeks) indicates an abnor- a noticeable decrease of electrical conductivity for the same
mally extended decomposition and a delayed transition to dates was also observed. This was possibly due to an excess
the stabilization stage (Zucconi and de Bertoldi, 1987). of large pores, which may have facilitated ammonia volatil-
Values of pH and EC achieved at 130 days were within ization and soluble salt leaching.
the range acceptable for plant growth recommended by High NHþ 4 -N concentration at initial sampling dates is a
Rynk (1992), and similar to other values reported for result of the mineralization of organic-N compounds, thus
MOW composts (Cooperband and Middleton, 1996; Tog- reflecting active OM transformation and presence of an
netti et al., 2005). High initial EC values in SC and SWC unstable substrate (Bernal et al., 1998; Zucconi and de Ber-
are probably due to soluble salts released by shredding. toldi, 1987). Decrease of NHþ 4 -N concentrations towards
In a previous work, we have attributed alkaline values stable values at the end of the thermophilic phase have also
of MOW composts to the presence of wood ashes in the been reported by other authors (Laos et al., 2002; Levanon
wastes, which is common in our region (Tognetti et al., and Pluda, 2002). Decreases of NHþ 4 -N concentration led
2005). However, Beck-Friis et al. (2001) noted that the to increases of NO 3 -N through nitrification, when temper-
change of mesophilic to thermophilic conditions during atures became more adequate for this process (Bernal et al.,
MOW composting coincided with a change in pH from 1998). Increased concentrations of nitrate values for shred-
acidic (<6) to alkaline (8–9). These alkaline values are ded compost and vermicompost (SC and SV) are probably
attributed to proton consumption during decomposition due to an increased surface to volume ratio which favored
of volatile fatty acids (abundant in the initial mesophilic microbial activity, and consequent N mineralization. The
phase) and to organic-N mineralization to NHþ 4 -N (Beck- remarkable decrease in NO 3 -N concentrations observed
Friis et al., 2003). In the present study, non-shredded when woodshavings were added to these same treatments
MOW had the highest pH values, possibly due to a longer (SWC and SWV) was probably due to increased TOC/
and more intensive thermophilic phase, which could have TN, which favored microbial immobilization (Bernal
favored extensive organic-N ammonification. Carbonate et al., 1998). Additionally, high WSC in the woodshavings
precipitation at pH > 8.5 apparently keeps pH values treatments at day 50, possibly due to sorption in this type
below 9 (Beck-Friis et al., 2003). of material, could contribute to a yet higher nitrate immo-
By day 70–90, several of the maturity or stability param- bilization. Adding woodshavings may be an interesting
eters recommended by different researchers were achieved: option when leaching of nitrates cannot be avoided or con-
WSC <10 mg/kg, WSC/TN < 0.7, NHþ 4 -N < 400 mg=kg, trolled. It is curious that woodshavings did not also cause
CO2 production <120 mg CO2-C/kg/h, CO2 per OM unit N immobilization in non-shredded treatments (NWC and
68 (Hue and Liu, 1995; Sullivan and Miller, 2001; Zucconi NWV). This is possibly because the TOC/TN ratios were
and de Bertoldi, 1987). Nevertheless at days 70–90, temper- not as affected as when the wastes were shredded.
atures were still thermophilic in our experiments, indicating An important decrease of CO2 per compost or OM unit
that neither stability nor maturity had been achieved. between days 50 and 90 reflects a clear OM stabilization
Vermicompost, in which low temperatures were induced during the composting process (Ayuso et al., 1996; Sullivan
artificially by spreading material in ground beds, may have and Miller, 2001). Shredding MOW accelerated microbial
been considered stable and mature at day 90, according to activity, resulting in a constant decrease of respiration.
the parameters previously discussed. However, a decrease Respiration in vermicompost stabilized at higher values
of stability was observed after day 90 for non-shredded than in compost, suggesting a higher microbial activity in
vermicomposts, suggesting that additional processing time the final vermicompost product.
was needed. Other data confirm faster degradation of shredded prod-
Decrease of OM and TN during the composting process ucts. High rates of OM degradation, and substrate transfor-
have been widely reported, and are due to the mineraliza- mation are characteristic of active composting (Adani et al.,
tion of OM by microorganisms (Bernal et al., 1998; Brewer 1997; Brewer and Sullivan, 2003; Tremier et al., 2005). The
and Sullivan, 2003; Cooperband and Middleton, 1996; treatments NC and NWC (non-shredded products) exhib-
Grigatti et al., 2004; Laos et al., 2002; Levanon and Pluda, ited more marked variation of EC, OM, TN, respiration
2002). Generally, an important part of the TN loss is by rate, NHþ 4 -N, WSC and WSC/TN between days 70 and
ammonia volatilization, which is favored by high tempera- 90 than the shredded treatments. This observation appar-
ture and pH values (Zucconi and de Bertoldi, 1987; Costa ently indicates that non-shredded composts (with or with-
et al., 1991), as those measured in all treatments in this out woodshavings) had longer active phases due to slower
work. In vermicomposting treatments, ground beds were degradation rates. The other products most likely had more
made using material taken from thermophilic piles (day marked variations before day 50, which were not registered
50). Spreading out this material in the beds cut the thermo- in this study. Slower degradation rate for non-shredded
philic phase short, possibly slowing down degradation composts is also evidenced by a longer thermophilic phase.
rates. This may explain the less marked decrease of OM Initial decrease of WSC concentration was due to micro-
and TN in vermicompost versus compost. In the tradi- bial consumption of the readily available C source (Bernal
tional compost, the TN decrease was specially marked in et al., 1998; Laos et al., 2002). Subsequent increase of
the non-shredded compost piles (NC and NWC), in which this parameter in non-shredded products was unexpected.
 C. Tognetti et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 1067–1076 1075

Possibly, the substrate’s physical structure plays an impor- Shredding led to a more stable and mature product, while
tant role here. When MOW is shredded, nutrient accessibil- non-shredded treatments exhibited slower and less continu-
ity to microbes increases due to increased surface/volume ous degradation processes. Shredding or adding woodshav-
ratio; therefore, degradation accelerates and all the easily ings led to products richer in OM, and combining these
biodegradable substrate is depleted (Tremier et al., 2005). practices resulted in the highest OM values. Although
When MOW is not shredded, or woodshavings are added, woodshavings reduced total N and available nutrients, they
however, OM degradation occurs more slowly, and is reac- decreased pH and EC in the finished composts. The highest
tivated when physical fragmentation of wastes/woodshav- concentrations of OM, total N and available nutrients were
ings exposes new surfaces for microbial attack (specially found in vermicompost and are possibly attributable to a
noticeable in the presence of worms). When this occurs, shorter thermophilic phase coupled with earthworm
hydrolysis and solubilization of more complex substances activity.
predominates over mineralization and immobilization
processes (Saviozzi et al., 1987; Tremier et al., 2005), and
temporary increases of both WSC and WSC/TN ratios Acknowledgements
are observed. This more gradual physical fragmentation
could also account for increases in OM concentration at This research was carried out within the frame of a PhD
the end of the process for non-shredded and wood- work funded by CONICET and Universidad Nacional del
shaving-containing products. Comahue. Authors wish to thank L. Moller Poulsen (CEB
Ltd.), CODISTEL personnel, P. Diehl, F. Funes and J.
4.2. Final product quality Ferrari (CRUB) for their help with pile establishment
and sampling, L. Roselli for assistance with laboratory
Concentration of OM increased with shredding or work, and N. Baccalá for aid with statistical analysis.
woodshaving addition, due to incorporation of C-rich
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