4 | Hydraulics

Learning Packet 4
UNIT 7: OPEN CHANNELS
 4 | Hydraulics 106

UNIT 7: OPEN CHANNELS

7.0 Intended Learning Outcome

▪ Solve problems related to open channel flow, including uniform and non-uniform
flow, efficient canal sections, and hydraulic jumps, by applying relevant
calculations and fluid dynamics principles.

7.1 Introduction

This unit discusses the basic concepts and applications of open channel flow. The problems
in this unit (open channel flow) are more complex than those of the previous unit (pipe flow),
and the solutions are more varied, making the study of such problems both interesting and
challenging.

PRE – ASSESSMENT
Answer the following in your own perspective:

1. Differentiate uniform flow from non-uniform flow.

2. Define and explain the best hydraulic section.
3. Describe critical depth, specific energy, supercritical flow, and subcritical flow.
4. Define a hydraulic jump.

Evaluation Criteria:
Quality/Craftmanship 40%
Creativity/Originality 30%
Effort/Perseverance 20%
Timeliness 10%
Total 100%

7.2 Topics/Discussion

An open channel is one in which a liquid flow with a free surface. A free surface means that
the liquid surface is exposed to the atmosphere. Examples are flow in rivers, canals and
sewers not flowing full, is characterized by the presence of the interface between the liquid
surface and the atmosphere. The flow in such a channel is caused not by some external head,
but rather by the gravity component along the slope of the channel. Open-channel flow is
described as uniform or nonuniform, as distinguished in Figure 7.1.
 4 | Hydraulics 107

Uniform flow means that the velocity is constant along a streamline, which in open-channel
flow means that depth and cross section are constant along the length of a channel. The
depth for uniform-flow conditions is called normal depth and is designated by 𝑑𝑛 .

For nonuniform flow, the velocity changes from section to section along the channel, thus
one observes changes in depth. The velocity change may be due to a change in channel
configuration, such as a bend, change in cross-sectional shape, or change in channel slope.

Figure 7.1
Distinguishing Uniform and Non-uniform Flow

This example shows steady flow over a spillway, such as the emergency overflow channel of a dam.

For example, Figure 7.1 shows steady flow over a spillway of constant width, where the
water must flow progressively faster as it goes over the brink of the spillway (from A to B),
caused by the suddenly steeper slope. The faster velocity requires a smaller depth, in
accordance with conservation of mass (continuity). From reach B to C, the flow is uniform
because the velocity, and thus depth, are constant. After reach C the abrupt flattening of
channel slope requires the velocity to suddenly, and turbulently, slow down. Thus, there is
a deeper depth downstream of C than in reach B to C.

7.2.1 Uniform Flow (𝑺 = 𝑺𝒐 )

The simplest of all open channel problem is the uniform flow condition. For the flow to be
uniform, the velocity, depth of flow, and cross-sectional area of flow at any point of the
stream must be constant (i.e. 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 , 𝑑1 = 𝑑2 , 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 ). For this condition, the stream surface
is parallel to the channel bed and the energy grade line is parallel to the stream surface, and
therefore the slope of the energy grade line 𝑆 is equal to the slope of the channel bed 𝑆𝑜 .

1
For uniform flow, 𝑆 < 10 (𝜃 < 5.7°).
 4 | Hydraulics 108

Figure 7.2
Steady Uniform Open-Channel Flow

The specific energy (𝐻) is defined as the energy per unit weight relative to the bottom of the
channel. It is given by:

𝑉2
𝐻= +𝑑 Eq. 7.10
2𝑔

CHÉZY Formula

The head loss between any two points in the channel is

ℎ𝐿 = 𝑆 𝐿 Eq. 7.11

Where, 𝑆 = slope of the energy grade line

𝐿 = length or run

The head loss balances the loss in height of the channel.

From Darcy-Weisbach relation, the equation becomes,

8𝑔 1/2 Eq. 7.12a

𝑉 = ( ) (𝑅𝑆)1/2 = 𝐶 √𝑅 𝑆
𝑓
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝐶 √𝑅 𝑆 Eq. 7.12b

These equations are called the Chézy formulas, first developed by the French engineer
Antoine Chézy in 1769. The quantity 𝐶 is called the Chézy Coefficient, varies from about
30 𝑚1/2 /𝑠 for small rough channels to 90 𝑚1/2 /𝑠 for larger smooth channels. A great deal of
 4 | Hydraulics 109

hydraulic researchers correlated 𝐶 with roughness, shape, and slope of various open
channels as shown below.
KUTTER and GANGUILLET Formula

SI Units
1 0.00155
+ 23 +
𝐶= 𝑛 𝑆 Eq. 7.13a
𝑛 0.00155
1+ (23 + )
√𝑅 𝑆

English Units
1.811 0.00281
+ 41.65 +
𝐶= 𝑛 𝑆 Eq. 7.13b
𝑛 0.00281
1+ (41.65 + )
√𝑅 𝑆

MANNING Formula

SI Units
1
𝐶 = 𝑅1/6 Eq. 7.14a
𝑛
1
𝑉 = 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2 Eq. 7.14b
𝑛
1
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2 Eq. 7.14c
𝑛

English Units
1.486 1/6
𝐶= 𝑅 Eq. 7.14d
𝑛

BAZIN Formula

SI Units
87
𝐶= 𝑚 Eq. 7.15a
1+
√𝑅

English Units
87
𝐶= 𝑚 Eq. 7.15b
0.552 +
√𝑅

POWELL Equation (SI Units)

𝐶 𝜀
𝐶 = −42 log ( + ) Eq. 7.16
𝑅𝑒 𝑅
 4 | Hydraulics 110

where, 𝑛 = roughness coefficient, see Table 7.1

𝑚 = Bazin coefficient, see Table 7.2
𝑅 = hydraulic radius
𝜀 = roughness in meter
𝑅𝑒 = Reynold’s Number

Table 7.1 Values of 𝑛 to be used with Manning’s Formula

Table 7.2 Typical Bazin Coefficient

 4 | Hydraulics 111

The boundary shear stress, 𝜏0 acting over the wetted surface of the channel is given by:

𝜏0 = 𝛾𝑅𝑆 Eq. 7.17

where, 𝛾 = unit weight of the liquid

Various geometric properties of natural and artificial channels need to be determined for
hydraulic purposes. In the case of artificial channels, these may all be expressed algebraically
in terms of the depth (y), as shown in Table 7.3. This is not possible for natural channels.

Table 7.3 Geometric Properties for Some Common Prismatic Channels

 4 | Hydraulics 112

The commonly used geometric properties are defined as follows:

Depth (𝑦) — the vertical distance of the lowest point of a channel
section from the free surface
Area (𝐴) — the cross-sectional area of flow normal to the direction
of flow
Wetted perimeter (𝑃) — the length of the wetted surface measured normal to the
direction of flow
Surface width (𝐵) — the width of the channel section at the free surface
Hydraulic radius (𝑅) — the ratio of area to wetted perimeter (𝐴/𝑃)
Hydraulic mean depth (𝐷𝑚 ) — the ratio of area to surface width (𝐴/𝐵)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.1 If a channel with boulders has a slope of 0.0030, is 100 ft
wide, has an average depth of 4.3 ft, and is known to have a friction factor of 0.130,
what is the discharge in the channel, and what is the numerical value of Manning’s 𝑛
for this channel? Assume the hydraulics radius equal to the average depth because the
channel is wide.

Solution

Velocity:
8𝑔 8(32.2)
𝑉 = (√ ) (√𝑅𝑆) = (√ ) (√(4.3)(0.0030)) = 5.06 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑓 0.130

Flow Rate Equation:

𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 = (5.06)(100 𝑥 4.3) = 2176 𝑐𝑓𝑠

Manning’s 𝑛:
1.486 2/3 1/2
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝐶 √𝑅 𝑆 = 𝐴 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛
1.486 2/3 1/2 1.486
𝑛= 𝐴𝑅 𝑆 =( ) (100 𝑥 4.3)(4.3)2/3 (0.003)1/2 = 0.0426
𝑄 2176
 4 | Hydraulics 113

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.2 The normal depth of flow in a trapezoidal concrete lined
channel is 2 m. The channel base width is 5 m and has side slopes of 1:2. Manning’s 𝑛
is 0.015 and the bed slope, 𝑆𝑜 , is 0.001. Determine the discharge (𝑄) and mean velocity
(𝑉).

Solution

Discharge:
1 1 [5 + 2(2)](2)
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2 = [5 + 2(2)](2) ( ){ } (0.001)1/2
𝑛 0.015 5 + 2(2)√1 + 22
𝑄 = 48.98 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚./𝑠

Mean Velocity:
𝑄 48.98
𝑉= = = 2.72 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 (5 + 4)(2)

7.2.2 Most Efficient Canal Sections

The most efficient canal section or best hydraulic section is the channel geometry that gives
the maximum discharge for a given cross sectional area. Maximum discharge occurs when
a geometry has the minimum wetted perimeter. Therefore, it yields the least viscous energy
loss for a given area. To derive the proportions for most efficient sections, minimize the
perimeter with the cross-sectional area constant.

Table 7.4 Best Hydraulic Sections for Different Geometries

Rectangular Section

𝑏 = 2𝑑
𝑑
𝑅=
2

Trapezoidal Section

𝑑
𝑅=
2
𝑥 = 2𝑦
 4 | Hydraulics 114

Triangular Section

𝐴 = 𝑑2
𝜃 = 90°

Circular Section
𝑑 = 0.938𝐷

Velocity is maximum
when
𝑑 = 0.82𝐷

The best hydraulic section can be relevant to the cost of the channel. For example, if a
trapezoidal channel were to be excavated and if the water surface were to be at adjacent
ground level, the minimum amount of excavation (and excavation cost) would result if the
channel of best hydraulic section were used.
 4 | Hydraulics 115

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.3 Determine the best hydraulic section for a rectangular
channel with depth 𝑦 and width 𝐵.

Solution

Set 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 and 𝑃 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦 so that both are a function of 𝑦.

Let 𝐴 be constant, and minimize 𝑃.

1. Relate 𝐴 and 𝑃 in terms of 𝑦.

𝐴
𝑃 = + 2𝑦
𝑦

2a. Minimize 𝑃.
𝑑𝑃 𝐴
=− 2+2=0
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
𝐴
=2
𝑦2

2b. Express result in terms of 𝑦 and 𝐵.

𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦, so
𝐵𝑦 1
= 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝐵
𝑦2 2

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.4 Determine the maximum flow through a 1.2m-diameter

concrete culvert which is laid on a slope of 0.009. Use 𝑛 = 0.013.

Solution

The maximum flow through the circular section occurs when the depth of flow 𝑑 is
0.938 of the diameter 𝐷.

𝜃 0.5256
cos =
2 0.60
𝜃 = 57.67°
360 − 𝜃 = 302.33°

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝜋(0.6)2 (302.33°) 1
𝐴= + (0.6)2 sin 57.67°
360° 2
 4 | Hydraulics 116

𝐴 = 1.102 𝑠𝑞. 𝑚.

𝜋(0.6)(302.33°)
𝑃= = 3.166 𝑚
180°

𝐴 1.102
𝑅= = = 0.348 𝑚
𝑃 3.166

1 1
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2 = (1.102) ( ) (0.348)2/3 (0.009)1/2 = 3.979 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚./𝑠
𝑛 0.013

7.2.3 Non-Uniform or Varied Flow

Uniform flow rarely occurs in natural streams because of changes in depth, width, and slope
along the channel. The Manning equation for uniform flow can be applied to non-uniform
flow with accuracy dependent on the length of reach L taken. Thus, a long stream should be
divided into several reaches of varying length such that the change in depth is roughly the
same within each reach.

𝑉2 2 𝑉2
(+ 𝑑 2 ) − ( 1 + 𝑑1 )
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝐿= Eq. 7.18a
𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆̅

𝐻2 − 𝐻1
𝐿= Eq. 7.18b
𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆̅

𝑆1 + 𝑆2
𝑆̅ = Eq. 7.19a
2

Where, 𝐻 = specific energy

𝐿 = length of reach
𝑆𝑜 = slope of channel bed
𝑆1 &𝑆2 = slope of the energy grade line at sections 1 and 2 respectively,
computed using Manning’s formula

𝑛2 𝑉1 2
𝑆1 = Eq. 7.19b
𝑅1 4/3

𝑛2 𝑉2 2
𝑆2 = Eq. 7.19c
𝑅2 4/3
 4 | Hydraulics 117

Velocity Distribution in Open Channel

The velocity distribution in wide open channels is given by the expression:

1 𝑦′
𝑢=𝑉+ √𝑔𝑦𝑆(1 + 2.3 log ) Eq. 7.20
𝐾 𝑦

where, 𝑦 = depth of water in channel in 𝑚

𝑢 = velocity at distance 𝑦′ from channel bed
𝐾 = von Kármán constant, having a value of 0.40 for clear water
(for sediment laden water its value may be as low as 0.20)
𝑉 = mean velocity of flow
𝑆 = slope of the energy grade line

Alternate Stages of Flow

The channel shown in Figure 7.3 below carries water at a depth of 𝑑 and a mean velocity
of 𝑉.

𝑉2
The total specific energy head in the channel is 𝐻 = 2𝑔 + 𝑑.
Solving for 𝑉, 𝑉 = √2𝑔(𝐻 − 𝑑)
And the discharge is, 𝑄 = 𝐴√2𝑔(𝐻 − 𝑑)

If the equation will be plotted (as shown in the figure at the right side), it can be seen
that when 𝑑 = 0, 𝑄 = 0 and when 𝑑 = 𝐻, 𝑄 = 0 and by substituting values of 𝑑 in terms
of 𝐻 we can establish a curve.

Figure 7.3
 4 | Hydraulics 118

It appears in the curve that, within limits (from 0 to 𝐻), there are two depths at which any
given discharge will flow with the same energy content. These two depths are called
alternate stages, and are spoken as the tranquil or upper stage and the rapid or lower stage.
Froude Number

The Froude number is defined as the ratio of the inertia force to gravity force and is given
by the expression:

𝑉
𝐹𝑁 = Eq. 7.21a
√𝑔𝐿

where 𝐿 is a characteristic dimension. It is attributed to William Froude (1810–1897), who

used such a relationship in model studies for ships. If 𝐿 is replaced by 𝐷𝑚 , the hydraulic
mean depth, then the resulting dimensionless parameter

𝑉
𝐹𝑁 = Eq. 7.21b
√𝑔𝐷𝑚

is applicable to open channel flow. This is extremely useful, as it defines the regime of
flow, and as many of the energy and momentum equations may be written in terms of
the Froude number.

On the upper stage, the Froude Number 𝐹𝑁 < 1, while on the lower stage 𝐹𝑁 > 1.0.

Critical Depth, 𝒅𝒄

Critical flow is the flow that occurs when the specific energy is minimum for a given
discharge. The flow for which the depth is less than critical (velocity is greater than
critical) is termed supercritical flow, and the flow for which the depth is greater than
critical (velocity is less than critical) is termed subcritical flow. Subcritical flow
corresponds to a Froude number less than one (𝐹𝑁 < 1), and supercritical flow
corresponds to (𝐹𝑁 > 1.0). Some engineers refer to subcritical and supercritical flow as
tranquil and rapid flow, respectively.

From Figure 7.3 shown in the previous page that there is a certain depth 𝑑𝑐 that for a
given total specific energy 𝐻, the discharge is maximum. This depth is called the critical
depth and is defined as the depth at which for a given total head, the discharge is maximum, or
conversely, the depth at which for a given flow, the specific energy is minimum.

Critical Depth on Rectangular Section

2 3
𝑑𝑐 = 𝐻 𝑜𝑟 𝐻 = 𝑑𝑐 Eq. 7.22a
3 2

Eq. 7.22b
 4 | Hydraulics 119

3 𝑞2
𝑑𝑐 = √
𝑔

𝑄
𝑞 = 𝑉𝑑 = Eq. 7.23
𝑏

where, 𝑞 = unit flow in 𝑚3 /𝑠 per meter width of canal

𝑄 = total flow in 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑏 = channel width in 𝑚

Critical Slope, 𝑆𝑐 is the slope required to give uniform flow at critical depth. The
equation for wide rectangular channel is

𝑔𝑛2
𝑆𝑐 = Eq. 7.24
𝑑𝑐 1/3

Critical Depth on Any Section

𝑄 2 𝐴3
= Eq. 7.25
𝑔 𝐵

where 𝐴 and 𝐵, if variable, must be expressed in terms of 𝑑.

The critical velocity in irregular channel is,

𝑔𝐴𝑐
𝑉𝑐 = √ Eq. 7.26
𝐵𝑐

Figure 7.4
 4 | Hydraulics 120

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.5 Determine the critical depth in this trapezoidal channel for
a discharge of 500 cfs. The width of the channel bottom is B = 20 ft, and the sides slope
upward at an angle of 45°.

Solution

𝑄 2 𝐴3
=
𝑔 𝐵
𝐴3 5002
= = 7764 𝑓𝑡 2
𝐵 32.2

For this channel, 𝐴 = 𝑑𝑐 (20 + 𝑑𝑐 ) and 𝐵 = 20 + 2𝑑𝑐 . Iterate to find 𝑑𝑐 .

𝑑𝑐 = 2.57 𝑓𝑡

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.6 Water is flowing at a depth of 1.5 m in a 3-m wide

rectangular channel having 𝑛 = 0.013 and 𝑆 = 0.0009. (a) What is the stage of flow?
(b) Determine the critical depth, and (c) determine the critical slope.

Solution

(a) Stage of Flow:

2/3
1 1 (3)(1.5)
𝑉 = 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2 = [ ] (0.0009)1/2 = 1.905 𝑚/𝑠
𝑛 0.013 3 + 2(1.5)

𝑉 1.905
𝐹𝑁 = = = 0.497 < 1.0 (𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)
√𝑔𝐷𝑚 √9.81(1.5)

(b) Critical Depth:

𝑚3
𝑞 = 𝑉𝑑 = 1.905(1.5) = 2.8575 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝑠
 4 | Hydraulics 121

3 𝑞 2 3 (2.8575)2
𝑑𝑐 = √ =√ = 0.94 𝑚
𝑔 9.81

(c) Critical Slope:

𝑞 2.8575
𝑉𝑐 = = = 3.04 𝑚/𝑠
𝑑𝑐 0.94

𝐴𝑐 3(0.94)
𝑅𝑐 = = = 0.578 𝑚
𝑃𝑐 3 + 2(0.94)

1 2/3 1/2
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑅 𝑆𝑐
𝑛 𝑐
1
3.04 = (0.578)2/3 𝑆𝑐 1/2
0.013
𝑆𝑐 = 0.00324

7.2.4 Hydraulic Jump

An interesting and important case of rapidly varied flow is the hydraulic jump. A hydraulic
jump occurs when the flow is supercritical in an upstream section of a channel and is then
forced to become subcritical in a downstream section (the change in depth can be forced by
a sill in the downstream part of the channel or just by the prevailing depth in the stream
further downstream), resulting in an abrupt increase in depth, and considerable energy loss.
Hydraulic jumps (Figure 7.5) are often considered in the design of open channels and
spillways of dams. If a channel is designed to carry water at supercritical velocities, the
designer must be certain that the flow will not become subcritical prematurely. If it did,
overtopping of the channel walls would undoubtedly occur, with consequent failure of the
structure. Because the energy loss in the hydraulic jump is initially not known, the energy
equation is not a suitable tool for analysis of the velocity-depth relationships. Because there
is a significant difference in hydrostatic head on both sides of the equation causing opposing
pressure forces, the momentum equation was applied to the problem.

𝑄𝛾
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = (𝑉 − 𝑉2 ) Eq. 7.27
𝑔 1

where 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 is the total hydrostatic pressure acting on areas 1 and 2, respectively.

Replacing these quantities with 𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴 and 𝑉 = 𝑄/𝐴:

𝑄2 1 1
𝐴2 ̅̅̅
ℎ2 − 𝐴1 ̅̅̅
ℎ1 = ( − ) Eq. 7.28
𝑔 𝐴1 𝐴2
 4 | Hydraulics 122

Figure 7.5

For rectangular sections:

𝑞 2 𝑑1 𝑑2 (𝑑1 + 𝑑2 )
= Eq. 7.29
𝑔 2

This equation can be rearranged to give an explicit expression for the depth before and after
the jump as

𝑑2 𝑑2 8𝑞 2
𝑑1 = (−1 + √1 + 8𝐹𝑁2 2 ) = (−1 + √1 + ) Eq. 7.30a
2 2 𝑔𝑑2 3

𝑑1 𝑑1 8𝑞 2
𝑑2 = (−1 + √1 + 8𝐹𝑁1 2 ) = (−1 + √1 + ) Eq. 7.30b
2 2 𝑔𝑑1 3

The head loss in the jump in rectangular section is:

(𝑑2 − 𝑑1 )3
ℎ𝐿 = Eq. 7.31
4𝑑1 𝑑2
 4 | Hydraulics 123

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.7 Water flows in a rectangular channel at a depth of 30 cm

with a velocity of 16 m/s, as shown in the sketch that follows. If a downstream sill (not
shown) forces a hydraulic jump, what will be the depth and velocity downstream of
the jump? What head loss is produced by the jump?

Solution

𝑉 16
𝐹𝑁1 = = = 9.33
√𝑔𝑑1 √9.81(0.30)

𝑑1 0.30
𝑑2 = (−1 + √1 + 8𝐹𝑁1 2 ) = (−1 + √1 + 8(9.33)2 ) = 3.81 𝑚
2 2

𝑞 16(0.30)
𝑉2 = = = 1.26 𝑚/𝑠
𝑑2 3.81

(𝑑2 − 𝑑1 )3 (3.81 − 0.30)3

ℎ𝐿 = = = 9.46 𝑚
4𝑑1 𝑑2 4(3.81)(0.30)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.8 A hydraulic jump occurs in a trapezoidal channel with side
slope of 1:1 and base width of 4m. If the upstream depth is 1.0 m and the downstream
depth is 2.0m, compute the (a) discharge and the (b) power lost in the jump.
 4 | Hydraulics 124

Solution

(a) Discharge:

At section 1:
1
𝐴1 = (6 + 4)(1) = 5 𝑚2
2
1 1
𝐴1 ̅̅̅
ℎ1 = ∑ 𝐴ℎ = 4(1)(0.5) + (1)(1) ( ) (2) = 2.33
2 3

At section 2:
1
𝐴2 = (8 + 4)(2) = 12 𝑚2
2
1 2
𝐴2 ̅̅̅
ℎ2 = ∑ 𝐴ℎ = 4(2)(1) + (2)(2) ( ) (2) = 10.678
2 3

𝑄2 1 1
𝐴2 ̅̅̅
ℎ2 − 𝐴1 ̅̅̅
ℎ1 = ( − )
𝑔 𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑄2 1 1
10.678 − 2.33 = ( − )
9.81 5 12
𝑄 = 26.47 𝑚3 /𝑠
 4 | Hydraulics 125

(b) Power lost:

From the figure:

𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2
+ 𝑑1 = + 𝑑2 + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑄 26.47
𝑉1 = = = 5.29 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴1 5
𝑉1 2
= 1.428 𝑚
2𝑔

𝑄 26.47
𝑉2 = = = 2.206 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴2 12
𝑉2 2
= 0.248 𝑚
2𝑔

𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2
+ 𝑑1 = + 𝑑2 + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔
1.428 + 1 = 0.248 + 2 + ℎ𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = 0.18 𝑚

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑄𝛾ℎ𝐿 = 26.47(9.81)(0.18) = 46.74 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

Video Lessons:

Introduction to Open Channel Flow | Fluid Mechanics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GfPC8xouCR8

Uniform flow in an open channel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n_u5fPoQDQY

Non-Uniform Flow
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kf5i4IIxzRs

Supercritical and Subcritical Open Channel Flow | Fluid Mechanics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tk9JC-kMfMI

What is a Hydraulic Jump?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7tjf8HWiR3Y

Why does the water jump..??!! -- Hydraulic jump explained.!!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YvTDtsdybzM
 4 | Hydraulics 126

POST – ASSESSMENT

Summative Test 7

Calculate the following by showing your solutions and illustrations:

1. An open channel is to be designed to carry 1 cu.m./s at a slope of 0.0065. The channel

material has an n value of 0.011. Find the most efficient cross section for a rectangular
section.

2. Find the most efficient section for triangular section in problem #1.

3. Water flows in the symmetrical trapezoidal channel lined with asphalt shown below.
The channel bottom drops 0.1 ft. vertically for every 100 ft. of length. What are the
water velocity and rate? n = 0.015.

4. A concrete pipe must carry water at a slope of 0.0075, at a velocity of 0.76 m/s, and a
depth of flow equal to one-tenth its diameter. What is the required pipe diameter? n=
0.013.

5. The triangular channel (n = 0.012) shown below is to carry water at a flow rate of 10
cu.m./s. Find the critical depth, critical velocity, and critical slope of the channel.

6. The trapezoidal channel in the figure below is to carry 500 cfs of water. The maximum
allowable velocity of flow is 3.0 fps to avoid scouring. Determine the depth of flow,
d, and the width of the channel, B, if the hydraulic radius of the channel is one-half
the depth of the flow. Also, determine the slope of the channel bottom. Use n = 0.025.
 4 | Hydraulics 127

7. The semi-circular channel (n = 0.013) shown below is to carry water while flowing full
(i.e. at a depth of 1.5 ft.). Determine the velocity, slope and discharge when flow is
critical.

8. Calculate the discharge in steady flow through the channel and floodway of the figure
below; take 𝑆 = 0.0010 and 𝑦 = 2.438 𝑚.

9. Determine the cross section of greatest hydraulic efficiency for the trapezoidal channel
in the figure below if the discharge is 10.0 cu.m./s and the channel slope is 0.0005. Use
n = 0.020.
 4 | Hydraulics 128

10. Water flows with a velocity of 4fps and at a depth of 2ft in a wide rectangular channel.
Is the flow subcritical or supercritical? Find the alternate depth for the same discharge
and specific energy?

11. In the T-shaped channel in the figure below, the two arms have rougher walls than
does the trunk. Approximate the discharge if 𝑦1 = 20 𝑓𝑡, 𝑦2 = 5 𝑓𝑡, 𝑏1 = 50 𝑓𝑡, 𝑏2 =
100 𝑓𝑡, 𝑛1 = 0.018, 𝑛2 = 0.036, with a slope of 0.0004.

12. Water is in steady flow through the finished-concrete, semicircular channel shown
below. If the bed slope is 0.0016, what is the flow rate? n = 0.012.

13. The channel of Figure 7.12 has n = 0.020 and carries 8 cu.ft./s of water through a total
drop of 10 ft. How long should the channel be for normal flow?
 4 | Hydraulics 129

14. A rectangular channel 12.0 m wide is laid on a slope of 0.0028. The depth of flow at
one section is 1.50 m, while the depth of flow at another section 500 ft downstream is
1.80 m. Determine the probable rate of flow if n = 0.026.

15. Find the flow in the figure below if the slope of the channel is 0.0004 and n = 0.024.
Side slopes are all 1:1.

16. Water flows at a rate of 500 cu.ft./s through a rectangular section 10.0 ft. wide from a
“steep” slope to a “mild” slope creating a hydraulic jump, in the manner illustrated
below. The upstream depth of flow (𝑑1 ) is 3.1 ft. Find the (a) downstream depth, (b)
energy (head) loss in the hydraulic jump, and (c) upstream and downstream velocities.

17. A hydraulic jump occurs downstream from a 15-m wide sluice gate. The depth is 1.5
m, and the velocity is 20 m/s. Determine (a) the Froude Number and the Froude
Number corresponding to the conjugate depth, (b) the depth and velocity after the
jump, and (c) the power dissipated by the jump.

18. In a rectangular channel 12.5 m wide, having a bed slope of 0.0007, water flows at a
uniform depth of 1 m. The value of n is 0.02. Assuming that the partial closure of a
gate, near the exit end of the channel, raises the level at that point by 0.5, how far
upstream will it be to where the depth is 1.35 m?
 4 | Hydraulics 130

19. A hydraulic jump occurs in a triangular flume having side slopes 1:1. The flow rate is
17.72 cfs and the depth before the jump is 1.0 ft. Find the specific-energy loss in the
jump.

20. A hydraulic jump occurs in a 4-m wide rectangular channel carrying 5 cu.m. per sec.
on a slope of 0.004. The depth after the jump is 1.2 m. Find (a) the depth before the
jump, (b) the losses of energy and power in the jump.

Activity 11

Perform the laboratory experiment/s indicated in the link provided

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1IS33yTPBlo36BwHiydW8XtmcRwnhC2l5?usp=
drive_link

Evaluation Criteria:
Quality/Craftmanship 40%
Creativity/Originality 30%
Effort/Perseverance 20%
Timeliness 10%
Total 100%

7.3 References

Chadwick A, Morfett J. and M. Borthwick. (2013). Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental

Engineering – 5 th ed. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group.

Elger, D., et.al. (2013). Engineering Fluid Mechanics – 10th ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Gillesania, DIT. (2015). Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics – 4th edition.

7.4 Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures, and information contained in this module were taken from the
references cited above.