N R-FO-57 40-E MINNESOTA EXTENSION SERVICE

1991
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
NATURAL RESOURCES

INTRODUCTION
to Data Analysis Using

Geographic
Information
Systems
Daniel L_ Falbo, LLoyd P. Queen, and Charles R. Blinn
 A Geographic Infonnation System (GIS) is an
automated infonnation system that is able to com-
pile, store, retrieve, analyze, and display mapped
data. Only a decade ago this technology was limited
to a relatively small number of colleges, universities,
and local, state, and federal agencies. The two GIS Database Development:
Integrated Map and Attribute Data
general types of users are systems users (who have
hands-on use of the technology) and end users (who
are users of the infonnation generated by a GIS). + < AnalYSIs> +
Today, it is used by government officials, natural DatabaH GeOraPhlcal
Management (Map Analysis
resource and social analysts, and many others. Its and
Manipulation
applications include environmental research and • retrieval
• classification
~ • measurement
model building, urban demographic studies, and • imporVexport
• expand
·overtay
• transformations
• update
transportation analysis to mention only a few. While • query
• proximity
• map algebra

its use is expanding almost daily, its most important

applications include those that support decision
making.
•
Tabular Output: •
CartographiC Output:

• summary data -maps

• statistics -map files
• report generation • map overlays
Map data used by GIS are collected from existing
maps, aerial photos, satellites, and other sources. A
digitizer or similar device is used to convert compiled Figure 1. Logical flow chart of analytical operations within
map data to a digital fonn in order to make it a GIS framework. This figure diagrams the logical structure
of GIS operation. An initial geographic question drives the
computer compatible. This transfonnation allows data collection. Commonly data collection is done by either
the storage, retrieval, and analysis of the mapped data manually digitizing data from appropriate maps orby importing
tabular data which is referenced with georeferenced
to be perfonned by the computer. Maps produced by coordinates that define the geographic position of the tabular
a GIS are typically displayed on computer monitors (attribute) data. The data is then converted to a digital format
and is entered into a database where it is stored as integrated
or are printed on paper. Unlike many other fonns of map and attribute data. The analytical process then
computer graphics, such as computer-aided drafting manipulates both map and attribute data through the linkages
that GIS establishes between them. Two types of output are
(CAD) systems, a GIS displays actual geographic or common: tabular (summary data, statistics, reports) and
mapped objects. GIS, however, is more than a cartographic (maps, map files, and map overlays).

mapping system. What sets it apart from even the

most sophisticated mapping system is its power to
analyze data and to present the results of that analysis
as useful infonnation to assist decision makers. Use of GIS is driven by the need to answer
geographical or spatial questions. The ensuing data
For a GIS to accurately represent occurrences on collection, database analysis, and output are in re-
the earth's surface, data must be reliable, accurate, sponse to those questions (Figure 1). The purpose of
and pertinent. Because the success of the GIS and all collecting data for a GIS is (a) to inventory a geo-
decisions that are based on it ultimately rest on the graphically defined area (for example, to locate all
integrity of the data, the GIS must be capable of state-owned parcels within a particular area) or (b) to
compiling, updating, and maintaining its data. No test hypotheses and build models. Though the data is
matter how sophisticated the analytical tools, mis- initially collected for one of these reasons, data
used or questionable data will make the final output collected to answer one set of questions is frequently
doubtful. The adage "garbage in - garbage out" used in subsequent anal yses to answer questions that
certainly holds true in the world of GIS. were not anticipated at the time the data was col-

2
lected. For example, after capturing detailed soils analytical power. The relationship between map data
data to determine what crops can be grown, the data and its associated attribute data are shown in Figure
may be useful for answering questions about septic 2 for typical natural resource and urban maps.
tank suitability.
In GIS terminology, the individual spatial phe-
The GIS database contains both map data (de- nomena or map themes are referred to as map layers.
picting location of geographical objects) and at- One layer can contain !oads, another soils, and
tribute data (describing physical characteristics of another can indicate land ownership. Each layer
each object). Physical characteristics (such as timber comprises all of the pertinent map and attribute data.
species and tree diameter) and/or non-physical char- Though other, non-layered approaches to GIS exist,
acteristics (such as estimated market value and man- the layered map model will be used throughout this
agement codes) are examples of attribute data that paper to give examples of GIS analysis and use.
could be contained in a GIS used to analyze forestry
The next section of this publication, Capabili ties
problems. During a GIS analysis, site (map) data is
of a GIS, examines spatial questions that drive a GIS
linked with situation (attribute) data for each mapped
and the basic requirements for the database. The final
timber stand. It is this link, which is automatically
section, Analytical and Operational Functions, ex-
performed by the GIS software, that gives GIS its
amines how GIS software links map and attribute
data in order to analyze spatial problems.

,--_M_a_p_s_->I---+-I Attribute Database

Map Data Attribute Data

• type
Soils • texture
·pH
• erosion potential

Land-cover
• dominant species
• size
Spatial Questions
• density

-lakes
• streams
That Drive an Analysis
Hydrography • watersheds
• gauging stations
GIS applications are the result of spatial ques-
• elevation
Topography • slope tions. The following questions are common!y asked:
• aspect

1. What exists at a particular location on the face

Map Data Attribute Data of the earth (locational analysis)?
• address
Ownership • size 2. When is a specific spatial condition satisfied?
• zoning
• legal description
3. What has spatially changed over time?
• type
Streets • width I length
• paving 4. What kind of pattern will emerge from geo-
• power1ines graphical data?
• water
Facilities • sewer
• buried cables 5. What will happen ifcertain phenomena are en-
tered into predetermined scenarios?

Figure 2. Schematic representation of map data and

associated attribute data. Examples are shown for typical locational Analysis
natural resource and urban GIS applications. Data are
geographically referenced on map layers, each with a primary Mapped data primarily indicates where objects
theme. Specific details or attributes can then be identified for
each feature of interest on the map. These attribute data or are located, but cannot explain why. For example, an
map key information are then stored in the GIS database. aerial photo may show that com is growing vigor-
ously in certain sections of a field, but cannot explain

3
why it does not grow well in other areas. GIS example, if there are a proportionately larger number
analysis, on the other hand, may show a connection of traffic fatalities along roads with posted speeds of
between com growth, soil type, and available water 65 m.p.h. compared to those posted at 55 m.p.h. If
by simultaneously examining computerized crop, there are, other questions such as, "Which stretches
soil, and soil moisture maps. of roads are the most hazardous?" may follow.
Spatial analysts continually seek patterns in
mapped data. Defining the distribution of a crop Ev luating Differen Scenarios
creates a geographical pattern. Investigating the
"Scenario building" is the result of ''What would
commercial feasibility of a potential crop may require
happen if ...." type questions. For example, what
an evaluation of how production, transportation, and
would happen to coastal areas if global temperatures
markets are related to each other. The GIS is able to
increased, the icecaps partially melted, and sea levels
store the necessary data and to study these complex
were elevated? Here, the user employs a model
relationships in a fast, flexible manner.
designed to forecast and map the potential impact of
climate changes on sea level in coastal areas. Appli-
Satisfying a Spatial Condition cation of such a model allows the user to construct a
hypothetical situation and forecast the outcome.
Frequently a GIS user wants to discover whether
the mapped data will meet certain conditions. Sup- Sometimes a change in assumptions results in a
pose someone wants to know where to situate new forecast that is substantially different than expected.
groundwater wells. The wells need to be located For this reason, it is important to test a model's
within 10 miles of a particular subdivision and need assumptions through a process known as "sensitivity
to occur along or adjacent to pipelines already serv- analysis." Sensitivity analysis can be used to deter-
ing that location. The general spatial conditions mine how much the outcome depends on (or is
would be used to define a broad area in which the sensitive to) assumptions used by the model.
wells could be situated. Then, the specific location of
In the above example, the outcome (what would
each new well would be based, in part, on locational
happen to coastal areas) partially depends on a change
analyses performed using well-siting criteria.
in sea elevation. Change in sea elevation depends on
the degree to which icecaps are melted and changes
Temporal Analysis in rainfall and evaporation which may result from a
change in global temperature. If subsequent analyses
Both our perception of the world and the world
are performed with the model assuming different
itselfare constantly changing. The growth ofsuburban
feasible changes in melting, rainfall, and evaporation
cities and the effects on metropolitan land-use have
for a range of global temperature changes, how
changed dramatically in the past decade. Know ledge
different are the projected effects on costal areas? By
that is restricted to a single point in time may not be
testing different scenarios that vary your assump-
meaningful for answering some questions. For ex-
tions and evaluating the response, it is possible to
ample, an analyst might look at the relationship
determine how sensitive the model is to changes in
between changing land-use practices and zoning law
assumptions.
changes over many years. By storing and comparing
maps of various dates, GIS can perform temporal
analyses. Basic Database Requirements
A GIS must allow the operator to: (1) incorporate
Emerging Patterns (import) data from outside sources, (2) easily update
GIS users seek spatial patterns. In other words, and alter data, and (3) ask data-related questions of
they want to know if two or more things vary (or query) the database. The database management
similarly in space. They may want to know, for system (DBMS) software that is a part of a typical

4
GIS provides these capabilities. Also, commercially output products might become part of a summary
available database management software programs report or they might be imported into spreadsheet
can be programmed to perform these same tasks software where further analyses might be performed.
outside of the GIS.
To query the database, logical expressions that
impose limits or conditions on the database search
Importing and Exp ding the Datab e are defined. These logical expressions specify which
geographical objects are to be included in the analy-
Data imported into a GIS often comes in the form
sis and/or how that data is to be analyzed. A subset
of standard ASCn (American Standard Code for
of the database is produced. Some logical expres-
Information Interchange) files. Ascn is a standard-
sions are simple and require only one condition while
ized code that can be read by nearly all computer
others are very complex and contain multiple
systems. A GIS may also be capable of importing
conditions.
data files that are in other formats.
For example, using a database that contains data
Another method of expanding the database is to
about the location (township, range, and section),
manually enter data. Every DBMS has the capacity
ownership, and size of lakes, the user could ask the
to create new geographical objects of interest or
simple question: "Where are all the lakes in my
records. This technique is commonly used to add a
county?" In searching for the answer, the DBMS
relati vely small amount of new objects (a few printed
creates a data subset that is presented in tabular
pages) to the database.
format (rows and columns of information). The
The DBMS also allows for error checking as new subset created to answer this question meets a single
records are created or existing ones are updated. Not condition: the condition that the data apply to lakes in
all errors can be eliminated in this way, however, so that particular county. In contrast, the question
care must be taken when collecting, automating, and "Where are the private lakes in section 34 of town-
changing the database. ship 61 range 19 that are larger than 15 acres?"
contains multiple conditions. As a result, the data-
A GIS must also provide the ability to create data
base creates a subset of the data which meets all of
files that can be exported to other systems. During
these conditions.
the exporting process, data files are written in a
common format (e.g., ASCII) to a file that can then Another type of question that can be asked using
be imported by other systems logical expressions requires that mathematical
analysis be performed. These questions prompt the
DBMS to perform such functions as calculating
Updating Attributes popUlation density, generating descriptive statistical
Another common task is updating or editing the summaries, and translating between measurement
database. Since no user can foresee all future data systems (e.g., converting area defined in square
needs and applications, a GIS must provide ways to meters into acres or square miles). These types of
easily modify, refine, or correct the database. At- operations are common when the database contains
tribute data are seldom static. Therefore, maintain- numeric data and a statistical analysis of the data is
ing the currency of the data depends on updating required.
capability.

Query the Database

Manipulating the database to answer specific
data-related questions is accomplished through a
process known as database analysis. Tabular output
is the result of a database analysis query. Those

5
 While the specific names for the various analyti-
~)f1J]CAa. AN[D) cal tools may vary from one GIS to another, the
operations they perform are similar. The tools may
«J)~I1]CQ (R!J~CI1]Q) be used in various combinations and sequences to
accomplish the desired task. The selection and
Both traditional DBMS software and GIS sup- sequencing of tools should be determined according
port database analysis, but a GIS also supports map to the specific need at hand . . Some of the spatial
analysis. It is useful to think: of GIS map analysis in analysis operations that can be performed using these
a layered-model context. The layered GIS model is tools are illustrated in Figures 3 - 7.
analogous to transparent maps that can be accurately
stacked upon one another. Typically, each layer
contains only one mapped theme. Traditionally, map
Projection and Spatial
analysis of mUltiple overlays had to be performed Transformation Utilities
manually. Various pre-processing operations may need to
When attempting to answer a geographic ques- be performed to remove errors that may occur as
tion, the user determines which phenomena are to be observations are made, maps are compiled, and/or as
examined and how the analysis will proceed. A GIS layers are encoded into the database. A common
provides a set of "tools" or computer programs that source of error is in the registration of multiple layers.
allow the user to perform a specific set of operations Registration involves the systematic adjustment of a
on map and attribute data. These tools, which are in map layer so that it can be accurately laid over
the form of operating commands, permit spatial another layer of the same area. Data development
inquiry, manipulation, and analysis. Examples of may not consistently use the same units of measure
some of these operations, which give the user the during data collection. Because of differences in data
power to analyze the map layers, are the focus of this sources, errors during data input, and because some
section. layers may be in one coordinate system [such as
LatitudelLongitude or Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM) units] while some may be in another, regis-
tration is important. A GIS is able to reconcile these
Functional Tools irregularities by mathematically converting the map
for Map Analysis data from one coordinate and projection system to
another (Figure 3).
Tools that manipUlate attribute data may employ
logical expressions similar to those described in the
database analysis discussion presented above. In

~
(x . V)
terms of map data analysis, and with the exception of
those tools used specifically for overlaying (or merg-
Coordinate change

b(x,V)
c(x ,V) ---- ~ (x"V')~
b(x'.v')
,,
c(x .v)

ing) data from multiple map layers, operations per-

formed on map data can be performed on either a Projection

single layer or upon multiple layers.

The functional tools available for map analysis

Edge matching
can be grouped into six categories: (1) projection and
spatial transformation utilities, (2) spatial retrieval,
classification, and measurement functions, (3) logi-
cal and visual overlaying capabilities, (4) proximity Figure 3. Projection and spatial transformation utilities
and network functions, (5) map algebra utilities, and allow a GIS to reconcile irregularities between map layers.
Map data can be mathematically converted from one
(6) output generation. coordinate and projection system to another.

6
 Numerous map projections have been developed When map data are graphically displayed on a
to represent the earth's three-dimensional surface on computer monitor, it is possible to select a specified
a two-dimensional map. Usually, a GIS user has no area and examine it visually or analytically in more
control over the projection of existing maps. Some detail. This is known as "windowing" or "clipping"
maps may be in a cylindrical Mercator projection, (Figure 4). This may be done by physically indicat-
others in a conic Albers, and still others in a planar ing the desired location or by entering coordinate
projection. A typical GIS will have a set of programs
which contain the algorithms needed to convert data
from one map projection to another (Figure 3).
I Spatial Retrieval I
iQ ~
Another problem commonly arises where the

Que~
area of interest is on adjoining maps. Here the
location of some geographical objects may need to be
modified to create a "seamless" layer between maps.
This process requires that objects spanning two
adjoining maps be "edge matched" to reconcile
Windowing Q ~
shape and location discrepancies (Figure 3). Often ,~
the margin of error is distributed between the adjoin- ,~
ing polygons or lines. For example, a road layer may
span several maps. Assume that one road is dis- I Delineation and Classification I
jointed as it crosses into an adjoining sheet. The Image interpretation
operator can reconcile the difference and make the
Aggregation
road continuous by editing both parts of the study
area simultaneously and removing the error (bring-
ing the separate road segments together at a mutual
point). Classification / re-classification

Spatial Retrieval, Classification, ~-. Erodable

~ ~ Non·erodable
and Measurement Functions
slope soil type erosion potential
In the previous discussion of database analysis, a by soil type

GIS was asked to locate lakes according to user-

specified criteria and the retrieved data was pre- IMeasurement I
sented in a tabular format. In contrast, data may be
retrieved according to its location on a map layer or Length
its spatial relationship to other mapped data. This simple complex

process is known as spatial retrieval (Figure 4).

Area
Spatial retrieval produces a spatial representation
perimeter shape
(map). For example, polygons representing lakes
between 0 and 10 acres could be coded in one color, Density 1\i:f]) 1-. # points I area

those between 11 and 20 in another color, and so

forth, and the resulting color map could show the Unit conversion Feet = Meters I 0.3048
distribution of the various-sized lakes. The polygons
could be presented in a spatial pattern corresponding Figure 4. Spatial retrieval, delineation and classification,
and measurement are separate functions, but are commonly
to the actual location and configuration of the lakes usedtogelher. Forexample, aGIS user interested in legislative
in the real world. This spatial representation would reapportionment may want to retrieve a district map, classify
zones according to party affiliation, and determine the size of
likely be more meaningful to the user than the same the area under study.
information presented in a tabular format.

7
values that delineate the area of interest. The ele- contaminated and may also want to know the number
ments (polygons, lines, or points) found within the of contaminated sites. In this case, the user will want
windowed area can be extracted and set aside on a map data that can be used to indicate both spatial
new layer, allowing faster analysis of the smaller, patterns and frequency of occurrence.
selected data set. During windowing, the scale of the
In certain spatial analyses, the user may want to
display can be changed to allow a more detailed
find the best division of space based on spatial and
display of the area of interest (provided that detailed
non-spatial attributes. Attribute data within the study
data for the area of interest is present in the database).
area are ranked, correlated, and then used to assist in
Conversely, the user may wish to generalize data and
the spatial ordering and delineation of areas. Legis-
window "out" to a less-detailed display.
lative reapportionment is an example where spatial
Classification of spatial phenomena requires that attributes (location and population) may be weighted
the many types of data commonly found in maps, with a non-spatial attribute (political bias) to calcu-
aerial photos, or satellite imagery be interpreted and late areal divisions.
coded so that it can be stored and used in the GIS
(Figure 4). The GIS allows the captured data to be
manipulated and combined until the appropriate
logical and Visual
aggregation occurs. For example, zones of poverty Overlaying Capabilities
may be defined by classifying and combining data on GIS is probably best known for its ability to build
unemployment, government assistance payments, and map layers and evaluate the relationships between
income statistics. By combining these layers, patterns them. The relationships between map layers can be
may be delineated. Those patterns can also be assessed from both mathematical (logical) and graphic
subjected to further classification schemes, if neces- (visual) perspectives.
sary (e.g., setting priorities for the establishment of
social service offices). Logical overlays superimpose layers using logical
or spatial functions and store the results in the GIS
Determining the length of a road or river, the area database as new layers of data. This mathematical
of a village, or the density of a popUlation are all approach examines the quantitative association be-
measurement problems (Figure 4). A GIS allows tween the phenomena of interest. This relationship is
both simple and complex measurement functions to determined by combining various data layers to
be performed. By automating measurement tasks create a composite data set (Figure 5). Because the
that are typically performed manually, the GIS frees layers have already been registered, they can be
the user to perform other analyses or tasks that accurately placed over one another. In a typical GIS,
require more skill or involvement. the analysis might require that data from existing
As mentioned earlier, a GIS allows the conver- layers be combined to create new data or map layers.
sion of spatial data in one unit of measurement to that For example, streams (lines) and deer sightings
of another. Lengths captured in meters may be
converted to feet, acres to square miles or hectares,
etc. Vertical and slope distances are commonly ~ [17l ~
produced when exploring three-dimensional rela-
Overlay
~ + LLJ -.- L:t:tJ
tionships in digital elevation models. Bearings, or
azimuths, and other survey data may be transformed
to yield maps specifying locations, distances, and
Merging

~ A. l '1
.... 2
B-2 -.- GSJ
...
B

precise angles.
The GIS user may need to know how many times Figure 5. The overlay function allows the user to "stack"
map layers on one another, showing spatial relationships
a spatial phenomenon occurs. For example, some- between the layers. Merging generalizes classes within map
one studying contaminated groundwater well sites layers by combining attributes to reveal new map features.

may want to know the location of wells that become

8
(points) can be combined with forest stands (poly-

~
gons) to create a new database that reveals the spatial
Buffering
relationships between all three in the form of habitat
quality.
end

~
The merging of data allows the user to take a
Networks
complex data layer and to dissolve lines between
shared attributes (Figure 5). The result is a more
begin
general data layer. Merging is the reverse of the
Figure 6. The buffer function examines an area which
process of combining various data layers or classes of surrounds an object of interest. This function is used to
attributes, as described above. As an example, if an create zones and to determine routes within zones. For
example, a zone can be created based on specified distances
ownership layer contains data for state government, from map features (e.g., the area within five miles of a road) .
local government, nonindustrial private owners, and Network functions examine the movement of objects along
an interconnected pathway (e.g., traffic flow along a map of
private industry, a merge could be performed to highway segments) .
reveal the spatial relationship between public and
private ownerships.
between two points or the selection of service zones
Visual overlays, on the other hand, allow the user in a network (e.g., pizza delivery areas, fire service
to graphically view spatial relationships between the zones, mail routes). A common network function is
various layers instead of seeking specific mathemati- the routing of emergency vehicles on road systems.
cal relationships. The overlays are graphically pre- In this case, the GIS analyzes distance factors, road
sented on a map or computer monitor. Visually speed, and other transportation variables (e.g., flow
displaying these overlays does not create a new layer of traffic, traffic control measures) to generate alter-
in the database; it simply provides visual cues of the native routes between two points.
relationships between the layers.

Map Algebra Utilities

Proximity and Network Functions
Another very useful, quantitative capability of
These types of analyses consider predefined GIS is the application of algebraic expressions to
areas around a geographical object or the connecti v- map layers (Figure 7). Referred to a<; map algebra,
ity of phenomena (Figure 6). For example, assume this process enables users to specify mathematical
that the user had two layers, one of roads and another relationships between map layers. Thus, entire maps
of timber stands with average stand diameter as an can be added, subtracted, mUltiplied, and divided,
attribute. Furthermore, assume that the user wanted according to user-specified rules. As an example, a
to know how much merchantable timber (trees of a new map can be generated by determining the differ-
specified diameter) was located within 500 feet of ence in elevation between the topographic map and
any road. By setting the proper parameters that the map of the water table. The resulting layer can
considered merchantability and road location, a buffer then be stored for subsequent analyses.
zone would be created measuring 500 feet on either
side of each road. All appropriate map and attribute Output Generation
data pertaining to the timber resources within the
The final set of tools we consider here provide the
buffer would be generated as a separate layer avail-
ability to create output such as maps, geographical
able for observation and analysis.
summaries or reports, and geographical base files
Another type of proximity analysis involves the (files containing both the digital map and attribute
network function of a GIS (Figure 6). Networks are data). Output can be either hardcopy, digital files, or
commonly established to evaluate options for the displayed on a computer monitor. The sophistication
purpose of route optimization and resource alloca- of the GIS software and the output capabilities of the
tion. Specifically, this means locating the best route hardware/software system dictate the quality and

9
variety of options available to the operator. In most complement the analysis. A GIS will usually offer
cases, the GIS allows maps, summaries, and base this type of report-generating capability and it is
files to be written in a number of different digital especially useful during complex spatial analysis or
export formats so that they may be used by another database documentation.
GIS . Most systems have the ability to translate or
Use of reference maps is an important part of the
directly import and export these files.
output (mapping) process_ It is common for a GIS to
Generating graphic output, commonly in the contain a library of basic, often-used map and at-
form of maps, requires that a GIS have a wide variety tribute data of the study area for creating these simple
of symbols and format options. Most offer numerous reference maps. Such base files could include county,
line, polygon, and point symbols to represent geo- section, parcel, or zip code boundaries, major trans-
graphical phenomena as well as text options for portation routes, or hydrological features. When
labeling and annotating output. Since these utilities included in output maps, these cartographic features
allow maps to be produced at various page sizes and provide a useful frame of reference for the map user.
map scales, output can be custom-designed to a
format that is most appropriate for the situation.
Geographical and tabular summaries are com-
mon types of GIS output. Such summaries differ
from those created by a traditional database query
because they are based on map analysis. For ex- C(Q)~jOJUZa§ A\N[D)
ample, upon completion of a windowing of clipping
function, summary statistics presented in tabular lR~(Q)M[EDJ.\1IZ
form for the clipped area are often necessary to
As an integrated approach to managing and
analyzing map and attribute data, geographic infor-
mation systems are becoming increasingly common.
GIS applications begin with a spatial question and
proceed to a data collection phase during which both
map and attribute data are collected. The initial
(A - B) = Depth to water spatial question drives the data collection and the
model-building process. In the analysis phase which
follows, both map and attribute data are manipulated
via the analytical tools provided by the GIS software.
While the review of both database and map
analysis were separated for purposes of discussion,
(Soli +Vegetatlon + Water) = Habitat
they are closely linked in practice. Indeed, the power
of GIS-based investigations comes largely from the
ability to simultaneously access and process both
map and attribute data. The tools presented in this
paper for performing these analyses are commonly
used and represent broad categories of functionality.
Figure 7. Map algebra utilities allow the user to specify
However, this discussion does not constitute a com-
mathematical relationships between map layers. Entire plete or comprehensive listing of GIS tools.
maps can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided
according to user-specified rules. For example, a new map
The increasing influence and use of GIS can be
can be generated by determining the difference in elevation largely attributed to its ability to support decision
between a topographic map and the corresponding map of
the water table.
making. Toward this end, a GIS needs reliable data
and must be able to analyze and synthesize this data

10
 Copyright (c) 1991 by Minnesota Extension Service. University of Minnesota. All rights
reserved. No part of these materials may be reproduced. transmitted. transcribed, stored In a
retrieval system. or translated Into any language or computer language. In any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, magnetic, optical, chemical, manual, or otherwise, without the
prior written permission of Minnesota Extension Service, Distribution Center, Room 3 Coffey
Hall. University of Minnesota, 1420 Eckles Avenue, 81. Paul, MN 55108.

Editor: Richard Shennan

Graphic Designer: Michael Mechavich

o Printed on recycled paper with agribased inks

Issued in furtherance of cooperative extension work in

agriculture and home economics, acts of May 8 and
June 30,1914, in cooperation with the U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Patrick J. Borich, Dean and Director of
Minnesota Extension Service, University of Minnesota,
St. Paul, Minnesota 55108. The University of Minne-
sota, including the Minnesota Extension Service, is
committed to the policy that all persons shall have equal
access to its programs, facilities, and employment without
regard to race, religion, color, sex, national origin,
handicap, age, veteran status, or sexual orientation .