Image Processing

Q.1) Define Digital Image and explain image with image pixel ? What are the storage requirements for (500 x 500) and
(1024 x 1024) binary images ?

A digital image is a representation of visual information in a digital format, typically stored and processed on a
computer. It is composed of a grid of pixels, each containing color or grayscale information, arranged in rows and
columns.

• These pixels collectively form the visual content of the image.

• Digital images can be created, manipulated, and displayed using various software and electronic devices, such as
digital cameras, smartphones, and computers.
• They are widely used in fields like photography, graphic design, medical imaging, and multimedia applications.

Pixel (Picture Element):

A pixel is the smallest unit of a digital image. It represents a single point in the image and contains information
about its color and brightness. In a color image, a pixel typically consists of three color channels: red, green, and blue
(RGB). Each channel determines the intensity of that color component at that point.

• The number of pixels in an image directly affects its quality and resolution. Higher pixel counts result in sharper
and more detailed images, while lower pixel counts lead to pixelation and loss of detail.
• Each pixel contributes to the overall appearance of an image, determining its colors, shapes, and textures.
• Pixels enable digital processing techniques such as image editing, resizing, and enhancement. Manipulating
individual pixels allows for precise adjustments to an image's appearance.
• Pixels are essential for computer vision tasks such as object detection, image classification, and facial
recognition. Algorithms process pixel data to analyze and interpret visual content.
• Pixels are involved in image compression techniques to reduce file size without significant loss of quality.

(500 x 500) Binary Image:

• Number of pixels = 500 pixels * 500 pixels = 250,000 pixels

• Since it's a binary image (black and white), each pixel can be represented using 1 bit.

• Total storage required = 250,000 pixels * 1 bit/pixel = 250,000 bits

To convert bits to bytes (since 1 byte = 8 bits):

• Total storage required = 250,000 bits / 8 bits/byte ≈ 31,250 bytes

(1024 x 1024) Binary Image:

• Number of pixels = 1024 pixels * 1024 pixels = 1,048,576 pixels

• Each pixel can be represented using 1 bit.

• Total storage required = 1,048,576 pixels * 1 bit/pixel = 1,048,576 bits

Converting bits to bytes:

• Total storage required = 1,048,576 bits / 8 bits/byte ≈ 131,072 bytes

So, for the given binary images:

• The (500 x 500) binary image requires approximately 31,250 bytes of storage.

• The (1024 x 1024) binary image requires approximately 131,072 bytes of storage.

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Q.2) Briefly explain about the components of image processing system ?

An image processing system consists of several components that work together to manipulate and analyze
digital images. Here's a brief overview of these components:

1. Image Acquisition: This component involves capturing images from various sources, such as digital cameras,
scanners, or sensors. The quality and characteristics of the acquired images significantly impact subsequent
processing steps.

2. Image Enhancement: Image enhancement techniques aim to improve the visual appearance of an image by
emphasizing certain features or removing unwanted artifacts. Common enhancement methods include
histogram equalization, filtering, and edge enhancement.

3. Image Restoration: Image restoration techniques are used to recover degraded or corrupted images caused by
factors such as noise, blur, or compression. Restoration algorithms aim to restore the original image as
accurately as possible based on mathematical models of image degradation.

4. Image Compression: Image compression techniques are used to reduce the size of digital images by removing
redundant or irrelevant information while preserving essential visual content. There are two main types of
image compression – a) Lossless Compression , b) Lossy Compression.

5. Image Segmentation: Image segmentation divides an image into meaningful regions or objects based on
similarities in pixel intensity, color, texture, or other features. Segmentation is essential for tasks such as object
detection, recognition, and analysis.

6. Object Detection: Object Detection involves identifying and extracting relevant information or features from
segmented regions of an image. These features may include shapes, textures, colors, or other characteristics
that are useful for subsequent analysis or classification.

7. Image Representation and Description: Images are typically represented and described using numerical or
symbolic representations. This allows for efficient storage, transmission, and processing of image data.

8. Image Display and Visualization: The final component of an image processing system involves displaying
processed images to users in a visually meaningful and interpretable manner. Visualization techniques may
include image rendering, annotation, and interactive exploration tools.

Overall, these components work together in an image processing system to manipulate, analyze, and understand
digital images for a wide range of applications in fields such as medicine, remote sensing, security, entertainment, and
scientific research.

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Q.3) Differentiate between image and scene ? What are the image sensors and how they are used ?

While both terms are related to visual content, there are distinct differences between an image and a scene:

1. Image:

• An image refers to a two-dimensional representation of visual information captured or created using

imaging devices or software.
• It is a static depiction of a scene or object at a specific moment in time.
• Images can vary in complexity, resolution, and content, ranging from simple graphics to highly detailed
photographs or digital paintings.
• Images can be stored, transmitted, processed, and displayed electronically on various devices such as
computers, smartphones, and digital cameras.
• Examples of images include photographs, digital paintings, scanned documents, computer-generated
graphics, and screenshots.
2. Scene:

• A scene refers to the three-dimensional environment or setting in which visual content exists in the real
world.
• It encompasses the objects, people, landscapes, and other elements present in a particular physical
space or location.
• Scenes are dynamic and can change over time due to factors such as lighting conditions, weather,
movement of objects, and human activity.
• Scenes are typically observed and experienced directly by individuals through their senses, such as sight,
hearing, and touch.
• While scenes can be represented in images, a single image may only capture a portion or perspective of
a larger scene, and multiple images may be required to fully represent a complex scene.
• Examples of scenes include a city street, a forest landscape, a crowded market, a room interior, or a
sports stadium during a game.
Aspect Image Scene

Representation Two-dimensional depiction of visual information Three-dimensional environment or setting

Nature Static Dynamic

Content Captures a specific moment in time Includes objects, people, landscapes, etc.

Change over time Fixed Can change due to various factors

Observability Can be observed electronically Experienced directly through senses

Examples Photographs, digital paintings, graphics City street, forest landscape, crowded
market

Image sensors are electronic devices used to capture visual information and convert it into digital signals that can be
processed and stored. They are a fundamental component of digital cameras, smartphones, webcams, and various other
imaging devices. Image sensors work by detecting light and converting it into electrical signals, which are then processed
to generate digital images. There are several types of image sensors, each with its own technology and characteristics.
The two most common types are:

1. Charge-Coupled Device (CCD)

2. Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS)

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Image sensors are used in various ways depending on the application:

1. Photography and Videography: Image sensors are the primary component of digital cameras and camcorders,
where they capture light to produce digital photographs and videos. They determine the resolution, dynamic
range, and low-light performance of the captured images.

2. Surveillance and Security: Image sensors are used in surveillance cameras and security systems to monitor and
record activities in indoor and outdoor environments. They enable real-time video monitoring, motion
detection, and recording of security footage.

3. Medical Imaging: Image sensors are employed in medical imaging devices such as X-ray machines, ultrasound
scanners, and endoscopes. They allow healthcare professionals to visualize internal structures, diagnose medical
conditions, and perform minimally invasive procedures.

4. Automotive Applications: Image sensors are integrated into automotive systems for applications such as rear-
view cameras, parking assistance, lane departure warning, and autonomous driving. They provide visual data to
enhance driver safety and improve vehicle navigation.

5. Machine Vision: Image sensors are used in industrial and robotics applications for tasks such as quality control,
object detection, and robotic navigation. They enable automated systems to analyze visual information and
make decisions based on predefined criteria.

Overall, image sensors play a crucial role in capturing visual information and enabling a wide range of imaging
applications across various industries. Advances in sensor technology continue to drive improvements in image quality,
performance, and functionality in diverse fields.

Q.4) What do you mean by ‘Image File Format’ ? Mention some of the frequently used image file formats ?

An image file format is a standardized method for encoding and storing digital images in a file. Each file format defines a
specific structure for representing image data, including information about image dimensions, color depth, compression,
and metadata. Image file formats determine how images are stored on disk, transmitted over networks, and interpreted
by software applications.

Here are some frequently used image file formats:

1. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group):

• JPEG is one of the most widely used lossy compression formats for digital images.
• It is suitable for photographs and natural images with complex color variations.
• JPEG achieves high compression ratios by discarding some image information, which can result in loss of
quality.
• It supports adjustable compression levels to balance image quality and file size.
2. PNG (Portable Network Graphics):

• PNG is a lossless compression format suitable for images with text, graphics, and illustrations.
• It supports transparency and alpha channels, making it ideal for web graphics, logos, and images with
transparent backgrounds.
• PNG compression preserves image quality without introducing artifacts, unlike JPEG.
3. GIF (Graphics Interchange Format):

• GIF is a lossless compression format commonly used for simple animations and images with limited color
palettes.
• It supports transparency and animation, making it popular for web animations, memes, and icons.
• GIF compression is less efficient compared to JPEG and PNG, resulting in larger file sizes for complex
images.
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 4. TIFF (Tagged Image File Format):

• TIFF is a flexible format suitable for storing high-quality images and multi-page documents.
• It supports lossless compression, multiple layers, color spaces, and metadata.
• TIFF is commonly used in professional photography, printing, and publishing industries.
5. BMP (Bitmap Image):

• BMP is a simple uncompressed format that stores pixel data directly without compression.
• It is supported by most operating systems and applications but results in large file sizes.
• BMP is commonly used for storing images in their raw, uncompressed form.
6. RAW (Camera RAW Image):

• RAW is a proprietary format used by digital cameras to store unprocessed image data captured by the
camera's sensor.
• It preserves all original image information, including color, exposure, and dynamic range, allowing for
extensive post-processing.
• RAW files require specialized software to view and edit and are commonly used by professional
photographers.
These are just a few examples of the many image file formats available. Each format has its own advantages,
disadvantages, and specific use cases depending on factors such as image content, intended application, and
requirements for image quality and file size

Q.5) What is meant by classification of image ? Discuss two image acquisition technique ?

Image classification refers to the process of categorizing or labeling images into predefined classes or categories
based on their visual content. It is a fundamental task in computer vision and pattern recognition, with applications in
various fields such as object recognition, scene understanding, medical diagnosis, and satellite imagery analysis.

The goal of image classification is to automatically assign one or more class labels to an input image, typically from a
predefined set of categories. This process involves extracting relevant features from the image and using them to make
predictions about its class membership.

Image Acquisition :

In image processing, it is defined as the action of retrieving an image from some source, usually a hardware-
based source for processing. It is the first step in the workflow sequence because, without an image, no processing is
possible. The image that is acquired is completely unprocessed.

1. Image Acquisition using a single sensor: Image acquisition

using a single sensor refers to the process of capturing
images using a sensor that covers the entire image area at
once. This is in contrast to line sensors, which capture
images line by line. Single sensors are commonly used in
digital cameras, smartphones, and many other imaging
devices.

I. The scene or object to be captured is

focused onto the surface of the image sensor using an optical system, typically a lens.
II. The image sensor is a semiconductor device that converts light into electrical signals.
III. Linear motion provides motion in the perpendicular direction.
IV. This is an inexpensive method and we can obtain high-resolution images with high precision
control. But the downside of this method is that it is slow.

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 2. Image Acquisition using a line sensor: Image acquisition
using a line sensor involves capturing images line by line
rather than all at once, as with traditional area sensors like
CCD or CMOS sensors. Line sensors are often used in
applications where high-speed image acquisition is
required, such as document scanning, industrial inspection,
and high-speed printing.

I. The line sensor is positioned perpendicular to

the direction of movement of the object
being scanned.
II. The object being scanned is illuminated either by natural light or artificial light sources such as
LEDs or halogen lamps.
III. As the object moves past the line sensor, the sensor captures one line of the image at a time.

3. Image Acquisition using an array sensor: Image acquisition using an array sensor involves capturing images
using a sensor that consists of an array of individual sensor elements (pixels) arranged in rows and columns.
Array sensors are commonly used in digital cameras, smartphones, webcams, and various other imaging
devices.

I. A complete image can be obtained by focusing the energy pattern onto the surface of the
array.
II. The sensor array is coincident with the focal plane, it produces an output proportional to the
integral of light received at each sensor.
III. This type of arrangement is found in digital cameras

Q.6) What do you mean by aliasing in the context of image sampling ?

In the context of image sampling, aliasing refers to the phenomenon where high-frequency details in the original
image are incorrectly represented or distorted in the sampled image. It occurs when the sampling rate is too low to
accurately capture the fine details or high-frequency components of the image.

• When the sampling rate is lower than the Nyquist rate, high-frequency details in the original image may be
incorrectly represented in the sampled image. This leads to aliasing artifacts, where high-frequency components
are folded back into the lower frequencies, resulting in unwanted patterns or distortions.
• Spatial aliasing occurs when fine details in the image, such as sharp edges or fine textures, are incorrectly
represented in the sampled image. This can manifest as jagged edges, patterns, or blurring in the sampled
image.

To prevent or reduce aliasing artifacts, anti-aliasing filters are often applied before sampling the image. These filters help
to remove high-frequency components from the signal before sampling, ensuring that only the frequencies within the
Nyquist limit are retained. This helps to avoid aliasing artifacts in the sampled image.
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Q.7) What is Weber ratio ? Show the variation of Weber ratio for human eye ?

The Weber ratio, named after Ernst Heinrich Weber, is a psychophysical concept used to describe the relationship
between the smallest detectable change in a stimulus (ΔI) and the intensity of the original stimulus (I). It is defined as
the ratio of the just noticeable difference (JND) to the magnitude of the stimulus:

Weber Ratio (WR) = ΔI / I

• The Weber ratio measures the sensitivity of human perception to changes in stimulus intensity.
• A smaller Weber ratio indicates higher sensitivity, meaning that small changes in stimulus intensity are more
easily detected by the observer.
• According to Weber's law, the Weber ratio remains relatively constant over a wide range of stimulus intensities.
• The Weber ratio has applications in various fields, including psychology, physiology, and sensory perception
research. It is used to study human perception thresholds, discrimination abilities, and sensory processing
mechanisms.

The Weber ratio varies for different sensory modalities and can also vary between individuals. However, for the human
visual system, the Weber ratio tends to follow certain trends based on factors such as stimulus type, intensity, and
specific visual tasks.

1. Brightness Discrimination:

• At low to moderate levels of brightness, the Weber ratio may be relatively high, indicating lower
sensitivity to small changes in luminance.
• However, at very high levels of brightness, the Weber ratio tends to decrease, indicating higher
sensitivity to small changes in luminance.
2. Color Discrimination:

• Generally, humans are more sensitive to changes in color at moderate levels of chromaticity, with the
Weber ratio decreasing as the intensity or saturation of the colors increases.
• However, at very low or very high levels of chromaticity, the Weber ratio may increase, indicating lower
sensitivity to small changes in color.
3. Contrast Sensitivity:

• Humans are generally more sensitive to changes in contrast at moderate spatial frequencies, with the
Weber ratio decreasing as the spatial frequency increases.
• At very low or very high spatial frequencies, the Weber ratio may increase, indicating lower sensitivity to
changes in contrast.
It's important to note that the exact variation of the Weber ratio for the human eye can depend on individual
differences, such as age, visual acuity, and overall health of the visual system. Additionally, specific experimental
conditions and stimuli characteristics can also influence the observed variation in the Weber ratio.

Q.8) What is 8 bit color image ? for what purpose it could be used ?

An 8-bit color image is a type of digital image where each pixel is represented by 8 bits of data, allowing for a total of 256
(2^8) distinct color shades or levels for each primary color channel (red, green, and blue).

• This results in a total palette of 256^3 = 16,777,216 possible colors.

• In an 8-bit color image, each pixel is typically divided into three separate color channels: red, green, and blue
(RGB).
• The intensity of each color channel is determined by the corresponding 8-bit value ranging from 0 to 255, where
0 represents no intensity (black) and 255 represents maximum intensity (full brightness).

For example, a pixel in an 8-bit color image might have the RGB values (100, 200, 50), where:

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 • The red channel has an intensity of 100.

• The green channel has an intensity of 200.

• The blue channel has an intensity of 50.

By combining these intensity values for each channel, the pixel produces a specific color. With 256 levels for each
channel, the 8-bit color depth allows for a wide range of colors to be represented in the image, although it may not
capture as much detail or color fidelity as higher color depths (e.g., 24-bit color).

8-bit color images are commonly used in applications where color accuracy and detail are not critical, such as
web graphics, icons, simple illustrations, and some types of digital art. They are also used in legacy systems or devices
with limited processing power or storage capacity. However, they may exhibit visible color banding and loss of detail,
especially in gradients or areas with subtle color variations, compared to images with higher color depths.

Q.8) How image is represented in digital format ? What is image sampling ? Define saturation in digital image ?

In digital format, an image is represented as a collection of discrete numerical values that describe the visual content of
the image. The most common representation of digital images is through a grid of picture elements, known as pixels.
Each pixel corresponds to a small area of the image and contains information about its color and intensity.

Here's how an image is represented in digital format:

1. Pixel Grid: The image is divided into a grid of pixels, with rows and columns forming the dimensions of the
image. Each pixel occupies a specific location in the grid and represents a tiny portion of the image.

2. Color Channels: For color images, each pixel typically consists of multiple color channels, such as red, green, and
blue (RGB), or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK). Each color channel represents the intensity of a
particular color at that pixel.

3. Color Depth: The color depth of the image determines the number of bits used to represent each color channel
of a pixel. Common color depths include 8-bit (256 levels per channel), 24-bit (true color with 8 bits per
channel), and 32-bit (with an additional alpha channel for transparency).

4. Pixel Values: The color intensity values for each pixel are stored as numerical values within a specific range. For
example, in an 8-bit color image, each color channel can have values ranging from 0 to 255, where 0 represents
no intensity (e.g., black) and 255 represents maximum intensity (e.g., full brightness for that color).

5. Metadata: In addition to pixel data, digital images may also contain metadata, such as information about the
image format, resolution, color profile, creation date, camera settings, and copyright information. This metadata
provides context and additional details about the image.

6. File Format: Finally, the pixel data and metadata are stored in a specific file format, such as JPEG, PNG, TIFF, GIF,
or BMP. Each file format has its own structure and compression algorithms for encoding and storing digital
images efficiently while preserving image quality.

Overall, representing an image in digital format involves discretizing its visual content into pixels, encoding color and
intensity information for each pixel, and storing the pixel data and metadata in a specific file format for storage,
transmission, and processing.

Image sampling:

Image sampling is the process of converting a continuous analog image into a digital form by capturing discrete samples
of the image at regular intervals. This process is essential for digitizing images so that they can be stored, processed, and
transmitted using digital systems.

• In the real world, visual scenes are continuous, meaning that they contain an infinite number of points and
variations in intensity or color across space.
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 • To represent a continuous image digitally, it must be sampled at discrete locations, resulting in a grid of discrete
points called pixels.
• Each pixel represents a small area of the image and contains information about its intensity (for grayscale
images) or color (for color images).
• The sampling rate, also known as the spatial resolution, determines how frequently samples are taken from the
continuous image. It is typically specified in terms of pixels per unit length (e.g., pixels per inch or pixels per
centimeter).
• To avoid aliasing, anti-aliasing filters may be applied before sampling or during image processing.
• Once the image has been sampled, the sampled values are quantized into discrete numerical values and stored
digitally.

Saturation in Digital image:

In digital imaging, saturation refers to the intensity or purity of colors in an image. It represents how vivid or intense the
colors appear, regardless of their brightness or lightness. A highly saturated color appears more vivid and vibrant, while a
desaturated color appears duller and more muted.

• Saturation values range from 0% to 100% . A saturation value of 0% results in a grayscale image, while a
saturation value of 100% produces the most intense and vivid colors.
• Saturation can be adjusted during image processing to enhance or reduce the intensity of colors in an image.
• Highly saturated colors tend to draw attention and create a sense of energy and excitement, while desaturated
colors can evoke a more subtle or muted mood.
• Balancing saturation levels across different colors ensures that the overall color palette appears visually
appealing and harmonious.
• Oversaturated colors may be used to create a surreal or dreamlike atmosphere, while desaturated colors can
evoke a sense of nostalgia or melancholy.

Q.9) What are the basic steps involved in image geometrical transformation ? Develop the homogeneous form ?

Image geometrical transformation involves modifying the spatial arrangement or geometric properties of an image. This
process is commonly used in image processing to correct distortions, align images, and apply transformations such as
rotation, scaling, translation, and shearing. Here are the basic steps involved in image geometrical transformation:

1. Define Transformation Parameters: Determine the type of transformation needed based on the specific
requirements of the application. Common transformations include rotation, scaling, translation, and shearing.
Specify the transformation parameters such as rotation angle, scaling factors, translation distances, or shearing
coefficients.

2. Calculate Transformation Matrix: Based on the chosen transformation and its parameters, calculate the
transformation matrix that defines how each pixel in the original image will be mapped to its new position in the
transformed image. Different types of transformations require different transformation matrices.

3. Image Interpolation: To determine the intensity or color value of pixels in the transformed image, perform
interpolation to estimate the pixel values at non-integer coordinates in the original image. Common
interpolation methods include nearest neighbor, bilinear, bicubic, and Lanczos interpolation.

4. Apply Transformation: For each pixel in the transformed image, apply the transformation matrix to determine
its new position in the original image coordinates. Use the interpolated pixel values to assign intensity or color
values to the pixels in the transformed image.

5. Post-Processing: Optionally, perform any additional post-processing steps to further refine or enhance the
transformed image. This may include applying filters, adjusting contrast or brightness, or performing color
correction.

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 6. Quality Assessment: Evaluate the quality of the transformed image to ensure that it meets the desired criteria in
terms of accuracy, visual appearance, and fidelity to the original image. Compare the transformed image with
the original image and assess any differences or artifacts introduced during the transformation process.

By following these basic steps, image geometrical transformation can be performed effectively to achieve various goals
such as image registration, image alignment, image rectification, and geometric correction.

To develop the homogeneous form of image geometrical transformation, we use homogeneous coordinates, which allow
us to represent translation as a matrix multiplication.

1. Translation:
[ 1 0 tx ] To apply multiple transformations sequentially, we multiply
[ 0 1 ty ] the transformation matrices together. For example, to
apply scaling followed by rotation followed by translation,
[0 0 1 ] we multiply the matrices in the reverse order:
where tx and ty are the translation distances in the x
and y directions, respectively.
Transformation Matrix = Translation × Rotation × Scaling

2. Scaling: Finally, to apply the transformation to a point (𝑥,𝑦), we use

[ sx 0 0 ] the homogeneous coordinates by representing the point as
(𝑥,𝑦,1) and perform matrix multiplication with the
[ 0 sy 0 ] transformation matrix:
[ 0 0 1]

where 𝑠𝑥 and 𝑠𝑦 are the scaling factors in the x and y

directions, respectively.

3. Rotation:
This process allows us to represent various image
[ cosθ -sinθ 0 ] transformations in a unified and convenient way using
[ sinθ cosθ 0 ] homogeneous coordinates and matrix multiplication.

[ 0 0 1]

where 𝜃 is the rotation angle.

4. Shearing:
[ 1 shearx,y 0 ]

[ shearx,y 1 0 ]

[ 0 0 1]

where shearx,y represents the shearing coefficients in

the x and y directions, respectively.

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Q.10) If and image is rotated by an angle of π/4, will there be any change in the histogram of the image ?

Yes, rotating an image by an angle of π/4 (45 degrees) will typically result in changes to the histogram of the image.
Histograms represent the distribution of pixel intensities in an image, and geometric transformations such as rotation
can alter this distribution in several ways:

1. Intensity Redistribution: When an image is rotated, the spatial arrangement of pixels changes, leading to a
redistribution of pixel intensities. Areas that were previously occupied by pixels with certain intensity values may
now be filled with pixels of different intensities. This can cause shifts in the histogram peaks and valleys.

2. Spatial Compression or Expansion: Depending on the rotation angle and the content of the image, certain
regions may be compressed or expanded during rotation. This can lead to changes in the distribution of pixel
intensities, potentially resulting in stretching or compression of certain intensity ranges in the histogram.

3. Interpolation Effects: During rotation, interpolation is often used to estimate the intensity values of pixels in the
rotated image. The interpolation method used can affect the resulting histogram. For example, interpolation
methods such as nearest neighbour, bilinear, or bicubic interpolation may introduce smoothing or sharpening
effects, which can alter the histogram shape.

4. Clipping and Boundary Effects: Rotating an image can cause parts of the image to be cropped or extend beyond
the boundaries of the original image. This can lead to clipping or wrapping of intensity values, which may affect
the histogram distribution, especially near the image borders.

Overall, while rotating an image by π/4 may not drastically change the overall appearance of the image, it can still lead to
subtle changes in the histogram due to the geometric transformations and interpolation methods used during rotation.

Q.11) Briefly describe any three color model ?

Here are brief descriptions of three common color models:

1. RGB (Red, Green, Blue):

• RGB is an additive color model used to represent colors in electronic displays, such as computer
monitors, TVs, and digital cameras.
• In RGB, colors are created by mixing varying intensities of red, green, and blue light. Each color channel
is typically represented by an 8-bit value (0-255), where 0 indicates no intensity and 255 indicates full
intensity.
• By combining different intensities of red, green, and blue light, a wide range of colors can be
represented, including the entire visible spectrum.

2. CMY (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow):

• CMY is a subtractive color model used in color printing processes, particularly in combination with the
CMYK model.
• In CMY, colors are created by subtracting varying amounts of cyan, magenta, and yellow pigments from a
white background. This is because the pigments absorb certain wavelengths of light, leaving only the
reflected or transmitted light to produce the perceived color.
• Cyan absorbs red light, magenta absorbs green light, and yellow absorbs blue light. By combining
different amounts of these three primary colors, a wide range of colors can be achieved.
• The CMY model is particularly useful for representing colors in color printers, where the primary ink
colors are cyan, magenta, and yellow.

3. CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black):

• CMYK is a subtractive color model used primarily in color printing processes, such as offset printing and
digital printing.
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 • In CMYK, colors are created by subtracting varying amounts of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black ink from
a white background. Unlike RGB, where colors are additive, CMYK colors are subtractive because they
absorb light.
• CMYK is often used in combination with spot colors and halftoning techniques to produce a wide range
of colors and simulate photographic images accurately.

4. HSL/HSV (Hue, Saturation, Lightness/Value):

• HSL (Hue, Saturation, Lightness) and HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) are cylindrical color models used to
represent colors based on human perception.
• Hue represents the dominant wavelength of the color, ranging from 0 to 360 degrees around the color
wheel.
• Saturation represents the intensity or purity of the color, ranging from 0% (desaturated) to 100% (fully
saturated).
• Lightness (in HSL) represents the perceived brightness of the color, ranging from 0% (black) to 100%
(white), while Value (in HSV) represents the brightness of the color on a scale from 0 (black) to 100
(white).
• HSL and HSV are often used in computer graphics, image editing software, and color selection tools
because they provide intuitive controls for adjusting and selecting colors based on human perception.

Q.12) Explain image enhancement ? What are spatial domain and frequency domain technique ?

Image enhancement refers to the process of improving the visual quality or perceptibility of an image. It aims to make
the image more suitable for a specific application or to enhance certain features of interest. Image enhancement
techniques can be broadly categorized into two types: spatial domain techniques and frequency domain techniques.

1. Spatial Domain Techniques:

• Spatial domain techniques operate directly on the pixel values of the image. They are simple and
computationally efficient but may not always produce optimal results.

• Examples of spatial domain techniques include:

• Histogram Equalization: Adjusts the distribution of pixel intensities in the image histogram to
improve contrast and visibility of details.

• Histogram Matching: Modifies the histogram of an image to match a specified reference

histogram, often used for color correction and matching.

• Spatial Filtering: Applies convolution masks or kernels to the image to perform operations such
as blurring, sharpening, edge detection, and noise reduction.

• Point Processing: Applies mathematical functions to individual pixel values to perform

operations such as gamma correction, brightness adjustment, and color balance.

2. Frequency Domain Techniques:

• Frequency domain techniques operate on the frequency components of the image obtained through
Fourier transforms. They are often more complex but can provide powerful tools for image
enhancement.

• Examples of frequency domain techniques include:

• Low-pass Filtering: Removes high-frequency noise and smoothens the image by attenuating
high-frequency components in the Fourier domain.

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 • High-pass Filtering: Enhances edges and fine details by selectively amplifying high-frequency
components while attenuating low-frequency components.

• Band-pass Filtering: Filters specific frequency bands to enhance features within a certain
frequency range, useful for texture enhancement and noise reduction.

• Homomorphic Filtering: Adjusts the illumination and reflectance components of the image
separately to enhance details in both bright and dark regions.

Image enhancement techniques are widely used in various fields such as medical imaging, satellite imaging, surveillance,
photography, and digital art to improve the quality and interpretability of images for human perception or automated
analysis. The choice of enhancement technique depends on the specific requirements of the application and the
characteristics of the input image.

Q.13) Explain image restoration ? Distinguish between image enhancement and restoration ?

Image restoration refers to the process of recovering or reconstructing an image from its degraded or distorted version.
Image degradation can occur due to various factors such as noise, blur, motion, compression artifacts, or sensor
limitations.

• The goal of image restoration is to improve the visual quality of the degraded image by reducing or removing
these unwanted effects and restoring important image features.
• The outcome of image restoration is a restored version of the original image that closely resembles the image
before degradation.
• The restoration process aims to minimize the difference between the degraded and restored images, typically
measured in terms of image fidelity, sharpness, and perceptual quality.

Image enhancement and restoration are both image processing techniques aimed at improving the visual quality of
images, but they differ in their objectives, approaches, and outcomes:

Aspect Image Enhancement Image Restoration

Objective Improve visual appearance for human Recover or reconstruct degraded images
perception or specific applications

Approach Modify existing pixel values or attributes Estimate or model degradation process and
directly apply inverse operations

Outcome Enhanced version of original image with Restored version of original image closely
improved visual characteristics (e.g., resembling image before degradation
contrast, brightness, sharpness, color
balance)

Examples Histogram equalization, sharpening, contrast Wiener deconvolution, inverse filtering, total
stretching, color adjustment variation regularization, non-local means
filtering

Application Areas Photography, digital art, computer vision, Medical imaging, astronomy, forensics,
surveillance historical document restoration

Computational Typically lower, simpler algorithms Typically higher, may involve mathematical
Complexity modeling and optimization

Dependency on Prior May not require knowledge of degradation Often requires knowledge of degradation
Information process process and noise characteristics

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Q.14) What are image negatives ? What is the equation for getting a negative image ?

Image negatives are representations of images in which the colors or intensities of each pixel are inverted relative to
their original values. In a negative image, dark areas appear light, and light areas appear dark. This inversion of colors or
intensities is often used for creative or aesthetic purposes, as well as in certain image processing techniques.

Here are some key points about image negatives:

1. Color Inversion: In a negative image, each color channel (e.g., red, green, blue) is inverted. For example, black
becomes white, and white becomes black. Similarly, other colors are inverted based on their RGB values.

2. Intensity Inversion: For grayscale images, the pixel intensities are inverted. Darker areas become lighter, and
lighter areas become darker. The intensity inversion is often achieved by subtracting the pixel value from the
maximum intensity value (e.g., 255 for an 8-bit grayscale image).

3. Representation: Image negatives can be represented as digital images in the same format as their original
counterparts. They can be created by applying a negation operation to each pixel value in the original image.

4. Applications:

• Photography: In traditional film photography, negatives are used to create prints. The negative image on
film is used to produce a positive print by exposing light-sensitive paper.

• Artistic Expression: Image negatives are used in artistic photography and digital art to create unique and
visually striking effects.

• Image Processing: In some image processing techniques, such as edge detection or segmentation,
negative images may be used as intermediate representations to enhance certain features or extract
specific information.

Image negative is produced by subtracting each pixel from the maximum intensity value.

For example in an 8-bit grayscale image, the max intensity value is 255, thus each pixel is subtracted from 255 to
produce the output image.

The transformation function used in image negative is :

Where L - 1 is the max intensity value,

s = T(r) = (L – 1) – r s is the output pixel value and
T r is the input pixel value
(
r
Q.15) What is frequency of an image ? What)do you mean by spatial domain representation ?
=
In the context of image processing, the term "frequency of an image" typically refers to the spatial frequency content
(
present in the image. Spatial frequency refers to the rate of change of intensity or color within an image across space.
L
Images can contain a wide range of spatial frequencies,
– Here's a brief overview of spatial frequencies in images:

1. Low Frequency: Regions of the image 1 where intensity or color changes gradually over large distances have low
)
spatial frequencies. These areas typically represent smooth or slowly varying features such as smooth gradients,
–
large homogeneous areas, or low-contrast regions.
r
2. High Frequency: Regions of the image where intensity or color changes rapidly over short distances have high
spatial frequencies. These areas typically represent
s sharp edges, fine details, textures, or high-contrast features.

3. Mid Frequency: Between low and high= frequencies, there are regions with moderate spatial frequencies. These
areas contain medium-scale featuresTsuch as textures, patterns, or objects with some level of detail.
(
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)
In image processing, the spatial domain refers to the representation of an image in its original spatial coordinates, where
each pixel in the image is associated with a specific position in two-dimensional space. Spatial domain representation
directly reflects the spatial arrangement of pixels and their corresponding intensity or color values within the image.

In the spatial domain representation:

• Each pixel in the image is located at a specific row and column position, forming a regular grid structure.

• The intensity or color value of each pixel represents the visual information at that particular spatial location.

• Spatial relationships between neighbouring pixels are preserved, allowing for spatial operations such as filtering,
convolution, and morphological operations to be performed directly on the pixel values.

Spatial domain representation is the most common and intuitive way to represent images, as it closely mirrors how
images are captured and displayed in the real world. It allows for straightforward manipulation and analysis of image
data using techniques that directly operate on pixel values within the image grid.

Examples of operations performed in the spatial domain include:

• Brightness and contrast adjustments

• Edge detection

• Noise reduction

• Image sharpening

• Morphological operations such as dilation and erosion

Spatial domain techniques operate directly on the pixel values of the image without transforming the image into other
domains, such as frequency or transform domains. These techniques are widely used in various image processing
applications due to their simplicity, effectiveness, and intuitive nature.

Q.16) What do you understand by histogram of a digital image ? Suggest one way of generating color histograms in the
RGB color space from images ? What are number histogram components in such histograms ?

A histogram of a digital image is a graphical representation that shows the distribution of pixel intensity values in the
image. It plots the frequency of each intensity value (or range of values) on the vertical axis against the intensity values
on the horizontal axis. This representation helps in understanding the overall brightness, contrast, and dynamic range of
the image.

Key Concepts:

1. Intensity Values: These are the possible values that a pixel can have. For an 8-bit grayscale image, these values
range from 0 (black) to 255 (white). For a color image, histograms can be created for each color channel (Red,
Green, and Blue).
2. Frequency: This refers to the number of pixels in the image that have a particular intensity value. The histogram
displays how many pixels have each intensity value or fall within a certain range (bin).
Applications of Histograms:

1. Image Enhancement: Adjusting the brightness, contrast, and dynamic range of an image using techniques like
histogram equalization and histogram stretching.
2. Thresholding: Determining appropriate threshold values for image segmentation based on the histogram.
3. Exposure Correction: Identifying underexposed or overexposed images and applying corrections.

Generating color histograms in the RGB color space involves creating separate histograms for each of the three color
channels: Red, Green, and Blue. Here's a step-by-step approach to generating these histograms from an image:

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 1. Image Representation:

• Let 𝐼(𝑥,𝑦) represent the image, where (𝑥,𝑦) are the spatial coordinates of each pixel.

• Each pixel value 𝐼(𝑥,𝑦) can be decomposed into 𝑅(𝑥,𝑦), 𝐺(𝑥,𝑦), and 𝐵(𝑥,𝑦).

2. Histogram Bins:

• For 8-bit images, create 256 bins for each histogram 𝐻𝑅(𝑖), 𝐻𝐺(𝑖), and 𝐻𝐵(𝑖), where 𝑖 ranges from 0 to
255.

3. Histogram Population:

• For each pixel (𝑥,𝑦) in the image:

• Increment 𝐻𝑅(𝑅(𝑥,𝑦))

• Increment 𝐻𝐺(𝐺(𝑥,𝑦))

• Increment 𝐻𝐵(𝐵(𝑥,𝑦))

By following these theoretical steps, we can generate and analyze the color histograms of an image in the RGB color
space, providing valuable insights into the color distribution and characteristics of the image.

Components of Color Histograms in the RGB Color Space –

1. Bins:
• Each histogram consists of a series of bins, where each bin corresponds to a specific range of intensity
values.
• For an 8-bit image, there are typically 256 bins for each color channel (Red, Green, and Blue),
corresponding to intensity values ranging from 0 to 255.
2. Color Channels:
• There are three separate histograms, one for each color channel: Red, Green, and Blue.
• Each histogram represents the frequency distribution of intensity values for its respective color channel.
3. Frequency Count:
• The frequency count in each bin represents the number of pixels in the image that have a specific
intensity value for that color channel.
• These counts provide a distribution of how the intensity values are spread across the image.
When plotted, each color histogram typically appears as a bar graph, where:

• The x-axis represents the intensity values (0 to 255).

• The y-axis represents the frequency of each intensity value.

The histograms for each channel provide insights into the color distribution of the image, revealing details about the
image’s brightness, contrast, and color balance.

Q.17) What are the steps to perform histogram equalization ? Necessity of histogram equalization ?

Histogram equalization is a technique in image processing that enhances the contrast of an image by effectively
spreading out the most frequent intensity values. This process improves the visibility of details in images, especially in
areas that are overly dark or light.

Steps to Perform Histogram Equalization

1. Compute the Histogram:

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 • Calculate the histogram of the original image. This involves counting the number of pixels for each
intensity value.

2. Compute the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF):

• Compute the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) based on the histogram. The CDF at a particular
intensity value is the sum of the histogram values for that intensity and all previous intensities.

• Normalize the CDF to range from 0 to 1 by dividing by the total number of pixels.

3. Create the Equalized Intensity Values:

• Use the normalized CDF to map the original intensity values to new intensity values. This mapping
spreads out the intensity values more uniformly over the entire range (0 to 255 for 8-bit images).

4. Generate the Equalized Image:

• Replace each pixel intensity in the original image with the corresponding equalized intensity value
obtained from the mapping.

Benefits:

• Enhanced Contrast: Improves the overall contrast of the image, making details in darker and lighter regions
more visible.
• Uniform Distribution: Attempts to create a uniform distribution of intensity values, improving the dynamic
range.

Histogram equalization is particularly useful in applications where images have poor contrast due to lighting conditions,
such as medical imaging, satellite imagery, and low-light photography.

Here are the key reasons for the necessity of histogram equalization:

1. Contrast Enhancement: This makes the details in both dark and bright regions more visible.

2. Improved Visualization: Enhanced contrast leads to better visualization of image details.

3. Uniform Distribution of Intensity Values: This uniformity ensures that the image utilizes the full dynamic range
available, avoiding clustering of intensity values and making the image appear more balanced.

4. Preprocessing for Image Analysis: Many image processing algorithms and machine learning models perform
better when the input images have enhanced contrast.

5. Enhancement of Low-light Images: In low-light conditions, images often appear dark with low contrast.
Histogram equalization can significantly enhance such images, making them more interpretable and usable.

Q.18) What is image averaging ? Discuss histogram characteristics for dark, bright and low contrast images ?

Image averaging is a technique used in image processing to reduce noise and improve the quality of images. The basic
idea is to take multiple images of the same scene, align them if necessary, and then compute the average of the
corresponding pixel values. This process helps to smooth out random noise, as noise is typically uncorrelated across
multiple images while the actual signal (the scene) remains constant.

Histogram Characteristics for Different Types of Images

The histogram of an image provides a visual representation of the distribution of intensity values. Here are the
characteristics of histograms for dark, bright, and low contrast images:

1. Dark Images
• The histogram is skewed towards the lower end of the intensity scale (closer to 0).
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 • Most pixel values are clustered around the dark intensity values.
2. Bright Images
• The histogram is skewed towards the higher end of the intensity scale (closer to 255).
• Most pixel values are clustered around the bright intensity values.
3. Low Contrast Images
• The histogram is narrow and concentrated around the middle of the intensity range.
• There is a lack of high and low intensity values, indicating that the image lacks both deep shadows and
bright highlights.

Q.19) Explain unsharp masking and high boost filtering ? Write the expression for Laplacian Operator for an image of two
operators ?

Unsharp masking is an image processing technique used to enhance the sharpness and edge definition of an image.
Despite its name, the method actually enhances image sharpness. It works by subtracting a blurred version of the image
from the original image, which amplifies high-frequency components and emphasizes edges and fine details.
1. Blur the Original Image: Apply a Gaussian blur or any other smoothing filter to the original image to create a
blurred version.
2. Subtract the Blurred Image from the Original Image: Subtract the blurred image from the original image to
create a mask that contains the high-frequency details (edges).
3. Add the Mask to the Original Image: Add the high-frequency mask back to the original image to enhance the
edges and details.

High boost filtering is an extension of unsharp masking that allows for more flexible control over the enhancement
process by amplifying both the original image and the high-frequency components. It is particularly useful when the
details and edges need to be enhanced more aggressively.
1. Blur the Original Image: Similar to unsharp masking, blur the original image to create a blurred version.
2. Create a High Boost Filtered Image: Subtract the blurred image from a scaled version of the original image. The
scaling factor 𝐴A is usually greater than 1, which controls the boost level.

The Laplacian operator is a second-order derivative operator used in image processing to highlight regions of rapid
intensity change, which often correspond to edges. It works by calculating the second derivatives of an image. The
Laplacian of an image 𝐼(𝑥,𝑦) can be expressed using different kernels. Here, we will discuss two commonly used kernels
for the Laplacian operator.
Expression for the Laplacian Operator
For an image 𝐼(𝑥,𝑦), the discrete Laplacian operator is given by the sum of the second derivatives in both the x and y
∂2 𝐼 ∂2 𝐼
directions: ∇2 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2
+
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 2
Suppose we have an image 𝐼 and we use the 4-neighbor Laplacian kernel. For a pixel located at (𝑥,𝑦), the new
intensity value 𝐼new(𝑥,𝑦) is calculated as:
𝐼new (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐼(𝑥 − 1, 𝑦) + 𝐼(𝑥 + 1, 𝑦) + 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦 − 1) + 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦 + 1) − 4 ⋅ 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦)

For the 8-neighbor Laplacian kernel, the new intensity value 𝐼new(𝑥,𝑦) is:
𝐼new (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐼(𝑥 − 1, 𝑦 − 1) + 𝐼(𝑥 − 1, 𝑦) + 𝐼(𝑥 − 1, 𝑦 + 1) + 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦 − 1) + 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦 + 1) + 𝐼(𝑥 + 1, 𝑦 − 1)
+ 𝐼(𝑥 + 1, 𝑦) + 𝐼(𝑥 + 1, 𝑦 + 1) − 8 ⋅ 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦)

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Q.20) Explain mask or kernels ? What is Median filter ? Explain the operation of median filter ?

A mask is a small matrix, often referred to as a kernel or filter, used to perform operations on an image. This matrix is
applied to each pixel and its neighbours in the image to produce a transformed pixel value. Masks are fundamental in
convolution operations, which are used for various purposes such as blurring, sharpening, edge detection, and noise
reduction.
Key Points about Masks
1. Size: Masks are typically of small, odd-sized dimensions (e.g., 3x3, 5x5) to ensure there is a central pixel. The size
of the mask determines the region of the image that influences each output pixel.
2. Types of Operations:
• Smoothing: Reduces noise and detail (e.g., Gaussian blur).
• Sharpening: Enhances edges and fine details (e.g., Laplacian filter).
• Edge Detection: Identifies edges within the image (e.g., Sobel, Prewitt filters).

A median filter is a nonlinear digital filtering technique, often used to remove noise from an image or signal. It is
particularly effective in eliminating impulsive noise, also known as "salt and pepper" noise, where some pixels have
extreme values compared to their neighbours.

Operation of Median Filter:

The median filter operates by moving a window (also known as a kernel or mask) over each pixel in the image, replacing
the pixel's value with the median value of the intensities within the window.

Steps of Median Filtering:

• Define the Window: Choose the size of the window (e.g., 3x3, 5x5). The window size should be odd to have a
central pixel.
• Slide the Window: Centre the window on each pixel in the image one by one.
• Extract the Neighbourhood: For each position of the window, extract the pixel values within the window.
• Sort the Values: Sort the pixel values within the window in ascending order.
• Find the Median: Determine the median value of the sorted list.
• Replace the Central Pixel: Replace the central pixel in the window with the median value.

Advantages of Median Filter

• Noise Reduction: It effectively removes "salt and pepper" noise.
• Edge Preservation: It preserves edges better than linear smoothing filters like the mean filter.

Disadvantages of Median Filter

• Computationally Intensive: Sorting the values within the window for every pixel is computationally more
intensive than linear filtering.
• Blurred Edges: While it preserves edges better than mean filtering, it can still cause slight blurring of edges.

Applications
• Image Denoising: Widely used in pre-processing steps to clean images before further processing.
• Medical Imaging: Helps in removing noise from X-ray, MRI, and ultrasound images.
• Signal Processing: Used in one-dimensional signals to remove noise.

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Q.21) Discuss in briefly Salt and Peper Noise ? What is Gaussian Noise ?

"Salt and pepper" noise, also known as "impulse noise," is a type of random noise that commonly occurs in digital
images or signals. It is characterized by the presence of occasional bright (salt) or dark (pepper) pixels, which are
significantly different from their surrounding pixels.
Characteristics of Salt and Pepper Noise:
1. Random Occurrence: Salt and pepper noise appears randomly throughout an image or signal, affecting only a
small percentage of pixels.
2. Extreme Values: The noise manifests as pixel values that are significantly higher (salt) or lower (pepper) than the
surrounding pixel values.
3. Artifacts: It often creates noticeable artifacts in images, resembling white and black specks scattered across the
image.
4. Types of Impacts: Salt noise increases pixel intensity, while pepper noise decreases it.

Causes of Salt and Pepper Noise:

1. Transmission Errors: During image acquisition or transmission, errors can occur, resulting in occasional extreme
pixel values.
2. Sensor Malfunction: Defective pixels in image sensors or malfunctioning equipment can produce sporadic
extreme values.
3. Data Corruption: Corruption of image data during storage or transmission can introduce salt and pepper noise.

Effects of Salt and Pepper Noise:

1. Degraded Image Quality: The presence of salt and pepper noise can significantly degrade the visual quality of
images, making them appear grainy or speckled.
2. Loss of Information: In extreme cases, salt and pepper noise can obscure important details or features in
images, leading to loss of information.
3. Challenges in Processing: Image processing tasks such as segmentation, edge detection, and feature extraction
can be adversely affected by the presence of salt and pepper noise, leading to inaccurate results.

Gaussian noise, also known as additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN), is a type of statistical noise that has a probability
density function (PDF) equal to that of the normal distribution, which is also known as the Gaussian distribution. This
type of noise is characterized by its normal distribution of amplitude values and is commonly used to model random
noise in many applications, including image processing, communication systems, and electronics.
Gaussian noise is typically added to the original signal or image. This means the noisy signal 𝑦(𝑡) is given by:
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑛(𝑡)
where 𝑥(𝑡) is the original signal and 𝑛(𝑡) is the Gaussian noise.
Effects of Gaussian Noise on Images:
• Blurring: The noise adds random variations to pixel values, which can blur fine details and reduce image
sharpness.
• Degradation: Overall image quality can be degraded, making it harder to extract meaningful information or
perform tasks such as edge detection or image segmentation.
Applications:
• Image Processing: Gaussian noise is a common assumption in image processing for testing and developing noise
reduction algorithms.
• Communication Systems: Used to model and simulate the noise encountered in transmission channels.
• Sensor Noise: Represents random noise in sensors and electronic devices.

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Q.22) Briefly Describe smoothing linear spatial filter ?

A smoothing linear spatial filter, also known as a smoothing filter or a low-pass filter, is a type of linear filter used in
image processing to reduce noise and blur images. It works by averaging the pixel values within a local neighbourhood
around each pixel in the image. Smoothing filters are effective for removing high-frequency noise while preserving low-
frequency components, such as edges and large-scale structures.

Characteristics and Operation:

1. Local Averaging: The filter operates by averaging the pixel values within a defined neighbourhood cantered
around each pixel in the image.
2. Weighted Averaging: Each pixel's value is given equal weight in a simple smoothing filter. However, weighted
averaging can be applied to assign higher weights to central pixels for more emphasis.
3. Convolution Operation: The filter is applied using convolution, where the filter mask (kernel) is slid over the
image, and at each position, the pixel values within the mask are multiplied by corresponding weights and
summed to produce the smoothed pixel value.
4. Effect on Image: Smoothing filters reduce image noise by blurring sharp transitions and small-scale details. They
also have the effect of reducing image sharpness and edge contrast.

Types of Smoothing Filters:

1. Box Filter: Also known as a uniform filter, it applies equal weights to all pixels within the neighbourhood.
2. Gaussian Filter: Uses a Gaussian function to assign weights to pixels, resulting in smoother transitions and better
preservation of image details.
3. Mean Filter: Similar to the box filter but often used interchangeably, especially in the context of image
processing.

Applications:
1. Noise Reduction: Smoothing filters are widely used for reducing noise in images, especially in medical imaging,
photography, and video processing.
2. Preprocessing: They are often employed as preprocessing steps before more complex image processing tasks,
such as edge detection or segmentation.
3. Image Enhancement: In some cases, mild smoothing can enhance image aesthetics by reducing visual noise and
emphasizing larger-scale features.

Q.23) What is bit-plane slicing ? What is grey level slicing / intensity slicing?
Bit-plane slicing and grey-level slicing are two techniques used in digital image processing for image enhancement
and analysis.
Bit-plane Slicing:
Bit-plane slicing involves separating the bits of each pixel in an image into different planes based on their significance.
Each bit plane represents a particular power of 2 in the binary representation of the pixel intensity values. By visualizing
or processing each bit plane separately, certain image features can be enhanced or extracted.
• Visualization: Bit-plane slicing allows the visualization of different levels of detail in an image. The most
significant bit (MSB) plane contains the coarsest information, representing the major structures and features,
while the least significant bit (LSB) plane contains the finest details and noise.
• Image Enhancement: By selectively discarding or manipulating certain bit planes, noise can be reduced or
specific image features can be enhanced. For example, removing lower-order bit planes can reduce noise, while
enhancing higher-order bit planes can emphasize finer details.

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Gray-level Slicing:
Gray-level slicing, also known as intensity slicing, involves segmenting an image based on pixel intensity values within a
certain range or threshold. It aims to highlight specific intensity levels or regions of interest in the image while
suppressing others.
• Thresholding: Gray-level slicing is essentially a form of thresholding, where pixel values within a specified range
are retained, while those outside the range are set to zero or some predefined value.
• Image Analysis: Gray-level slicing is commonly used for image segmentation, object detection, and feature
extraction tasks. It allows selective highlighting of objects or features with specific intensity levels, making them
more prominent for subsequent analysis.
In summary, both bit-plane slicing and grey-level slicing are valuable techniques in digital image processing, each serving
different purposes and offering unique advantages in enhancing and analysing images.

Q.24) What is Log Transformation ? Why do we need log transformation in dynamic range compression ?
Log transformation is a point processing technique used in digital image processing to expand the dark regions of
an image while compressing the brighter regions. It is particularly useful for enhancing details in images with large
variations in intensity, such as those with high dynamic range.
Mathematical Formulation
The log transformation can be defined by the following formula:
Where:
𝑠 = 𝑐 ⋅ log(1 + 𝑟) • 𝑠 is the output pixel value.
• 𝑟 is the input pixel value.
• 𝑐 is a constant that scales the output values.
• log denotes the natural logarithm.

Explanation
• Input Pixel Value (𝑟): The original intensity value of a pixel.
• Output Pixel Value (𝑠): The transformed intensity value.
• Constant (𝑐): This constant is used to adjust the range of the output values. Typically, it is chosen such that the
output values are within the desired range (e.g., 0 to 255 for 8-bit images).

Dynamic Range in Images

The dynamic range of an image refers to the range between the lowest and highest intensity values. Images with a high
dynamic range contain a wide spectrum of intensities, from very dark (low intensity) to very bright (high intensity).
Examples include:
• Medical Images: Such as X-rays or CT scans, where both soft tissues (low intensity) and bones (high intensity)
need to be visible.
• Astronomical Images: Where faint stars (low intensity) and bright stars (high intensity) coexist.
• Natural Scenes: Containing shadows and highlights in the same frame.

Challenges of High Dynamic Range

• Detail Loss: In high dynamic range images, details in the darker areas may be lost if the brighter areas dominate
the image, or vice versa.
• Display Limitations: Most display devices have a limited dynamic range, meaning they cannot accurately
reproduce the full range of intensities present in high dynamic range images.

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Log transformation is used to compress the dynamic range of an image, making it easier to visualize and analyse. Here’s
how:
1. Enhancing Dark Regions:
• Non-linear Mapping: The logarithmic function maps a wide range of input values to a smaller range of
output values.
• Detail Enhancement: By applying the log function, smaller intensity values (dark regions) are stretched
more than larger ones. This enhances details in the darker regions of the image.
2. Compressing Bright Regions:
• Dynamic Range Reduction: Larger intensity values (bright regions) are compressed, meaning they
occupy a smaller range in the output image.
• Preventing Saturation: This prevents bright regions from becoming saturated (all-white), thereby
retaining details.
3. Visualization:
• Improved Contrast: Overall contrast in the image is improved, making it easier to distinguish between
different features.
• Better Representation: Features that were previously invisible in dark areas become discernible,
providing a more balanced representation of the scene.

Q.25) What is Homomorphic filtering ? Setup the equation ? Mention the domain of application of this filtering ?
Homomorphic filtering is a technique in image processing that aims to simultaneously normalize the brightness
across an image and enhance the contrast. It is particularly effective for correcting non-uniform illumination and
enhancing details in images that have large variations in lighting. The technique is based on the assumption that an
image can be modelled as the product of illumination and reflectance components.
Theoretical Background
An image 𝐼(𝑥,𝑦) can be represented as the product of two components:
• Illumination Component 𝐿(𝑥,𝑦): Represents the varying lighting conditions across the image.
• Reflectance Component 𝑅(𝑥,𝑦): Represents the inherent properties of the objects in the scene.
Thus, the image can be expressed as:
𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐿(𝑥, 𝑦) ⋅ 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦)
To separate the multiplicative components into additive components, we take the natural logarithm of both sides:
log(𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦)) = log(𝐿(𝑥, 𝑦) ⋅ 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦))
log(𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦)) = log(𝐿(𝑥, 𝑦)) + log(𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦))

Let : 𝑧(𝑥, 𝑦) = log(𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦)) So, we have –

𝑙(𝑥, 𝑦) = log(𝐿(𝑥, 𝑦)) 𝑧(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑙(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑟(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑟(𝑥, 𝑦) = log(𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦))

Homomorphic filtering finds applications in various fields where image enhancement and correction of non-uniform
illumination are crucial. Some common applications include:
1. Biomedical Imaging:
• MRI: Homomorphic filtering can improve the visualization of soft tissues by correcting for uneven
illumination caused by imaging artifacts.
• Microscopy: Enhancing microscopic images by reducing uneven illumination and enhancing details can
aid in cellular analysis and diagnosis.

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 2. Remote Sensing:
• Satellite Imagery: Homomorphic filtering helps correct for atmospheric scattering effects and uneven
lighting conditions, improving the clarity of satellite images for environmental monitoring, agriculture,
and urban planning.
• Aerial Photography: Enhancing aerial photographs taken under varying lighting conditions can aid in
land cover classification, forestry management, and disaster assessment.
3. Forensic Analysis:
• Crime Scene Investigation: Correcting uneven illumination in images captured at crime scenes can
reveal crucial details that may be overlooked, aiding in evidence collection and analysis.
• Fingerprint Analysis: Homomorphic filtering can enhance the contrast and clarity of fingerprint images,
making it easier to identify unique ridge patterns.
4. Underwater Imaging:
o Marine Biology: Correcting for uneven lighting and enhancing image contrast can improve the analysis of
underwater ecosystems and species distribution in marine biology research.
o Underwater Archaeology: Homomorphic filtering helps improve the visibility of submerged artifacts and
structures in underwater archaeological surveys by reducing the effects of water turbidity and uneven
illumination.

Q.26) Explain the process of image enhancement using arithmetic operator ? What is the need of interpolation
technique ?
In the end, an image is an array of numbers. So mathematical operations can be performed on these numbers. In
this section, we consider 2D images but the generalization to different dimensions is obvious.
Addition
The addition of two images 𝑓 and 𝑔 of the same size results in a new image ℎ of the same size whose pixels are the sum
of the pixels in the original images:
∀𝑚, 𝑛, ℎ(𝑚, 𝑛) = 𝑓(𝑚, 𝑛) + 𝑔(𝑚, 𝑛)
Subtraction
The subtraction of two images is used for example to detect changes.
∀𝑚, 𝑛, ℎ(𝑚, 𝑛) = 𝑓(𝑚, 𝑛) − 𝑔(𝑚, 𝑛)
∀𝑚, 𝑛, ℎ(𝑚, 𝑛) = |𝑓(𝑚, 𝑛) − 𝑔(𝑚, 𝑛)|
Division
The division of two images is used to correct non-homogeneous illumination.
𝑓(𝑚, 𝑛)
∀𝑚, 𝑛, ℎ(𝑚, 𝑛) =
𝑔(𝑚, 𝑛)

Interpolation techniques are necessary in various fields, particularly in image processing and computer graphics, due to
several reasons:
1. Image Resizing: When resizing an image, especially enlarging it, interpolation helps in generating new pixel
values for the resized image. Without interpolation, the resized image may appear pixelated or blocky.
2. Zooming: In digital zooming, interpolation is used to create additional pixels to enhance the resolution of an
image. This is important in applications such as digital cameras and medical imaging.
3. Rotating Images: Interpolation is essential when rotating images. It helps in determining the new pixel values of
the rotated image by estimating the values from the original image.

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 4. Geometric Transformations: Interpolation plays a crucial role in various geometric transformations of images,
such as scaling, rotation, translation, and skewing. It helps maintain the visual quality and integrity of the
transformed image.
5. Curve Fitting: Interpolation is used to approximate unknown data points based on known data points. This is
useful in various scientific and engineering applications where precise data analysis is required.
6. Signal Processing: In signal processing applications, interpolation is used to reconstruct signals from sampled
data. It helps in recovering the original continuous signal from its discrete samples.
7. Computer Graphics: In rendering three-dimensional scenes, interpolation is used to smooth out surfaces,
textures, and lighting effects, resulting in more realistic images.
Overall, interpolation techniques are essential for generating smooth, visually pleasing images, accurately representing
data, and facilitating various image processing and computer graphics tasks. They help bridge gaps between known data
points and enable the manipulation and analysis of digital data in a wide range of applications.

Q.27) Define Line and Edge detection ? Describe Edge Detection Operator and Contrast Stretching of an image ? What do
you mean by Global and Local threshold ?

Line Detection:
Line detection is a process in image processing used to identify lines or linear structures within an image. It is a
fundamental technique for understanding the geometric structure of the scene represented in the image.
Techniques:
1. Hough Transform: A popular technique for detecting lines in an image. It transforms points in the image space to
a parameter space where lines are represented by points.
• Equation: The equation of a line in polar coordinates used in the Hough Transform is:
ρ = 𝑥 cos(θ) + 𝑦 sin(θ)
where 𝜌 is the distance from the origin to the line, and 𝜃 is the angle of the line.
2. Gradient-based Methods: These methods detect lines by identifying regions in the image with high gradients in
intensity. The gradients can be computed using operators like Sobel, Prewitt, or Canny edge detectors.

Edge Detection:
Edge detection is a technique used in image processing and computer vision to identify the boundaries within images.
Edges represent significant local changes in intensity and are important features for object recognition, segmentation,
and scene analysis.
Techniques:
1. Sobel Operator: Computes the gradient of the image intensity at each pixel, giving the direction of the largest
possible increase from light to dark and the rate of change in that direction.
• Equation: The Sobel operator uses two 3x3 convolution kernels:

The gradient magnitude is given by: G = √𝐺𝑥 2 + 𝐺𝑦 2

2. Canny Edge Detector: A multi-stage algorithm that provides good detection, localization, and minimal response.
It involves steps like Gaussian smoothing, gradient calculation, non-maximum suppression, and hysteresis
thresholding.
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 1. Apply a Gaussian filter to smooth the image and reduce noise.
2. Calculate the gradient magnitude and direction.
3. Apply non-maximum suppression to thin out the edges.
4. Use double thresholding to identify strong and weak edges.
5. Track edges by hysteresis: finalize the detection by suppressing all edges that are not connected
to strong edges.

3. Prewitt Operator: Similar to the Sobel operator but uses a different kernel for gradient approximation.
o Equation: The Prewitt operator uses two 3x3 convolution kernels

Contrast Stretching:
Contrast stretching, also known as normalization, is a technique used in image processing to improve the contrast of an
image by expanding the range of intensity values. It aims to enhance the visibility of features in an image by making dark
areas darker and bright areas brighter.
Process:
1. Identify the Minimum and Maximum Intensity Values:
• Determine the minimum (𝐼min) and maximum (𝐼max) intensity values in the original image.
2. Apply the Contrast Stretching Formula:
• For each pixel intensity I in the image, apply the following transformation:

(𝐼 − 𝐼min ) ⋅ (𝐼max,new − 𝐼min,new )

𝐼new = + 𝐼min,new
𝐼max − 𝐼min

• Here, 𝐼new is the new intensity value, 𝐼max,new and 𝐼min,new are the desired maximum and minimum
intensity values after stretching (often set to 255 and 0 for an 8-bit image).
Applications:
• Medical Imaging: Enhances the visibility of structures in X-rays and MRI scans.
• Satellite Imaging: Improves the clarity of land and water features.
• Photography: Enhances the visual appeal of photos by adjusting contrast.

Thresholding is a simple yet effective technique used in image processing for segmentation. It converts a
grayscale image into a binary image, where pixels are either black or white, based on a threshold value. The purpose of
thresholding is to separate objects from the background.
Global Thresholding:
Global thresholding applies a single threshold value to the entire image. Every pixel in the image is compared to this
threshold value, and based on the comparison, the pixel is either set to the background (typically black) or the object
(typically white).
Process:
1. Choose a Threshold Value: Determine a single threshold value 𝑇.
2. Apply the Threshold: For each pixel (𝑥,𝑦) in the image with intensity 𝐼(𝑥,𝑦).

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Advantages:
• Simple to implement.
• Computationally efficient.
Disadvantages:
• Not effective for images with varying illumination or when the foreground and background intensities overlap
significantly.

Local (Adaptive) Thresholding:

Local thresholding, also known as adaptive thresholding, computes a threshold for each pixel based on the intensities of
neighbouring pixels. This method is particularly useful for images with uneven lighting.
Process:
1. Define a Neighbourhood: Choose a neighbourhood size (e.g., a window of 𝑚×𝑛 pixels) around each pixel.
2. Compute Local Threshold: For each pixel (𝑥,𝑦), compute a threshold 𝑇(𝑥,𝑦) based on the intensity values within
its neighbourhood.
3. Apply the Threshold: For each pixel (𝑥,𝑦):

Advantages:
• More effective for images with varying lighting conditions.
• Better for segmenting images with complex backgrounds.
Disadvantages:
• Computationally more intensive than global thresholding.
• Requires careful selection of neighbourhood size and thresholding method.

Q.28) Write down the usefulness of Segmentation ? Discuss Region Growing technique for image segmentation ?
Segmentation is a crucial step in image processing that involves partitioning an image into meaningful regions,
typically to simplify or change the representation of an image into something more meaningful and easier to analyse.
Here are some of the key usefulness and applications of segmentation:
• Object Recognition and Detection: Identifying objects or features within an image.
• Medical Imaging: Assisting in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
• Image Compression: Reducing the amount of data required to represent an image.
• Image Editing and Manipulation: Enabling selective editing of specific regions within an image.
• Scene Understanding: Interpreting and understanding the context and environment within an image.
• Robotics and Computer Vision: Facilitating the interaction of robots with their environment.
• Agriculture: Monitoring and managing crops and livestock.
• Remote Sensing: Analysing and interpreting data from satellite images or aerial photographs.
• Traffic Control Systems: Enhancing traffic monitoring and management.
Segmentation makes complex image analysis tasks more manageable, enabling the extraction of useful information and
facilitating decision-making across various fields.

Region Growing Technique for Image Segmentation:

Region growing is a pixel-based image segmentation method that starts with a seed point and expands the region by
adding neighbouring pixels that satisfy certain criteria. This technique is effective for segmenting regions that have
similar properties, such as intensity or colour.

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Steps in Region Growing
1. Seed Selection:
• The process begins by selecting one or more initial seed points. These seeds can be chosen manually or
automatically.
• Each seed point represents the starting pixel of a region.
2. Region Expansion:
• The region grows by examining neighbouring pixels of the seed. If a neighbouring pixel satisfies the
predefined criteria (e.g., intensity similarity), it is added to the region.
• This process continues iteratively, checking the neighbours of all pixels in the growing region.
3. Homogeneity Criterion:
• The criterion for adding pixels can be based on various factors, such as intensity, colour, or texture.
• A common criterion is the intensity difference: a pixel is added to the region if its intensity difference
from the region's mean intensity is below a certain threshold.
4. Stopping Condition:
• The growth stops when no more pixels meet the criterion or when a predefined maximum size of the
region is reached.

Advantages of Region Growing

• Simple Implementation: Easy to implement and understand.
• Connectivity: Ensures that the resulting regions are connected, which can be advantageous in certain
applications.
• Accurate Boundaries: Can provide precise boundaries when regions are homogenous and the criteria are well-
defined.

Disadvantages of Region Growing

• Sensitivity to Seed Selection: The result can vary significantly based on the choice and position of seed points.
• Computationally Intensive: The process can be slow for large images, especially if the criteria are complex.
• Noise Sensitivity: Sensitive to noise and intensity variations, which can lead to incorrect segmentation.
• Over-segmentation: Can result in over-segmentation if the threshold is too low, or under-segmentation if the
threshold is too high.

Q.29) Explain the process of Region Extraction based on Segmentation ? Explain Object recognition process ?
Region extraction is the process of identifying and isolating specific regions within an image based on
segmentation techniques. Segmentation divides an image into multiple segments or regions that are homogeneous with
respect to certain characteristics such as intensity, colour, or texture. The goal of region extraction is to isolate
meaningful regions that can be further analysed or processed.
Steps in Region Extraction
1. Image Acquisition: Obtain the image to be processed. This could be from a camera, a file, or any other source of
digital images.
2. Preprocessing: Apply preprocessing steps such as noise reduction, contrast enhancement, or normalization to
improve the quality of the image and make segmentation more effective.
3. Segmentation: Use a segmentation technique to divide the image into regions. Common techniques include
thresholding, edge detection, region growing, and clustering.
4. Region Labelling: Assign a unique label to each segmented region. This step involves identifying and marking
distinct regions within the segmented image.
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 5. Region Extraction: Extract the regions of interest based on their labels. This may involve isolating specific regions
for further analysis or processing.
6. Post-processing: Apply post-processing techniques to refine the extracted regions. This can include
morphological operations, filtering, or contour smoothing.

Object Recognition Process

Object recognition is the process of identifying and classifying objects within an image or a sequence of images. It
involves several stages, from preprocessing the image to finally identifying and labelling the objects. Below are the key
steps involved in the object recognition process:
1. Image Acquisition:
• Obtain the image or video frame that contains the objects to be recognized. This can be done using
cameras, scanners, or other imaging devices.
2. Image Preprocessing:
• Enhance the image quality to improve the accuracy of object recognition. This includes noise reduction,
contrast adjustment, and normalization.
• Techniques: Gaussian blurring, histogram equalization, and image resizing.
3. Segmentation:
• Divide the image into meaningful regions or segments that correspond to different objects or parts of
objects.
• Techniques: Thresholding, edge detection, region growing, and clustering.
4. Feature Extraction:
• Identify and extract important features from each segment that can be used to recognize the object.
• Features: Edges, corners, textures, shapes, and colour histograms.
• Techniques: SIFT (Scale-Invariant Feature Transform), SURF (Speeded-Up Robust Features), HOG
(Histogram of Oriented Gradients), and deep learning-based feature extraction.
5. Feature Matching/Classification:
• Compare the extracted features with a database of known object features to find the best match.
• Techniques: Template matching, nearest neighbour search, support vector machines (SVM), and neural
networks.
• In deep learning approaches, convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are often used for this step.
6. Post-Processing:
• Refine the recognition results to reduce false positives and improve accuracy.
• Techniques: Non-maximum suppression, context-based refinement, and ensemble methods.
7. Object Labelling and Annotation:
• Assign labels to the recognized objects and annotate the image with bounding boxes, masks, or other
markers to indicate the recognized objects.
• Techniques: Bounding box drawing, semantic segmentation maps, and instance segmentation masks.

Applications of Object Recognition:

• Autonomous driving systems use object recognition to identify pedestrians, vehicles, and road signs.
• Medical imaging systems use object recognition to detect and classify tumours or other anomalies in scans.
• Surveillance systems use object recognition to identify and track individuals or objects of interest.
• Inventory management systems use object recognition to track products on shelves.
• Robots use object recognition to interact with and manipulate objects in their environment.
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Q.30) Explain Image Restoration Model ?
Image restoration refers to the process of recovering an original, uncorrupted image from a degraded one. The
degradation can result from various factors such as noise, motion blur, or sensor imperfections. The goal of image
restoration is to reconstruct an image that is as close as possible to the original scene. This process involves modelling
the degradation and applying inverse techniques to revert the effects of the degradation.
Key Components of Image Restoration Model
1. Degradation Model: Represents the process through which the original image is corrupted.
• Noise:
o Common types include Gaussian noise, salt-and-pepper noise, and Poisson noise.
o Noise is typically modelled as an additive component: 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) + η(𝑥, 𝑦)
• Blur:
o Caused by factors like motion, defocus, or atmospheric turbulence.
o Blurring is often modelled by a convolution process: 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ∗ ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝜂(𝑥, 𝑦)

2. Restoration Approach:
• Involves estimating the original image 𝑓(𝑥,𝑦) from the degraded image 𝑔(𝑥,𝑦).
• Common techniques include:
1. Inverse Filtering. 3. Regularization Methods.
2. Wiener Filtering. 4. Iterative Techniques.
The image restoration model involves understanding and modelling the degradation process and then applying
mathematical techniques to reverse or mitigate the effects of the degradation. The primary goal is to recover the original
image as accurately as possible, leveraging various filtering and regularization techniques to achieve this.

Q.31) Discuss Region Split technique for image segmentation ? What is Pattern Fritting approach ?
Region splitting is a top-down image segmentation method that involves dividing an image into smaller regions
to achieve more homogeneous segments based on specific criteria. This technique is often used in combination with
region merging to form a more robust segmentation approach known as the split-and-merge method.
Key Concepts
1. Homogeneity Criterion: The criterion used to decide whether a region should be split further. Common criteria
include intensity variance, texture uniformity, or colour similarity.
2. Recursive Splitting: The process of repeatedly dividing regions until they meet the homogeneity criterion.

Advantages of Region Splitting

• Control Over Segmentation: Provides a hierarchical approach, allowing control over the level of detail in
segmentation.
• Simplicity: Conceptually simple and easy to implement, especially with a quadtree structure.
• Flexibility: Can be combined with other techniques, like region merging, to improve results.

Disadvantages of Region Splitting

• Computationally Intensive: Can be computationally expensive due to recursive splitting and homogeneity
checks.
• Sensitivity to Criterion: Performance depends heavily on the chosen homogeneity criterion and threshold.
• Over-Segmentation: May result in over-segmentation if regions are split too finely without subsequent merging.

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Applications
• Medical Imaging: Used to segment different tissues or structures in medical scans.
• Remote Sensing: Applied to segment satellite images into different land use or vegetation types.
• Texture Analysis: Helpful in analysing and segmenting images with varied textures.

The "Pattern Fitting" approach is a technique used in image processing and computer vision for pattern recognition and
matching. It involves comparing a given pattern or template with an input image to identify instances of the pattern
within the image.
Key Concepts:
1. Pattern or Template: A small image patch representing the object or pattern of interest. This pattern serves as a
reference for comparison with the input image.
2. Image Matching: The process of locating instances of the pattern within the input image. This involves
comparing the pattern with different regions of the image to find the best match.
3. Similarity Measure: A metric used to quantify the similarity between the pattern and each region of the image.
Common measures include correlation coefficient, normalized cross-correlation, and sum of squared differences
(SSD).

Steps in Pattern Fitting:

1. Template Creation: Prepare a template image containing the pattern or object of interest. The template should
be representative and accurately reflect the appearance of the pattern.
2. Localization: Scan the input image with the template, moving the template across the image in a systematic
manner (e.g., by sliding window or using key points).
3. Similarity Calculation: For each position of the template within the image, calculate the similarity measure
between the template and the corresponding region of the image.
4. Matching Score Calculation: Assign a matching score to each position based on the similarity measure. Higher
scores indicate better matches between the template and the image region.
5. Thresholding: Apply a threshold to the matching scores to identify potential matches. Positions with scores
above the threshold are considered as potential instances of the pattern.

Applications:
1. Object Detection: Locating objects or patterns within images for tasks such as face detection, vehicle detection,
or industrial part inspection.
2. Image Alignment: Aligning images by finding correspondences between features in different images.
3. Motion Tracking: Tracking the movement of objects or patterns in video sequences by matching templates
across frames.
4. Biometrics: Recognizing patterns such as fingerprints, iris patterns, or facial features for biometric identification.

Q.32) What is the role of Quantization in image processing ? Discuss briefly Huffman Coding ?
Quantization plays a crucial role in image processing, particularly in digital image representation and
compression. Here's how quantization contributes to various aspects of image processing:
1. Digital Image Representation:
• Discretization of Intensity Levels: Quantization discretizes the continuous intensity levels of an image into a
finite set of discrete levels. For example, in an 8-bit grayscale image, each pixel can have one of 256 discrete
intensity levels (from 0 to 255).

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 • Colour Quantization: In colour images, quantization reduces the number of distinct colours by mapping similar
colours to the same or nearby values. This simplifies the image representation while preserving visual quality to
some extent.
2. Image Compression:
• Lossy Compression: Quantization is a fundamental step in lossy compression techniques like JPEG. In
quantization, the precision of pixel values is reduced by mapping them to a smaller set of discrete values. This
introduces loss of information but leads to significant compression ratios.
• Quantization Tables: JPEG compression employs quantization tables to determine how much to reduce the
precision of different frequency components in the image's frequency domain representation (e.g., Discrete
Cosine Transform - DCT).
3. Bit-depth Reduction:
• Bit-depth Reduction: Quantization is used to reduce the bit-depth of an image, which decreases the amount of
data needed to represent each pixel. For example, reducing an image from 16 bits per channel to 8 bits per
channel reduces storage requirements and processing complexity while sacrificing some image quality.
4. Image Processing Operations:
• Data Reduction: In certain image processing operations like filtering or morphological operations, quantization
can be used to reduce the computational complexity by performing operations on quantized images with fewer
intensity levels.
5. Colour and Texture Analysis:
• Colour Space Quantization: Quantization of colour spaces like RGB, HSV, or LAB can simplify colour-based image
analysis tasks such as segmentation, classification, or feature extraction.
• Texture Quantization: Quantization of texture features, such as gradients or local binary patterns, can simplify
texture analysis tasks and reduce computational complexity.

Huffman Coding:
Huffman coding is a widely used algorithm for lossless data compression, commonly applied in image, audio, and
video compression techniques. It was developed by David A. Huffman in 1952 while he was a graduate student at MIT.
Key Concepts:
1. Variable-Length Prefix Codes: Huffman coding assigns variable-length codes to input symbols based on their
frequencies, with more frequent symbols getting shorter codes and less frequent symbols getting longer codes.
2. Prefix Property: No code is a prefix of another code. This property ensures that the encoded bit stream can be
uniquely decoded without any ambiguity.
3. Optimality: Huffman coding produces an optimal prefix code, meaning that it achieves the shortest possible
average code length for a given set of symbol frequencies.
Steps in Huffman Coding:
1. Frequency Calculation: Determine the frequency of each input symbol in the data to be encoded.
2. Construct Huffman Tree: Build a binary tree called the Huffman tree, where each leaf node represents a symbol
and each internal node represents the sum of the frequencies of its child nodes.
3. Assign Codes: Traverse the Huffman tree to assign binary codes to each symbol. Typically, a left branch
represents '0', and a right branch represents '1'.
4. Generate Huffman Code: The codes assigned to symbols are the Huffman codes, which form a prefix code.
Applications:
1. Data Compression: Huffman coding is widely used in data compression algorithms such as ZIP, JPEG, and MP3.
2. Storage: Efficient encoding reduces the size of data for transmission over networks and storage on disk.
3. Text Compression: Huffman coding is effective for compressing text files, where certain characters occur more
frequently than others.

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Q.33) What do you mean by redundancy ? What is compression ratio ? What are the types of image compression ? State
the differences between Lossy and Lossless compression ?
In the context of image processing, redundancy refers to the repetitive or unnecessary information present
within an image. Redundancy in images can arise from various factors, including spatial correlation, pixel similarities, and
patterns within the image data. Understanding and managing redundancy is crucial for efficient image processing tasks
such as compression, transmission, and analysis.
Types of Redundancy in Image Processing:
1. Spatial Redundancy:
• Spatial redundancy occurs due to similarities between neighbouring pixels within the image. In many
images, adjacent pixels often have similar colour values, leading to redundancy that can be exploited for
compression.
2. Spectral Redundancy:
• Spectral redundancy arises from correlations between different colour channels or spectral bands in
multi-channel or multispectral images. For example, in RGB images, there is often redundancy between
the red, green, and blue colour channels.
3. Temporal Redundancy:
• Temporal redundancy is relevant in video processing, where consecutive frames often contain similar
content. Efficient video compression techniques exploit temporal redundancy to reduce the data rate for
video transmission and storage.
4. Coding Redundancy:
• Coding redundancy refers to redundant information introduced by the encoding or representation of the
image data. For example, certain image file formats may include metadata or header information that is
redundant with the actual image content.

Importance of Redundancy in Image Processing:

1. Compression: Redundancy is a key factor in image compression techniques such as JPEG and PNG. By identifying
and removing redundant information, these algorithms achieve significant reductions in file size without
significant loss of image quality.
2. Transmission: Reducing redundancy in images is essential for efficient transmission over networks with limited
bandwidth. Compressed images require less data to be transmitted, leading to faster transmission times and
reduced network congestion.
3. Analysis and Processing: In image analysis and processing tasks, managing redundancy can improve
computational efficiency and reduce processing times. Techniques such as feature extraction and pattern
recognition benefit from reduced redundancy, as they focus on essential image characteristics.

Compression ratio is a measure used to quantify the effectiveness of data compression algorithms. It represents the ratio
of the size of the uncompressed data to the size of the compressed data. Mathematically, the compression ratio 𝐶𝑅 is
defined as:
𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎
𝐶𝑅 =
𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎
Example:
Suppose the original uncompressed data size is 1000 KB (kilobytes), and after compression, the size of the
compressed data is 200 KB. The compression ratio would be:
1000 𝐾𝐵
𝐶𝑅 = = 5
200 𝐾𝐵

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Image compression techniques can be broadly categorized into two types: lossless compression and lossy compression.
Here's a comparison between the two:
Lossless Compression:
1. Definition:
• Lossless compression is a data compression technique that reduces the size of the image file without
losing any information. It allows for exact reconstruction of the original image from the compressed
data.
2. Compression Ratio:
• Generally, lossless compression achieves lower compression ratios compared to lossy compression. It
may not provide as significant reductions in file size but ensures no loss of image quality.
3. Applications:
• Lossless compression is suitable for scenarios where preserving every detail of the image is critical, such
as medical imaging, archival storage, and text-based images.
4. Examples:
• Common lossless compression formats include PNG (Portable Network Graphics) and GIF (Graphics
Interchange Format).
Lossy Compression:
1. Definition:
• Lossy compression is a data compression technique that achieves higher compression ratios by
sacrificing some image quality. It selectively discards less critical image information that is less
noticeable to human perception.
2. Compression Ratio:
• Lossy compression typically achieves higher compression ratios compared to lossless compression. It
significantly reduces file size but at the expense of some loss in image fidelity.
3. Applications:
• Lossy compression is suitable for scenarios where a certain degree of image quality degradation is
acceptable, such as web graphics, multimedia applications, and digital photography.
4. Examples:
• Common lossy compression formats include JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) and MPEG
(Moving Picture Experts Group).

Aspect Lossless Compression Lossy Compression

Image Quality Preserves original image quality completely Introduces some degree of image degradation
Compression Achieves lower compression ratios Achieves higher compression ratios
Ratio
Reconstruction Allows for exact reconstruction of original Reconstruction may not match the original image
image precisely
Suitability Suitable for scenarios prioritizing image Suitable for scenarios prioritizing significant
fidelity reductions in file size
Applications Medical imaging, archival storage, text-based Web graphics, multimedia applications, digital
images photography

Q.34) What is the need of Compression ? State the JPEG compression algorithm. Draw the schematic diagram of JPEG
compressor ?

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 Image compression is essential for several reasons, all of which contribute to more efficient use of resources and
improved performance across various applications. Here are the primary needs for image compression:
1. Storage Efficiency:
• Compressed images require significantly less storage space compared to uncompressed images. This is especially
important for applications that need to store large volumes of images, such as digital libraries, archives, and
databases.
• By reducing the amount of storage needed, compression can lead to cost savings in terms of both physical
storage media and cloud storage services.
2. Transmission Efficiency:
• Compressed images can be transmitted more quickly over networks due to their reduced file sizes. This is crucial
for applications such as web browsing, where loading times are important, and for sending images via email or
messaging services.
• By reducing the size of image files, compression helps in optimizing the use of available bandwidth, making it
possible to transmit more data over the same connection and improving the overall efficiency of network
resources.
3. Performance Improvement:
• Smaller image files can be processed more quickly by software applications, leading to faster performance in
tasks such as editing, analysis, and rendering.
• For end-users, faster load times and smoother interactions with image-heavy applications enhance the overall
user experience.
4. Practical Applications:
• Web and Mobile Applications: Web developers and mobile app designers often use compressed images to
improve page load times and app responsiveness.
• Streaming Services: Video streaming services use image compression techniques to reduce the data rate
required for high-quality video streams.
• Multimedia Storage: In multimedia storage and distribution, such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-rays, compression
allows for more content to be stored and distributed efficiently.

The JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) compression algorithm is a widely used method for compressing digital
images, particularly for photographic content. JPEG compression uses a combination of lossy and lossless techniques to
achieve significant reductions in file size while maintaining an acceptable level of image quality. Here is an outline of the
JPEG compression algorithm:
1. Colour Space Transformation:
• Convert RGB to YCbCr: JPEG compression typically starts by converting the image from the RGB colour space to
the YCbCr colour space. The Y component represents the luminance (brightness), while Cb and Cr represent the
chrominance (colour) components. This transformation takes advantage of the human eye's greater sensitivity to
brightness than colour.
2. Downsampling:
• Chrominance Downsampling: The chrominance components (Cb and Cr) are often downsampled (reduced in
resolution) because the human eye is less sensitive to colour details than to brightness details. Common
downsampling ratios are 4:2:2 or 4:2:0.
3. Block Splitting:
• 8x8 Blocks: The image is divided into non-overlapping 8x8 blocks. This block size is chosen for its balance
between compression efficiency and computational complexity.
4. Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT):

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 • Transform Each Block: Each 8x8 block of pixels is transformed from the spatial domain to the frequency domain
using the Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT). This process converts the pixel values into DCT coefficients that
represent the spatial frequencies of the block.
• Frequency Coefficients: The DCT separates the image information into different frequencies, with most of the
visually significant information concentrated in the lower frequencies.
5. Quantization:
• Quantization Matrix: Each DCT coefficient is divided by a corresponding value from a quantization matrix and
then rounded to the nearest integer. This step introduces loss but significantly reduces the amount of data by
discarding less visually important high-frequency components.
• Adjustable Quality: The level of compression can be adjusted by changing the values in the quantization matrix,
allowing a trade-off between image quality and file size.
6. Entropy Coding:
• Zigzag Ordering: The quantized DCT coefficients are ordered in a zigzag sequence to group low-frequency
coefficients together, which are more likely to be non-zero, followed by high-frequency coefficients, which are
more likely to be zero.
• Run-Length Encoding (RLE): The ordered coefficients are then subjected to run-length encoding to compress
sequences of zero coefficients.
• Huffman Coding: Finally, the RLE output is encoded using Huffman coding, a lossless compression method that
reduces the overall size of the data by using shorter codes for more frequent values.
7. File Format:
• JPEG File Structure: The compressed data, along with additional information such as headers and metadata, is
then packaged into a JPEG file format. This format includes markers that define the structure and compression
parameters used in the image.

Schematic diagram of JPEG compressor:

Q.35) Mention different video compression techniques, briefly discuss any two of them ?
Video compression is the process of reducing the amount of data required to represent a digital video by
eliminating redundant or unnecessary information. This enables more efficient storage and transmission of video
content.
Different Video Compression Techniques:
1. H.264 (AVC) 5. VP8
2. H.265 (HEVC) 6. VP9
3. AV1 7. MPEG-2
4. MPEG-4 8. Theora

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1. H.264 (Advanced Video Coding, AVC):
H.264, also known as AVC (Advanced Video Coding), is a widely used video compression standard developed by
the ITU-T Video Coding Experts Group (VCEG) together with the ISO/IEC Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG). It is
designed for high-quality video transmission and storage at lower bitrates.
Key Features:
• Efficient Compression: H.264 provides high compression efficiency, achieving significant reductions in file size
while maintaining video quality.
• Broad Compatibility: It is widely supported across a range of devices and platforms, including smartphones,
cameras, streaming services, and more.
• Scalability: H.264 supports a wide range of resolutions and bitrates, making it suitable for various applications
from low-quality streaming to high-definition video.
Compression Techniques:
• Block-Based Motion Compensation: Video frames are divided into blocks, and motion vectors are used to
predict the movement of these blocks between frames, reducing redundancy.
• Intra-frame Compression: Each frame is compressed independently using techniques like the Discrete Cosine
Transform (DCT) and quantization.
• Inter-frame Compression: Redundancy between frames is reduced by referencing preceding and succeeding
frames (P-frames and B-frames).
Applications:
• Streaming services (e.g., YouTube, Netflix)
• Video conferencing (e.g., Zoom, Skype)
• Blu-ray discs
• Digital television broadcasting
2. H.265 (High Efficiency Video Coding, HEVC):
H.265, also known as HEVC (High Efficiency Video Coding), is the successor to H.264, developed by the Joint
Collaborative Team on Video Coding (JCT-VC). It offers improved compression efficiency, especially for high-resolution
video.
Key Features:
• Improved Compression Efficiency: H.265 achieves approximately double the compression efficiency of H.264,
significantly reducing file sizes for the same video quality.
• Support for Higher Resolutions: HEVC supports resolutions up to 8K, making it ideal for UHD content.
• Better Bitrate Management: HEVC can deliver better quality at lower bitrates, which is particularly beneficial for
streaming high-resolution videos over limited bandwidth.
Compression Techniques:
• Quadtree-Based Partitioning: Frames are divided into Coding Tree Units (CTUs), which are further split into
smaller units to optimize compression.
• Enhanced Motion Compensation: Improved algorithms for motion estimation and compensation reduce
redundancy more effectively.
• Advanced Entropy Coding: Techniques like Context-Adaptive Binary Arithmetic Coding (CABAC) are used for
more efficient compression.
Applications:
• 4K and 8K video streaming (e.g., Netflix, Amazon Prime)
• Ultra HD Blu-ray discs
• Video surveillance systems
• Virtual reality and 360-degree video
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Q.36) Write short notes on: a) Wavelet Transform b) LZW Compression c) Run Length Coding
Wavelet Transform:
Wavelet Transform is a mathematical tool used for transforming data into different frequency components and
studying each component with a resolution matched to its scale. It is particularly useful in signal processing for analysing
signals that contain non-stationary or transient features.

Key Concepts:
• Multi-Resolution Analysis: Wavelet Transform provides a way to represent data at various levels of detail. This
makes it suitable for analysing different aspects of a signal at different resolutions.
• Localization: Wavelets are localized in both time and frequency domains, which allows for precise analysis of
transient and localized phenomena in the signal.
• Types of Wavelet Transforms:
• Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT): Analyses continuous-time signals at every possible scale and
translation.
• Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT): Uses discrete sampling and is computationally efficient for practical
applications.

Applications:
• Image compression (e.g., JPEG2000)
• Denoising signals and images
• Feature extraction in pattern recognition
• Data compression

LZW Compression:
LZW (Lempel-Ziv-Welch) compression is a lossless data compression algorithm that is a dictionary-based
approach to encoding data. It is widely used in formats like GIF images and UNIX's compress utility.
Key Concepts:
• Dictionary-Based Compression: LZW builds a dictionary of substrings encountered in the input data. When a
substring repeats, it is replaced with a reference to the dictionary.
• Adaptive: The dictionary is built dynamically as the data is being processed, making LZW adaptive to the input
data without needing a predefined dictionary.
• Efficiency: LZW is efficient for compressing text files and other data with repeating patterns.

Steps of LZW Compression:

1. Initialization: Start with a dictionary containing all possible single-character strings.
2. Encoding: Read characters from the input stream to form substrings, adding new substrings to the dictionary as
they are encountered.
3. Output: Output the code for each substring found in the dictionary.

Applications:
• GIF image format
• TIFF image format
• UNIX compress utility

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Run Length Coding:
Run Length Coding (RLC) is a simple form of lossless data compression where sequences of the same data value (runs)
are stored as a single data value and count, rather than as the original run.
Key Concepts:
• Efficiency: RLC is most efficient for data with many repeated values, such as binary images, simple graphics, and
icons.
• Encoding: It replaces sequences of the same value with a pair (value, count).
• Decoding: The original data is reconstructed by repeating each value according to its count.
Steps of RLC:
1. Initialization: Start reading the input data.
2. Encoding: For each run of identical data values, record the value and the length of the run.
3. Output: Output the value and the count.
Example: Input: AAAAAAABBBCCCCCCDD Encoded: (A, 7), (B, 3), (C, 6), (D, 2)
Applications:
• Fax machines
• Bitmap images (e.g., BMP)
• Simple graphic data compression

Q.37) What is boundary extraction in Morphological image operation ? Discuss in brief Hit-or-miss Transform ?
Boundary Extraction in Morphological Image Operations:
Boundary extraction is a morphological operation used to find the boundary or outline of an object in a binary
image. This operation highlights the edges of the objects present in the image.
Process:
1. Erosion: Erode the original image using a structuring element.
2. Subtraction: Subtract the eroded image from the original image.

Mathematical Representation: Let 𝐴 be the original binary image and 𝐵 be the structuring element. The boundary of 𝐴
can be extracted as:
Boundary(𝐴) = 𝐴 − (𝐴 ⊖ 𝐵)
Steps:
1. Erosion: Apply the erosion operation on the original image 𝐴 using the structuring element 𝐵. This results in a
new image 𝐴 ⊖ 𝐵.
2. Subtraction: Subtract the eroded image from the original image to get the boundary:
Boundary(𝐴) = 𝐴 − (𝐴 ⊖ 𝐵)

Example: If 𝐴 is an image containing a white object on a black background, and 𝐵 is a small structuring element (e.g., a
3x3 square), the boundary extraction will highlight the outer edge of the white object.

Hit-or-Miss Transform:
The Hit-or-Miss Transform is a morphological operation used for shape detection. It is a fundamental operation
that finds specific patterns or shapes within a binary image. This transform is useful for identifying specific structures or
features in an image.

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Components:
• Foreground structuring element 𝐵1B1: Matches the shape or pattern to be detected.
• Background structuring element 𝐵2B2: Specifies the shape or pattern that should be absent around the
detected pattern.
Mathematical Representation:
Let 𝐴 be the binary image, 𝐵1 the foreground structuring element, and 𝐵2 the background structuring element.
The Hit-or-Miss Transform can be represented as:
𝐴 ⊗ (𝐵1 , 𝐵2 ) = (𝐴 ⊖ 𝐵1 ) ∩ (𝐴𝑐 ⊖ 𝐵2 )

Where,
▪ ⊗ denotes the Hit-or-Miss Transform,
▪ ⊖ denotes erosion
▪ ∩ denotes intersection
▪ 𝐴𝑐 is the complement of 𝐴.
Steps:
1. Erode the image 𝐴A with the structuring element 𝐵1B1: This identifies the locations in 𝐴A where 𝐵1B1 fits.
2. Erode the complement of 𝐴A with the structuring element 𝐵2B2: This identifies the locations where the
background pattern 𝐵2B2 fits.
3. Intersection: Find the intersection of the results from steps 1 and 2.

Example: To detect a specific 3x3 pattern within a binary image, you can define 𝐵1B1 and 𝐵2B2 to match the foreground
and background parts of the pattern, respectively. The Hit-or-Miss Transform will output a binary image where the
detected pattern locations are marked.

Applications:
• Shape detection in binary images.
• Identifying specific structures like corners, endpoints, or other specific features in images.
• Preprocessing step in various image analysis tasks.

Q.38) Briefly explain Skeletons ? Write down the effects of dilation and erosion process ?
Skeletons in Image Processing:
The skeleton of a binary image is a thin version of that image that is equidistant from its boundaries. It
represents the general form and structure of the objects in the image, reducing them to a simpler shape that is easier to
analyse and process while preserving the connectivity and topology of the original objects.
Process: Skeletonization is typically achieved through iterative morphological operations, usually involving
erosions and openings. The basic idea is to repeatedly erode the shapes in the image until they are reduced to a minimal
form that still represents their overall structure.

Dilation: Dilation is a morphological operation that grows or thickens objects in a binary image. It works by placing the
structuring element over each pixel in the image, and if the structuring element overlaps with any foreground pixel
(usually white), the pixel under consideration is set to the foreground value.
Mathematical Representation: 𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵 = {𝑧 ∣ (𝐵)𝑧 ∩ 𝐴 ≠ ∅}
where ⊕ denotes dilation and (𝐵)𝑧 is the structuring element 𝐵 translated to point 𝑧.

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Effects of Dilation:
• Thickening of objects: Objects in the image grow in size.
• Bridging gaps: Small gaps or holes within objects may be filled.
• Smoothing boundaries: Rough or uneven edges of objects become smoother.
• Connecting objects: Separate objects that are close together may become connected.

Erosion: Erosion is a morphological operation that shrinks or thins objects in a binary image. It works by placing the
structuring element over each pixel in the image, and if the structuring element fits entirely within the foreground
region, the pixel under consideration is retained as a foreground pixel; otherwise, it is set to the background value.
Mathematical Representation: 𝐴 ⊖ 𝐵 = {𝑧 ∣ (𝐵)𝑧 ⊆ 𝐴}
where ⊖ denotes erosion and (𝐵)𝑧 is the structuring element 𝐵 translated to point 𝑧.

Effects of Erosion:
• Shrinking of objects: Objects in the image shrink in size.
• Eliminating small objects: Small objects or noise may be removed.
• Enhancing separation: Objects that are close together may become more separated.
• Highlighting boundaries: The boundaries of objects become more pronounced as the objects shrink.

Q.39) What do you mean by Image Recognition ? Describe any Image Recognition Technique ?
Image Recognition:
Image recognition is the process of identifying and detecting an object or a feature in a digital image or video. It
involves algorithms that can interpret the contents of an image by recognizing patterns and features that distinguish
different objects, people, scenes, or activities.
Importance: Image recognition is crucial in various applications such as automated surveillance, medical image
analysis, autonomous vehicles, facial recognition, and industrial automation. It helps in automating tasks that require
visual understanding, thereby enhancing efficiency and accuracy.

Image Recognition Techniques:

One commonly used image recognition technique is Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs).
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs):
CNNs are a class of deep learning algorithms specifically designed for processing structured grid data like
images. They are highly effective for image recognition due to their ability to automatically and adaptively learn spatial
hierarchies of features from input images.
Training a CNN:
• CNNs are trained using large datasets of labelled images. The training process involves forward
propagation (computing the output), loss calculation (comparing the predicted output with the true
label), and backpropagation (updating the weights to minimize the loss).
Applications:
• Facial Recognition: Identifying and verifying individuals based on their facial features.
• Object Detection: Detecting and localizing objects within an image.
• Medical Imaging: Analysing medical images to detect diseases or abnormalities.
• Autonomous Vehicles: Recognizing road signs, pedestrians, and other vehicles.

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Q.40) Write short note on Chain Code.
Chain code is a method for representing the boundary of a digital image by encoding the sequence of pixels that form
the boundary. This method is particularly useful for shape analysis and pattern recognition in image processing.
• In a chain code representation, the boundary of an object is traced by following the edge pixels and recording
the direction of movement from one pixel to the next.
• Each direction is assigned a code, typically an integer, which represents the direction of movement in a
predefined grid.
• There are different ways to encode directions, but the most common methods use either 4-connectivity or 8-
connectivity:
(1) 4-Connectivity:
Uses four possible directions (up, down, left, right).
The directions are encoded as follows:
0: Right 1: Up 2: Left 3: Down
(2) 8-Connectivity:
Uses eight possible directions (horizontal, vertical, diagonal).
The directions are encoded as follows:
0: Right 1: Upper-right 2: Up
3: Upper-left 4: Left 5: Lower-left
6: Down 7: Lower-right

Advantages:
• Compact Representation: Chain code provides a compact way to represent the shape of an object.
• Rotation Invariance: By normalizing the starting point and direction, chain code can be made rotation-invariant.
• Simple Implementation: Chain code is straightforward to implement and use for basic shape analysis tasks.
Applications:
• Shape Analysis: Chain code is used for analysing and comparing shapes by their boundary representation.
• Pattern Recognition: It helps in recognizing patterns by comparing the encoded boundaries of different shapes.
• Image Compression: Chain code can be used to compress boundary information, reducing the storage space
required for shape representation.

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