Prejudioe Definitio isa baseless and usually negative attitude toward members of a group. Common features of 's stereotyped beliefs, and a tendency to discriminate against members nitions of prejudice given by sacial scientists often differ, enost agree that tive) about members af a group. Preju: pre) ae nctude negative feet sp While specific det i tnwolves prepudgments (uswally nega Prejudice is an affective feeling towards a person or group member based solely on their group membership. The word is often used to refer to preconceived, usually unfavorable, feelings towards people of a person because of their sex, gender, beliefs, values, social class, age, disability, religion, sexuality, race/ethnicity, language, nationality, beauty, occupation, education, criminality, sport team affiliation or other personal characteristics. in this case, it refers to a positive or negative evaluation of another person based on their percsived group membership.{ Types of Prejudice: Prejudice can be based upon 2 number of factors including sex, race, age, sexual orientations, nationality, socioeconomic status and religion. Some of the most well-known types of prejudice include: © Racism © Sexism © Classicism * Homophobia + Nationalism + Religious prejudice + Agism Controversies and prominent topicsfedit] (One can be prejudiced against or have a preconceived notion about someone due to any characteristic they find to be unusual or undesirable, A few commonplace examples of prejudice are those based on someone's race, gender, nationality, social status, sexual orientation, or religious affiliation, and controversies may arise from any given topic. Sexismfedit] Main article: SexismSerisin, Wig ath joe discrimination. is peopadiga ae disceinesy red ue conden Seotee con alleet either goncor, tut iy particubirty daswes eet ae ated gils,{18) The discuss; nicer diff be controversial taysics. Houghout histery, wemen have been thought often being & nh an areas bke the academia or bellitled altogether Tradtonati aS being more capable Ul women, mentally and physically. [19] be the hekt of soc prejudice states Ike the “Who Likes Competent Wonwn” study led the wary for gander on peoudige [29] This cestilted in (wo broad themes of focuses in the field: Ger first tere attitudes toward yeader equality, and thy seuand focusing cif -uply women [19] Yada field of psychology as researchers try to understand how peuple’s thoughts, fectings, and behaviors influence and are influenced by others. yenoen ant ersatapys Coline? to uetiet, to men, 2 of sucht sentiments, as bern studies based on sexism continue in U Nationalism{edit] Main article: Nationalism Nationalism is a sentiment based on common cultural characteristics that binds a population and often produces a policy of national independence or separatisi.|20] It suggests a “shared identity” amongst 0 nation’s people that minimizes differences within the group and emphasizes perceived boundaries between the group and non-members.{21] This leads to the assumption that members of the nation have more in common than they actually do, that they are “culturally unified", even if injustices within the nation based on differences like status and race exist{21} During times of conflict between one nation and another, nationalism is controversial since it may function as a buffer for criticism when it comes to the nation's own problems since it makes the nation's own hierarchies and internal conflicts appear to be natural.[22] It may also serve a way of rallying the people of the nation in support of a particular political goal.{21] Nationalism usually involves a push for conformity, obedience, and solidarity amongst the nation’s people and can result not only in feelings of public responsibility but also in a narrow sense of community due to the exclusion of those who are considered outsiders.(21] Since the identity of nationalists is linked to their allegiance to the state, the presence of strangers who do not share this allegiance may result in hostility.(21} Classismfedit] Main article: Classism Classism is defined by dictionary.com as “a biased of discriminatory attitude on distinctions made between social or economic classes."{22] The idea of separating people based on class is controversial in itself. Some argue that economic inequality is an unavoidable aspect of society, so there will always be a ruling class.{23] Some also argue that, even within the most egalitarian societies in history, some form of Fanking based on social status takes place. Therefore, one may believe the existence of social classes is a natural feature of society.(24]Others argue the contrary, Aeconting C anthrapotos 6 eo be tine the uaman species hag heen in ewstenes humane hay . sa rescue wore nat prvatah owned (24) Also when social rable oy bostle Me tho currest clase system [24] This edence has bo Ho tit tm, wvietence of a social class systom is unnecessary. Overall, souioty has nethe: coe Lovet the neestity of the class system, nor been able to deal vith the hostihty. et prejudice tha acaues of the elaas system, Sexual discriminationfedit] ‘Main article: Homaphobla One's sexual orientation is the "direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same, opeosite, Or both sexes",[25] Like most minority groups, homosexuals and bisexuals are not immune to prejudice fr stereotypes from the majority group. They may experience hatred from others because of their sewal preferences; a term for such intense hatred based upon one’s sexual orientation is homophobia. Due to what social psychologists call the vividness effect, a tendency to notice only certain distinctive characteristics, the majority population tends to draws conclusions like gays flaunt their sexuality {26} Such images may be easily recalled to mind due to their vividness, making it harder to appraise th: entire situation.[26] The majority population may not only think that homosexuals flaunt their sexuality or are “too gay", but may also erroneously believe that homosexuals sre easy to identify and lsbet 2s being gay or lesbian when compared to others who are not homosexual,[27] The idea of heterosexual privilege seems to flourish in society. Research and questionnaires are formulated to fit the majority; i.e., heterosexuals. This discussion of whether heterosexuals are the privileged group and whether homosexuals are a minimized group is controversial. Research shows that discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is 2 powerful feature of many labor markets. For example, controlling for human capital, studies show that gay men earn 10% - 32% less than heterosexual men in the United States, and that there is significant discrimination in hiring on the basis ‘of sexual orientation in many labor markets.(28] Racismfedit] Racism is defined as the belief that physical characteristics determine cultural traits, and that racial characteristics make some groups superior(29] By separating people into hierarchies based upon theit race, it has been argued that unequal treatment among the different groups of people is just and fair due to their genetic differences.(29] Racism can occur amongst any group that can be identified based upon physical features or even characteristics of their culture.[29] Though people may be lumped together and called a specific race, everyone does not fit neatly into such categories, making it hard to define and describe a race accurately.{29]Scientitic racism began te Hourish in the eighteanth cabury and was gevndy so. dy Co Danwin's evolutionary stuulios, 5 well as wows taken frune the vintings of philesaplicrs She kcistatte, example, Aristotle belteved in the concept of "natural slaves '29} Thi yt faeaies 9a of hierarchies and how some peuple are hound to be on thy hottam of the pyrataitl. Hanh ra been ayprominent topic tn history, thore is still dabate over whiathiar tace arti ally #8 tlotabos eee making the discussion of race a conteaversial topic Cuen though the concept af are sos debated, the effects of racism are apparent. Racism and other forms of prejr behavior, thoughts, and feelings, and social psychologists strive to study the ein alien a neean Religious discrimination{cdit) Religious discrimination ions teach their members to be tolerant of those who are different and to have compassion, throughout history there have been wars, pogroms and other forms of violence motivated by hatred of religious groups.{30} tn the modem world, researchers in western, educated, industrialized, rich end democratic count have done various studies exploring the relationship between religion and prejudice; thus far, they have received mixed results. A study done with US college students found that those who reported rel bbe very influential in their lives seem to have a higher rate of prejudice than those who reported not being religious.{30] Other studies found that religion has a positive effect on people as far as prejudice concerned.{30] This difference in results may be attributed to the differences in religious practices or feligious interpretations amongst the individuals. Those who practice “institutionalized religion”, which focuses more on social and political aspects of religious events, are more likely to have an increase in prejudice [31] Those who practice "interiorized religion", in which believers devote themselves to their beliefs, are most likely to have a decrease in prejudice.(31] Linguistic discrimination{edit) ‘Main article: Linguistic discrimination Individuals or groups may be treated unfairly based solely on their use of language. This use of language say include the individual's native language or other characteristics of the person's speech, such as an accent, the size of vocabulary (whether the person uses complex and varied words), and syntax. tt may also involve a person's ability or inability to use one language instead of anather. In the mid-1980s, linguist Tove Skutnabb-Kangas captured this idea of discrimination based on language as the concept of linguicism. Kangas defined linguicism as the ideologies and structures used to “legitimate, effectuate, and reproduce unequal division of power and resources (both material and non-material) between 8r0Ups which are defined on the basis of language."[32] aANeurological diserininationt dit) Main article: leuradiversity Broadly speaking, attribution of low soctal status to those who do not conforn to nzucetipreal expectations of personality and behaviour, This can manifest through assumption of ‘disabshty’ stutus to those who are high functioning enough to exist outside of diagnostic criteria, yet do not dusive to for are unable to) conform their behaviour te conventional patterns. This Is a controversial and at contemporary concept; with various disciplinary approaches promoting conflicting messages what normality constitutes, the degree of acceptable Individual difference within that category, and the precise criteria for what constitutes medical disorder, This has been most prominent in the case of high- functioning Autism,(33) where direct cognitive benefits increasingly appear to come at the expense of social intelligence.{34] Discrimination may also extend to other high functioning individuals carrying pathological phenotypes, such as those with Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and Bipolar spectrum disorders. In these cases, there are indications that perceived (or actual) socially disadvantageous cognitive traits are directly correlated with advantageous cognitive traits in other domains, notably creativity and divergent thinking.[35] and yet these strengths might become systematically overlooked. The case for “neurological iminal ‘as such lies in the expectation that one's professional capacity may be judged by the quality of ones social interaction, which can in such cases be an inaccurate and discriminatory metric for employment suitability. Since there are moves by some experts to have these higher-functioning extremes reclassified as extensions of human personality,[36] any legitimisation of discrimination against these groups would fit the very definition of prejudice, as medical validation for such discrimination becomes redundant. Recent advancements in behavioural genetics and neuroscience have made this a very relevant issue of discussion, with existing frameworks requiring significant overhaul to accommodate the strength of findings over the last decade. Multicuttiralism{edit] Main article: Multiculturalism Humans have an evolved propensity to think categorically about social groups, manifested in cognitive processes with broad implications for public and political endorsement of multicultural policy, according to psychologists Richard J. Crisp and Rose Meleady.{37] They postulated a cognitive-evolutionary account of human adaptation to social diversity that explains general resistance to multiculturalism, and offer a reorienting call for scholars and policy-makers who seek intervention-based solutions to the problem of prejudice. Prejudice and Stereotyping:When prejudi » Stereotyping, awed A ccevinatiow may aly9 rasult. in many case based upon siereviynes A stereatyps + 4 simpliled asst bout a group based on prior assumptions, Steratypes can be both poiltive (women are warm and nurturing’) oF negative (teenagers are Lary’), Stereotypes can lead (9 faulty bahofs, but they ean also result In both prejudice and discrimination prejudices are ion According to psychologist G.adyy, Alert, prejudice and stereo types emerge in part ay a result of normal human thinking. tn order to make sense of the world around us, st 4% Important to sort information into mental categories. “The Iwan mind must think with the aid of categories," Alport explained. "Once formod, categories are ths basis for normal prejudgment. We cannot possibly avoid this process. Orderly living depends upon it. “This process of categorization applies to the social work as Well, swe sort people into mental groups based on factors such as age, sex and race. However, researchers have found that while when it comes to categorizing Information about people, we tend to minimize the differences between people within groups and exaggerate the differences between groups. In one classic experiment, participants were asked to judge the height of people shovmn in photographs. People in the experiment were also told that: “In this booklet, the men and women are actually of equal height. We have taken care to match the hoights of the men and women pictured. That is, for every woman of a particular height, somewhere in the booklet there is also a man of that same height. Therefore, in order to make as accurate a height judgment as possible, try to judge each photograph as an individual case; do not rely on the person's sex" In addition to these instructions, a $50 cash prize was offered to whoever made the most accurate judgments of height. Despite this, participants consistently rated the men as being a few inches taller than the women. Because of their prejudgment that men are taller than women, the participants were tunable to dismiss their existing categorical beliefs about men and women in order to judge the heights accurately. Researchers have also found that people tend to view members of outside groups as being more homogenous than members of their own group, 2 phenomenon referred to as the out-group homogeneity bias. This perception that all member of an out-group are alike holds true of all groups whether based on race, nationality, religion, age or other naturally occurring group affiliation. Ways to Reduce Prejudice: In addition to looking at the reasons why prejudice occurs, researchers have atso explored different ways. that prejudice can be reddced or even eliminated. Training people to become more empathetic to members of other groups is one method that has shown considerable success. By imaging themselves ir: the same situation, people are able to think about how they would react and gain a greater understanding of other people's actions. Other techniques that are used to reduce prejutlice inclucla: + Passing laws and regulations that require fair and equal treatment for all groups of people. Gaining public support and awareness for anti-prejuulice « 2 Maley Porte — guonre, of he Conaintesctes eh them 3 \nereered — Cowbrach with mem bus