BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FLUID MECHANICS
(18ME43)

MODULE 1

CLASS NOTES

Prepared By

Prof. V.C. Ravi

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bangalore Institute of Technogy
 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

PROPERTIES OF FLUID

Fluid : It is defined as the substance which is capable of flowing. It is the substance which does not
offers resistance to the shear force. i.e., when shear force is applied on the fluid continuously deforms.
Fluids are classified in to liquids and gases . Fluids can be either compressive or incompressible in
nature. In compressible fluids the density is not constant while in incompressible fluids the density is
constant. Most of the liquids are incompressible in nature.

Property: Any measurable characteristic of a system is known as the property. Ex. Temperature,
Volume, Mass etc. The properties are either considered to be intensive or extensive. Intensive
properties are those properties of a system which are independent of mass such as pressure and
density. Extensive properties are those properties which are dependent on the mass or size ex mass,
volume.
State of a system is specified by its properties certain numbers of properties are sufficient to specify
the state of the system. The state of simple compressible system is completely specified by two
independent intensive properties.
Continuum: It is continuous homogeneous matter with no holes. It helps in treating the properties as
the point functions. This idealization is valid as long as size of the system is large relative to the space
between the molecules.

Density (): It is defined as the ratio of mass of the fluid to its volume. This is also known as the mass
density ()
Density = Mass of the fluid (m)/ Volume of the fluid (V)
SI unit of density is Kg / m3 [M/L3]

The density of the gases varies with the pressure where as in liquids it remains constant. The density
of substance depends on the temperature and pressure. The density of most gases proportional to the
pressure and inversely proportional to the temperature. i.e., with increase of pressure density of gases
increases and with increase of temperature density decreases. In liquids and solids the variation of
pressure is having negligible effect on density. If the density of a substance is specified with respect to
the well known standard substance is called specific gravity or relative density.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1-2

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Weight density or Specific weight(γ)

It is defined a ratio of weight of the fluid to the volume of the fluid or it is the weight of a unit volume
of a substance. It is also known as weight density.
Specific weight = Weight of fluid / Volume of fluid = m x g / V =  x g
SI unit of specific weight = N / m3
Dimensional formula M/L2T2
Pure water specific weight is 9810 N/m3 at standard pressure of 760 mm of mercury and at
temperature of 40C. Sea water specific weight is equal to 10105 N/m3. Specific weight of petroleum
products are 6350 – 8350 N/m3, Mercury at 00C 133416 N/m3. Air has specific weight of 11.9 N/m3 at
150C. Specific weight of a fluid changes from one place to another. But the density remains constant at
all the places.

Specific gravity: It is defined as the ratio of specific weight of a fluid to the specific weight of
standard fluid. For liquids water is taken as the standard fluid. In gases hydrogen is taken as the
standard fluid.
Specific gravity = Weight density of fluid / Weight density of standard fluid
The weight density of liquid = Sp.gr x Weight density of water
= Sp.gr x 1000 x 9.81 N/m3
Specific volume: It is defined as the ratio of the volume of the fluid per unit mass or it is simply
reciprocal of mass density. S.I.Units is m3/Kg . Dimension is L3M-1
Viscosity : Viscosity is the property of the fluid by virtue of which it resist the movement of one layer
of fluid over the another adjacent layer of the fluid . Or it is the property of the fluid by virtue of which
it offers resistance to shear or angular deformation.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1-3

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Y Y
Y Velocity
U profile

U=0 X
Free surface X
Free surface

B B' u+du C C' u+du

F

dy
dy
u F u
A
du

Consider two layers of fluid which are at distance of dy apart and moving with velocity u and u+du
respectively. The upper one is moving with velocity u+du drags the lower layer along with it by
exerting force F. How ever the lower layer tries to retard or restrict the motion of upper layer by
exerting a force equal and opposite to F. These two equal and opposite forces induce a shear or
viscous resistance  given by F/A where A is the contact area between the two layers. This shear stress
is proportional to the change of velocity with respect to change of y.

Where  is constant of proportionality and is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity, du/dy is
called velocity gradient or rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation. The following observations
can be obtained viscosity and velocity distribution.
 Maximum shear stress occurs at the points where velocity gradients are large.
 Shear stress becomes zero at the points where velocity gradient is zero.
 Velocity gradient becomes small with the distance from the boundary.
 Maximum value of shear stress occurs at the boundary and it progressively decreases with
the distance from the boundary.

Units of viscosity:
 = Shear stress / (Change of velocity /Change of distance) =  / du/dy
= ( Force / Area ) / [ (Length / Time) x 1 / Length ]

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1-4

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= Force x Time / Length 2 = N-s / m2 = Pa- s

SI unit of viscosity = N-s / m2, M.K.S = Kgf – s /m2 , C.G.S = dyne – sec / cm2
Conversion of the units of viscosity from MKS to CGS .
One Kgf-s / m2 = 9.81 x N-s / m2
But 1 N = One kg of mass x acceleration ( m/s2)
= 1000 gm x 100 cm /sec2 = 1000 x 100 gm – cm / sec2
= 1000 x 100 dyne ( 1 dyne = gm –cm /sec2)
 1 Kgf-sec / m2 = 9.81 x 1000 x 100 dyne – sec / m2
= 9.81 x 105 x dyne – sec / (100 x 100 cm2)
= 98.1 dyne – sec / cm2 = 98.1 poise (dyne – sec / cm2 = poise)
One Kgf-s / m2 = 9.81 x N-s / m2 = 98.1 poise
N-s / m2 = 98.1 / 9.81 poise = 10 pose or
One poise = 1/10 N-s/ m2
Or one centi poise = 1/100 poise
Kinematic viscosity ( )
It is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density of the fluid
 = Absolute viscosity / Density =  /  (m2 / s )
Units: (N-s / m2 ) / (Kg/ m3 ) = (Force x Time / Length2 ) / (Mass / Length3 )
= [(mass x length / time2) x Time] / (Mass / Length3 )
= Length2 / Time = m2/s
SI Unit of Kinematic viscosity = m2/s
CGS Unit of Kinematic viscosity = cm2/s
One stoke = cm2/s = (1/100)2 m2/s = 10-4 m2/s
One centi stoke = 1/100 Stoke
Specific viscosity is the ratio of the viscosity of the fluid to the viscosity of water at 200C.

Effect of temperature on viscosity

The viscosity of liquids decreases with the temperature, where as the viscosity of gases increases with
the temperature. The viscous forces are in fluid due to the outcome of either molecular cohesion or
molecular momentum transfer. In liquids cohesive forces are more predominant compared to
molecular momentum or molecular momentum transfer. Where as in case of gases cohesive forces are
negligible but molecular momentum transfer is more active. Therefore the main reason for the
viscosity in liquids is cohesive force and in gases molecular momentum. At higher temperature in

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1-5

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

gases molecules moves randomly at higher velocities. This results in more molecular collisions per
unit volume per unit time and therefore greater resistance to flow. The viscosity of the fluid is directly
related to the pumping power needed to transport a fluid in a pipe or to move a body through a fluid.

The following empirical formulae have been suggested for variation of viscosity with temperature and
pressure. For liquids t = 0 [ 1/ 1+ t + t2]

Where t = Viscosity at t 0C , o = Viscosity at 0C , , are the constants depends on liquids.

For water 0 = 0.0179 poise  = 0.03368 ,  = 0.000221
Viscosity of liquids increases with increase in the pressure. The correlation depends on the type liquid
and is p = 0 exp[K(P-P0)] , K is constant for liquids and p is the viscosity at pressure at P . For water
viscosity been two fold when pressure increased from 1 to 1000 atm .
For gases :
The increase in the viscosity of gases with increasing temperature is described by the relation.
t = 0 + t - t2] , 0 = 1.7 x 10-5 Ns/m2 ,  = 0.56 x 10-7 ,  = 0.1189 x 10-9
Types of fluids :
Ideal solid

Plastic fluid
 Bingham plastic

Non Newtonian fluid(Pseudo plastic)

Newtonian fluid

Non Newtonian fluid (Dilatant fluid)

Ideal fluid
du/dy
1) Newtonian fluids: The relationship between shear stress and rate of deformation is linear .
2) Non Newtonian fluids: In this type of fluids shear stress is not proportional to the velocity
gradient.
3) Dilatant fluids: Dilatant fluids are those fluids whose viscosity increases with rate of
deformation ( Starch and sand). Dilatant fluids are also known as the shear thickening fluids.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1-6

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

4) Pseudo plastic or shear thinning fluids: Less viscous with shear harder Ex Paints polymers
5) Bigham plastics: They resist shear stress and thus behave as solid, but deform continuously
when the shear stress exeeds the yied stress and thus behave as fluid. Ex. Tooth paste .
6) Ideal fluids: A fluid which is incompressible and is having no viscosity ( Imaginary) .
7) Real fluids: A fluid which posses viscosity is known as real fluid. All fluids in practice are real
fluids.

Surface tension and capillarity:

Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of the liquid in contact with a gas
or on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that contact surface behaves like membrane
under tension. Unit of surface tension is N/m . This effect is also called surface energy expressed per
unit area N-m/m2 = N/m. It is the stretching work needed to be done to increase the surface area of the
liquid by a unit amount. Examples for surface tension are 1) Mercury forms a near perfect sphere and
can be rolled just like a steel ball over a smooth surface. 2) Water droplets from rain or dew hang
from branches or leaves of trees 3) Injection of fuel in to the engine forms the mist of spherical
droplets.

Molecule on the surface

Molecule inside the liquid

Fig
To visualize how surface tension arises consider two molecules one at the surface and one deep within
the liquid body. The attractive forces applied on the interior molecules by surrounding molecule
balance each other because of symmetry. But the attractive forces acting on the surface molecule are
not symmetric. Attractive forces applied by the gas molecule above are usually very small. Therefore
the attractive force acting on the molecule at the surface of the liquid tends to pull towards interior of
the liquid. This force is balanced by the repulsive forces from the molecules below the surfaces that
are being compressed. The resulting in compression effect leads to minimize the surface area. This is
the reason for the tendency of the liquid droplets to attain spherical shape which has the minimum
Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1-7
 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

surface area for a given volume. Surface tension depends on the i) Nature of liquid ii) Nature of
surrounding matter iii) Temperature of liquid molecules.

Pressure inside a liquid droplet:

Due to surface tension acting at the interface the pressure Pi inside a small droplet or bubble becomes
greater than the ambient pressure Po

s
p

Liquid droplet Surface tension acting on circumference Pressure force acting on the face

Fig
Consider a small spherical droplet of liquid of diameter d and let it be cut in to two halves.
Pressure force = p x d2 /4 -- (1)
Tensile force due to surface tension acts around circumference and equal to
= s x circumference
= s x d
= s x 2R ---(2)
Under equilibrium condition these forces will be equal and opposite
p x d2 /4 = s x d
p=4s/d
The above equation shows that the pressure within the droplet decreases with increase in diameter.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1-8

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Pressure inside a soap bubble:

s
d

Dp

fig
A soap bubble has two surfaces in contact with air one inside and other outside. Surface tension force
will act on both the surfaces therefore
Pressure force acting = p x d2 /4
Tensile force due to surface tension = 2x sx d
Under equilibrium pressure force must be equal to tensile force due to surface tension.
p x d2 /4 = 2x sx d
p=8s/d
Pressure inside liquid jet:
Consider a liquid jet of diameter d and length l
L

Pressure force = p x area of semi jet = px d x l

Force due to surface tension = s x 2l
Under equilibrium condition of two halves of liquid jet both the forces must be equal
 p x d x l = s x 2l
p = 2s / d

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1-9

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Capillarity or Meniscus effect

Capillarity is defined as the phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the
adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The rising of surface in
the tube is known as the capillary rise while the fall of the liquid is known as the capillary depression.

>
q P /2

h
<
q P /2 h

CAPILLARY RISE CAPILLARY DEPRESSION

Capillary rise is the surface tension effect that depends upon the intermolecular attraction between
different substances. It is due to the both adhesion and cohesion. Adhesion between glass and water
molecules is greater than cohesion between water molecules. Consequently water molecules spread
over the glass surface and form a concave meniscus with small angle of contact. Opposite condition
holds good for capillary depression i.e., cohesion between mercury molecules is greater than the
adhesion of mercury to glass. Mercury then displays a convex meniscus with the angle of contact
greater than 900.

The height of the capillary rise or fall in the tube:

Knowing the surface tension s , angle of contact q , tube diameter d and specific weight of liquid w ,
the rise or fall of liquid in the tube can done as follows.
Weight of the liquid raised or lowered in the tube is = Area of tube x Rise or fall x specific weight
= d2 / 4 x h x w 1
Vertical component of the surface tension force = s cosq x circumference
= s cosq x d 2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 10

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

q q
scos q

<
q P /2 s

h
h

 g Pd2/4 h

ssin q
CAPILLARY RISE

When in equilibrium the downward weight of the liquid column with height h is balanced by the
vertical component of the force of surface tension. Equating the equations 1 and 2
d2 / 4 x h x w = s cosq x d
 h = 4 s cosq / wd = 4 s cosq / gd
It is to be noticed that for 0  q < 900, h is positive (Capillary rise) and that for 900  q 1800 , h is
negative ( Convex or capillary depression) . Capillary action is inversely proportional to the tube
diameter for precise work, the small diameter tubes are to be avoided. Reason for this is an appreciable
capillary rise or depression is observed in tubes of small diameters only.

Vapor pressure and cavitation

The temperature at which pure substance changes its phase is called the saturation temperature. The
pressure at which pure substance changes its phase is called saturation pressure. Vapor pressure of a
pure substance is defined as the pressure exerted by its vapor in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a
given temperature. Partial pressure is defined as the pressure of a gas or vapor in a mixture with the
other gases.
Vapor pressure increases with temperature. Phenomenon of boiling is closely related to the vapor
pressure. When the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the total pressure impressed on its
surface, the starts boiling. The boiling can be achieved either by raising the temperature of the liquid ,
so that its vapor pressure is elevated to the ambient pressure or by lowering the pressure of ambience
to the liquids vapor pressure at the existing temperature.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 11

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Saturated vapour

Liquid

If the vapor pressure above the liquid surface gets reduced, say by evacuation, evaporation starts and
continues till new equilibrium condition is reached. If the vapor pressure falls considerably, then the
molecules leave the liquid surface very rapidly and this phenomenon is called boiling. During boiling
vapors are formed in the liquid space and then these vapors rise to the surface. When these bubbles
move towards the zone of high pressure, they collapse. The collapsing bubbles pressure is as large as
100 atm and this may lead to the formation of the cavities at point of collapse on the surfaces. This
effect is called cavitation. To arrest the cavitation the pressure at any point in the fluid should not be
allowed to fall below the saturated vapor pressure at the local temperature.

Thermodynamic properties:
Thermodynamic properties play an important role in gases. In gases the density variation takes place
with change of pressure and temperature. Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature and
density of a substance is called equation of state. The simplest and best known equation of state for
substances in the gas is the ideal gas equation of state expressed as
Pv = RT or P = RT , PV = mRT
Where P is pressre,v is the specific volume , T is the temperature ,  is the density and R is the gas
constant. The gas constant R is different for different types of gas and is determined from R = Ru / M
, Where Ru is universal gas constant whose value Ru = 8.314 KJ/ Kg mol o K and M is the molar mass
( Molecular weight) of the gas.

Dimensions of R

From equation of state R = P/ T

In SI system = (N/m2) / Kg/(m3x oK) = N-m / Kg- o K = Joule / Kg- o K = J/Kg- o K
In MKS system = R = (Kgf / m2 ) / Kg/(m3 oK) = Kgf – m / Kg – K
For air R value in MKS system = 29.3 Kgf – m / Kg – oK
In SI units = 29.3 x 9.81 N-m / Kg-oK = 287 J / Kg-oK

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 12

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Universal gas constant

From equation of state PV = mRT
The above equation can be made universal i,e., applicable to all gases if it is expressed in mole basis
Let n = number of moles or molecules in volume of gas .
Then the mass of the gas m = n x M
Using this in equation PV = mRT = n x (MR)T
(MR) is calld universal gas constant (Ru)
Ru is equal to 848 Kgf – m / Kg-mole-o K in MKS units
Ru is equal to 8314 J / Kg-mole -o K in SI units
Ideal gas equation can be used to find the properties of gases at different states
P1V1 / T1 = R = P2V2/ T2

Isothermal process:

If the changes in the density occurs at constant temperature, then the process is called isothermal and
relationship between pressure (P) and density () is given by
P/  = Constant

Adiabatic process: If the density change occurs with no heat exchange to and from the gases the
process is called adiabatic. The relationship b/w pressure and density is given by
P/  = Constant or P1v1 = P2v2

Compressibility and bulk modulus:

Fluids expand as they are heated or depressurized and contract as they are cooled or pressurized. But
the amount of volume change is different for different fluids and we need to define the property that
relates volume changes to the changes in pressure and temperatures. Two such properties are the bulk
modulus of elasticity (K) and the coefficient compressibility.
Bulk modulus of compressibility or modulus of elasticity

It is defined as the ratio of compressive stress to the volumetric strain

K = - Compressive stress / Volumetric strain = Increase of pressure/ Volumetric strain
K = - dP / dV/V = (-dP/dV) x V

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 13

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

The typical value of bulk modulus of elasticity for water,air and steel are 2.06 x 109 ,1.03 x 105 and
2.06 x 1011 N/m2 respectively .
Bulk modulus of elasticity is the resistance to the compression of fluids. In liquids this value decreases
with rise in temperature but in gases it increases . Effect of pressure on value of bulk modulus in
liquids is negligible but in gases it is very significant.

Coefficient of compressibility :
Coefficient of compressibility is defined as the inverse of bulk modulus. compressibility is the ability
of fluid to change its volume under pressure .
 = 1/ K = - dV / ( dPx V)
Where dP is the small pressure applied to the fluid and dV is the incremental volume changes in the
original volume V. –ve sign implies that a positive pressure incremental results in a negative volume
increment. i.e., increase in pressure results in decrease in volume.
From relation m = V
dm = dV + Vd
Since mass is constant dV = - Vd
d/ = - dV / V
K = -dP / (dV/V) = + dP / (d/)
Or  = 1/ K = - (dV / dP) / V = (d/) / dP
Where d/ represents relative change in the density of fluid.
The relation of K depends on the type of process . It can be expressed as follows.
i) Isothermal process
PV = Constant
PdV + V dP = 0
P = - dP (dV/V) or K = P
Thus for isothermal process the bulk modulus equals the pressure P

ii) Adiabatic process:

PV = Constant
PV-1 dV + V dP = 0
Or P = - dP (dV/V)

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 14

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

=P
For adiabatic process bulk modulus K is equal to  times pressure.

Coefficient of thermal expansion (ex)

Coefficient of thermal expansion is defined as the relative increase in the volume per degree rise in
temperature in an isobaric process.

ex = 1/V[dV/dt]

Coefficient of thermal expansion increases with both pressure and temperature rise

Problems on properties of fluid

1) Calculate the density ,specific weight and weight of one liter of diesel of specific gravity equal to
0.8.
Soln: Data: Sp.Gr = 0.8, Density of water = 1000 kg/m3 , Volume = 10-3 m3
Specific gravity = Density of fluid/Density of water
0.8 = Density of fluid /1000
Density of fluid = 0.8 x 1000 = 800 Kg/m3
Mass = Density x volume = 800 x 10-3 = 0.8 Kg
Weight = Mass x acceleration due to gravity = Mass x g = 0.8 x 9.81 = 7.848 N
Specific weight = Weight / Unit volume = 7.848 /10-3 = 7848 N/m3

2) Calculate specific weight , density and specific gravity of one liter of liquid weighs 8N.
Soln: Data: Volume = 10-3 m3 , Weight = 8 N
Specific weight = Weight / Unit volume
= 8 /10-3
= 8000 N/m3
Weight = Mass x acceleration due to gravity
8 = Mass x 9.81
Mass = 8 /9.81= 0.8155 Kg
Density = Mass / Volume
= 0.8155 / 10-3
= 815.5 Kg/m3 = Density of fluid

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 15

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Specific gravity = Density of fluid / Density of water

Assume Density of water = 1000 Kg/m3 ,
 Specific gravity =815.5/1000
= 0.8155

3) 10 m3 of Mercury weighs 136 x 104 N. Calculate its specific weight, mass density , specific volume
and specific gravity .
Soln: Data: Volume = 10 m3 , Weight of mercury = 136 x 104 N
Specific weight = Weight / Volume
= 136 x 104 /10
= 136000 N/m3
Weight = Mass x acceleration due to gravity
136 x 104 = Mass x 9.81
Mass =136 x 104 / 9.81= 138634 Kg
Density = Mass / Volume
= 138634 / 10
= 13863.4 Kg/m3 = Mass density of mercury

Specific volume = Volume / Mass

= 1/ (Mass/Volume)
= 1/ Density
= 1/13863.4
= 7.213 x 10-5 m3 / Kg
Specific gravity = Density of fluid (Mercury) / Density of water
Assume Density of water = 1000 Kg/m3 ,
 Specific gravity =13863.4 /1000
= 13.8634

4) A vertical cylindrical tank of diameter 10 m and depth 5m contains water at 200C to the brim. If the
water is heated to 500C. How much water will spill over the edge of the tank. Specific weight of water
at 200C and 500C are 9.81 KN/m3 and 9.69 KN/m3.
Soln: Data: Diameter(D) = 10 m, Depth(h)= 5m , Twi =200C , Twf = 500C , Specific weight of water
at 200C = 9.81 KN/m3 , Specific weight of water at 500C = 9.81 KN/m3

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 16

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Volume of tank =  x r2 x h =  x 52 x 5 =392.69 m3

At 200C volume of the tank = Volume of water = 392.69 m3
Mass of water in tank = Volume x density of water = 392.69 x 1000 = 392690 Kg
Weight of water in the tank = Mass of water in the tank x 9.81 = 39260 x 9.81 = 3852.289 KN
Weight of water at 500C = Weight of water at 200C =3852.289KN
Specific weight of water at 500C = Weight of water at 500C / Volume of water at 500C
 Volume of water at 500C = Weight of water at 500C / Specific weight of water at 500C
= 3852.289/9.69 = 397.55m3
Volume of water spills out of tank = Volume of water at500C – Volume of water at 200C
= 397.55-392.69
= 4.86 m3

5) The velocity distribution for a flow over a plate is given by U = (2/3) y – y3 in which U is velocity
in m/s at a distance y m above the plate , determine the shear stress at y = 0 y = 0.15 and y = 0.3m .
Take the dynamic viscosity of the fluid as 9.5 poise .
Soln:Data:  = 9.5 Poise = 0.95 N-S /m2 , y = 0 m , y = 0.15 m

Y
U = 2/3 y -y3

U=0 X

Shear stress  =  du/dy 1

Differentiating the given velocity distribution equation
du/dy = d/dy((2/3) y – y3) = 2/3 -3y2
Velocity gradient at y = 0 is (du/dy)y = 0 = 2/3 -0 = 0.67 /s
Velocity gradient at y = 0.15 is (du/dy)y =0.15 = 2/3 -3 x 0.152 = 0.599 /s
Velocity gradient at y = 0 .30 is (du/dy)y =0..3 = 2/3 -3 x 0.32 = 0.3967/s
Shear stress at y = 0 = 0 =  (du/dy)y = 0 = 0.95 x 0.67 = 0.6365 N/m2
Shear stress at y = 0.15 = 0 =  (du/dy)y =0.15 = 0.95 x 0.599 = 0.56905 N/m2
Shear stress at y = 0.3 = 0 =  (du/dy)y =0..3 = 0.95 x .3967 = 0.3678 N/m2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 17

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

6) Two square plates with each side 100 cm are placed 12.5 mm apart. The lower plate is stationary
and upper plate requires a force of 120N to keep it moving with velocity of 3 m/s . Assuming linear
velocity distribution determine 1) The dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise and 2) The kinematic
viscosity of oil in stokes . If the specific gravity of the oil is 0.95 .
Soln:Data: A = 100 cm x100 cm = 1 m2 , U = 3 m/s, F = 120 N , Sp gr = 0.95,

u= 3 m/s
F = 120 N

y = 0.0125 m
u = 0 (Fixed)

Shear stress = Shear force / Shear area

= 120 / 1
= 120 N/m2
du = 3 m/s
dy = 0.0125 m
Using shear stress relation  =  du/dy
 =  / (du/dy)
= 120 / ( 3 / 0.0125)
= 0.5 N-S / m2

Density of oil = Sp gr x density of water

= 0.95 x 1000
= 950 Kg /m3

Kinematic viscosity  = Dynamic viscosity / Density

= /
= 0.5 / 950
= 5.263 x 10-4 m2/s
= 5.263 Stokes

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 18

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

7) Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 cm apart , the space between them being filled with oil of
viscosity 14 poise. Compute the shear stress in the oil if the upper plate is moving with a velocity of
2.5 m/s .Also calculate the power required to drive the plate . Assume A = 2 m2.
Soln:Data: U = 2.5 m/s ,  = 14 poise = 1.4 NS/m2, y = 1.25 x 10-2 m

u= 2.5 m/s

y = 0.0125 m
u = 0 (Fixed)

Velocity difference between top moving plate and bottom stationary plate du = ( U-0)
= 2.5 – 0
= 2.5 m/s
Distance between two plate is dy = y = 0.0125 m
But Shear stress  =  du/dy
= 1.4 x 2.5 / 0.0125
= 280 N-S /m2

Shear force = Shear stress x Area of shear

= 280 x 2 560 N

Power required to drive the plate = Force x Velocity of plate

= 560 x 2.5
= 1400 W
8) A cubical block weighing 5 N and having a 50 cm edge is allowed to slide down on an inclined
plane surface making an angle of 300 with the horizontal on which there is a uniform layer of oil 0.005
cm thick . If the expected steady state velocity of the block is 12.5 cm/s . Determine the viscosity of
the oil. Also express the kinematic viscosity in stokes if the oil has a mass density of 900 Kg/m3
Soln:Data: W = 5 N , L = 0.5 m , q = 300 ,  = 900 Kg/m3 , U = 12.5 cm/s , t = 0.05 cm

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

0.005cm

w sin 
W
30

Component of the weight of block along the plane = W sin

= 5 x sin 30
= 2.5 N = F 1
du = U = 0.125 m/s , dy = t = 0.05 x 10-2 m
Assuming linear velocity profile in the oil film shear stress can be calculated by
 =  du/dy
Shear area A = l xl = 0.5 0.5 m2
Shear force =  x A =  (du/dy) x A =  x 0.125 x 0.5 x 0.5 / 0.05 x 10-2 2
Under equilibrium condition of block Shear force is equal to component of weight of block
acting along the inclined plane.
Equating equations 1 and 2
 x 0.125 x 0.5 x 0.5 / 0.005 x 10-2 = 2.5
  = 2.5 x 0.05 x 10-2 / (0.125 x 0.5 x 0.5)
= 4 x 10-2 N-S /m2
Kinematic viscosity =  /  = 4 x 10-2 / 900
= 4.44 x 10-5 m2/s
= 44.4 x 10-4 m2/s
= 44.4 stokes

OR
Shear stress = F /A = 2.5 / (0.5 x 0.5 ) = 10 N/m2
 =  du/dy
 =  / (du/dy )

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= 10 / ( 0.125 / 0.05 x 10-2)

= 4 x 10-2 N-S /m2
Kinematic viscosity =  /  = 4 x 10-2 / 900
= 4.44 x 10-5 m2/s
= 44.4 x 10-4 m2/s
= 44.4 stokes

9) A shaft of 0.1m diameter rotates at 60 rpm in a 0.2 m long bearing taking that the two surfaces are
uniformly separated by a distance of 0.5 mm and taking linear velocity distribution in a lubricant oil
having dynamic viscosity of 4CP find the power absorbed in the bearing.
Soln:Data: D = 0.1 m, N =60 rpm, L = 0.2 m, dy = 0.5mm ,
 = 4CP = 4/100 P =0.04Poise = 0.004 N-S/m2
O0.1m

0.2 m

In this case shaft is rotating and journal is stationary

U = DN/60 =  x 0.1 x60 /60 = 0.31416 m/s
 du = 0.3146 m/s
Shear area A = DL =  x 0.1x 0.2 = 0.06283 m2
Shear stress  =  du/dy
= 0.004 x 0.3146 / 0.5x 10-3
= 2.5168 N/m2
Shear force =  xA = 2.5168 x .06283 = 0.158N
Power = F x U = 0.158 x 0.3142 = 0.0496 W

10) A cylindrical shaft of 90 mm diameter rotates about a vertical axis inside a fixed cylindrical tube
of length 0.5 m and 95 mm internal diameter. If the space between tube and shaft is filled by a
lubricant of viscosity 0.2P-s .Determine the power required to overcome viscous resistance when the
shaft rotates a speed of 240 rpm.

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Soln:Data:  = 0.2Ps , Ds = 90 mm , L= 0.5 m , Dt = 95 mm , N = 240 rpm

0.5 m
0.09 m
0.095m

Radius of the shaft Rs = Ds / 2 = 90 x 10-3 / 2 = 45 x 10-3 m

Radius of the tube Rt = Dt / 2 = 95 x 10-3 / 2 = 47.5 x 10-3 m
Thickness of oil film = Rt – Rs = 45 x 10-3 - 47.5 x 10-3 = 2.5 x 10-3 m
Us = Ds N /60 =  x 90 x 10-3 x 240 /60 = 1.131 m/s
Ut = 0(Fixed)
du = Us-Ut = 1.131 – 0 = 1.131 m/s
Shear stress  =  du/dy
= 0.2 x 1.131 / 2.5x 10-3
= 90.48 N/m2

Shear area A = DL =  x 90 x 10-3 x 0.5 = 0.1414 m2

Shear force =  xA = 90.418 x 0.1414 = 12.785N

Power = F x U = 12.785x 1.131 = 14.46W

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

11) Two large plane surfaces are 10 cm apart . The space between the surfaces are filled with an oil .
What force is required to drag a very thin plate of surface area 0.5 m2 between the two large plane
surfaces at a speed of 0.6 m/s if i) The thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces , and ii) The
this plate is at a distance of 2.5 cm from one of the plane surface ? Take the kinematic viscosity of
the oil as 0.5 x 10-4 m2/s and density of oil equal to 850 Kg / m3.
Soln:Data: A = 0.5 m2 , U = 0.6 m/s ,  = 0.5 x 10-4 m2/s ,  = 850 Kg / m3.
Dynamic viscosity  =  x  = 0.5 x 10-4 x 850 = 0.0425 N-s / m2
Case1:
2.5 cm

U = 0.6 m/s
10 cm

7.5 cm

Position of the plate from upper plane dy t = 2.5x 10-2 m

Shear stress in an oil above the plate =  t=  du/dy t
= 0.0425 x 0.6 / 2.5x 10-2
= 1.02N/m2
Shear force on upper side of the plate =  t x A = 1.02 x 0.5 = 0.51 N = Ft
dy t = 2.5x 10-2 m
Position of the plate from bottom plane dy b = 7.5 x 10-2 m

Shear stress in an oil below the plate =  b=  du/dy b

= 0.0425 x 0.6 / 7.5x 10-2
= 0.34 N/m2
Shear force on the lower side of the plate =  t x A = 0.34 x 0.5 = 0.17 N = Fb
Total force required = Shear force acting on the top and bottom surface of the plate.
= Ft + Fb = 0.51 + 0.17 = 0.68 N

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Case 2:

5 cm

U = 0.6 m/s
10 cm
5 cm

When the plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces shear force on both side of the plate is same
 Ft = Fb = F
Position of the plate from both plane surfaces
dy t = dy b = dy = 5 x 10-2 m
Shear stress in an oil =  =  du/dy
= 0.0425 x 0.6 / 5 x 10-2 m
= 0.51N/m2
Shear force on any one side of the plate =  x A = 0.51 x 0.5 = 0.255 N
Total shear force acting on the plate = 2 x F = 2 x 0.255 = 0.51 N

12) A thin plate is placed between two flat surfaces h cm apart such that the viscosity of liquids on the
top and bottom of the plate are 1 and 2 respectively. Determine the position of thin plate of area A
such that the viscous resistance to uniform motion of the thin plate is minimum( Assume thickness of
the plate to be very small).

Soln:

Shear stress on the top portion of plate 1 =  du/dy = 1 V/y 1

Shear stress on the bottom portion 2 = 2 V/(h-y) 2

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

y
V
h

h-y

Shear force on both the side F = A(1 + 2 ) = VA[1 /y + 2 /(h-y)]

For f to be minimum dF/dy = 0
d/dy[F] = VA d/dy [1 /y + 2 /(h-y)] = 0
= -1 / y2 + 2 /(h-y)2 = 0
y2 / (h-y)2 = 1 / 2
y / (h-y) = [1 / 2] 1/2
y (2) 1/2 = 1 1/2 (h-y)
= 11/2 h -11/2 y
y (2) 1/2 + 11/2 y = 11/2 h
y(21/2 +11/2) = 11/2 h
 y = 11/2 h / (21/2 +11/2)

13) A metal plate of 1m x 1m x 0.2 cm is to be lifted up with a velocity of 10 cm/s through a gap of 2
cm wide filled with oil whose density is 900Kg / m3 and viscosity of 20 poise. Find the force required
if the plate remains midway of the gap during lifting . Weight of plate is 30N
Soln:Data: A = 1m x 1m = 1 m2 , U = 0.1 m/s , Density = 900Kg / m3 ,  = 20 Poise = 2 N-S/ m2 ,
W = 30 N.
du = 0.1 m/s , dy = ( 2 – 0.2)/2 = 0.9 cm = 0.009 m
Shear stress  =  du/dy
= 2 x 0.1 / 0.009
=22.22 N/m2

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

u = 10 cm/s

W
9 mm 9 mm

2 cm

W = 30 N

Viscous force acting on the plate(Both surfaces) while moving up = 2 x shear stress x shear area
=2x xA
= 2 x 22.22 x 1
Fv = 44.44 N
Viscous force acts downwards
Buoyancy force acting on the plate = Weight of the oil displaced by the plate
= Volume of the plate x specific weight of the oil
Fb = (1 x 1 x 0.2 /100) x 900 x 9.81 = 17.658N

Buoyancy force acts upwards on the plate

Weight of the plate acts downwards on the plate.
Total force required to lift the plate = Difference between forces acting downward and upward
= Fv +W – Fb
= 44.44 + 30 – 17.658
= 56.782 N

14) A fluid has an absolute viscosity of 0.048 Pas and a specific gravity of 0.913. for the flow of such
a fluid over a flat solid surface , the velocity at a point 75 mm away from the surface is 1.125 m/s.
calculate the shear stresses at the solid boundary, at point 25 mm. 50 mm, and 75 mm away from the
boundary surface .Assume i) a linear velocity distribution and ii) Parabolic velocity distribution with
the vertex at the point 75 mm away from the surface where the velocity is 1.125 m/s

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Soln:Data:  = 0.048 Pas , Sp gr = 0.913 , V = 1.125 m/s at y = 75 mm

Consider a two dimensional Cartesian coordinate system with the velocity of fluid U as the abscisa
and the normal distance Y from the surface as the ordinate with the origin O at the solid surface.
y

5 y
=1

y 2
i) U

200
0-
52,77

=3
31,61

ii) U
15,07 U

According to the no slip condition at the solid surface

U = 0 at y = 0
Again U = 1.125 m/s at y = 0.075 m
i) For a linear velocity distribution the relation between U and y is U = 1.25y/0.075 = 15 y
Hemce du/dy = 15/s
Shear stress =  =  du/dy
= 0.048 x15 = 0.72 N/m2
In this case shear stress is uniform throught

ii) The equation of parabolic velocity distribution is considered to be given by U = A +By+Cy2

Where the constants A, B and C are to be determined from the boundary conditions given in the
problem as
U = 0 at y =0
U = 1.125 m/s at y = 0.075 m
du/dy = 0 at y = 0.075 ( The condition for the vertex of the parabola)
Substitution of the boundary conditions in the expression of velocity profile we get
A=0
U = 1.125 m/s at y = 0.075 m
1.125 = .075B + 0.0752 C 1
d/dy[U] = d/dy[A +By+Cy2] = B + 2Cy
du/dy = 0 at y = 0.075
0 = B + 2 x C x 0.075 2
Solving equations 1 and 2

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

1.125 = .075B + 0.0752 C

0 = B + 2 x C x 0.075
Divide equation 1 throught by 0.075
15 = B + 0.075 C 3
Equation 3 – 2 gives
15 = -0.075C
C = -200
Using this value of C in to equation 2 we get
0 = B + 2 x -200 x 0.075
 B = 30
Therefore the expression of velocity profile becomes
U = 30y – 200y2
du/dy = 30 – 400y 4
Tabulation of results with the help of equation 4 is shown below
Y (m) U(m/s) du/dy(/s)  = 0.048 du/dy (N/m2)

0 0 30 1.44
0.025 0.625 20 0.96
0.050 0.880 10 0.48
0.075 1.125 0 0

15) Pressure inside a soap bubble ,droplet and jet of water is around 2.5 N/m2 above atmosphere
estimate the surface tension in all three cases assuming the diameter in each case equal to 50 mm
Soln:Data:- p = 2.5 N/m2 , d = 50 mm
i) Soap bubble
Pressure in soap bubble p = 8s /d
s=pxd/8
= 2.5 x 0.050 / 8 = 0.01625 N/m
ii) Liquid droplet
Pressure in liquid droplet p = 4s /d
s=pxd/4
= 2.5 x 0.050 / 4 = 0.03125 N/m

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

iii) Jet of water

Pressure in jet of water p = 2s /d
s=pxd/2
= 2.5 x 0.050 / 8 = 0.0625 N/m

16) Pressure inside a droplet is 0.2 Kpa in excess of external pressure what is the diameter of the
droplet given surface tension for water in contact with air at 200C = 0.0736 N/m.
Soln:Data: s = 0.0736 N/m, p= 0.2 Kpa,
Pressure of droplet in excess of atmospheric pressure p = 4s /d
d = 4s /p
d = 4 x 0.0736 / (0.2 x 1000)
= 1.472 x 10-3 or 1.472 mm
Or
Pressure force acting on the surface = p d2 / 4 = 0.2 x 103 x  x d2 /4 = 157d2 1
Tensile force acting on the circumference = s d = 0.0736 x  x d = 0.231d 2
Under equilibrium condition pressure force is equal to tensile force acting on the droplet
Equate equations 1 and 2 we get
157d2 = 0.231d
 d = 0.231/157 = 1.471 x 10-3 or 1.471 mm

17) The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/cm2(Atom spr) .
Calculate the pressure within the droplet if the surface tension is given as 0.075 N/m of water.
Soln:Data: d = 0.04 mm , Patom = 10.32 N/cm2 , s = 0.075 N/m

Pressure inside the droplet in excess of atmospheric pressure p = 4s /d

= 4 x 0.075 / 0.04 x 10-3
= 7500 N/m2
= 0.75 N/cm2
Total pressure within the droplet is = p + atmospheric pressure = 0.75 N/cm2 + = 10.32 N/cm2
= 11.07 N/cm2

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

18) Air is introduced through a nozzle in to a tank of water to form a stream of bubbles . If the
bubbles are intended to have diameter of 3 mm, calculate by how much the pressure of air at the
nozzle must exceed that of surrounding water. Assume that surface tension of water is 0.074 N/m.
What would be the absolute pressure inside the bubble if the surrounding water is 100 Kpa
Soln:Data; d = 3 mm, s = 0.074 N/m , Psurr = 100 Kpa

Air bubble

O3
mm

WATER TANK

For water bubble the excess pressure intensity of air over that of surrounding water is
p = 4s /d
= 4 x 0.074/ 3 10-3
= 98.67 N /m2
Pressure outside the droplet = 100 Kpa
Pressure inside the droplet = p + Surrounding pressure = 98.67 + 100000
= 10098.67 Pa(Abs)
19) In measuring the unit energy of mineral oil ( Sp gr = 0.90) by the bubble method a tube having a
internal diameter of 1.5 mm is immersed to a depth of 1.25 cm in the oil. Air is forced through the tube
forming a bubble at the lower end what is the magnitude of the unit surface energy will be indicated
by a maximum bubble pressure 160 N/m2.
Soln:Data: d = 1.5 mm , h = 1.25 cm , Pi = 160 N/m2 , sp gr = 0.90.

Air
1.25 CM

OIL

1.5 mm

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Pressure inside the bubble Pi = 160 N/m2.

Pressure outside the bubble Po= gh = 0.9 x1000 x 9.81x 1.25/100 = 110.3625 N/m2.

Net pressure attributed to surface tension p = Pi –Po = 160 – 110.3625 = 49.6375N/m2.

Taking diameter of the bubble equal to diameter of the tube
For a bubble ( Having one surface) p = p = 4s /d
49.6375 = 4 x s / 1.5 x 10-3
 s = .0186 N/m
20) A spherical water drop of 1 mm in diameter splits up in air into 64 smaller drops of equal size.
Find the work required in splitting up the drop. The surface tension coefficient of water in air = 0.073
N/m.
Soln:Data: di = 1 mm , s = 0.073 N/m
An increase in the surface area out of a given mass takes place when a bigger drop splits up into a
number of smaller drops , and the work required is given by the product of surface tension coefficient
and the increase in surface area.

Let d be the diameter of smaller drops and di be the diameter of initial water drop
From conservation of mass
Density x total volume of 64 droplets = density x volume of initial single drop of water
As density of water drop remains same before and after splitting
Total volume of 64 droplets = Volume of initial single drop of water
64  d3/6 =  di3/6
64 x  x d3/6 =  x (0.001) 3 / 6
 d = 0.25 x 10-3 m
Initial surface area = di2
=  x 0.0012
=  x 10-6 m2
Final surface area ( Due to 64 smaller drops)
= 64 x d2
= 64 x (0.25 x 10-3) 2
= 4 x 10-6 m2
Hence increase in surface area = Final surface area – Initial surface area

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= 4 x 10-6–  x 10-6
= 3 x 10-6 m2
Work required to split spherical water drop is equal to energy required for increasing the surface area.
Therefore required work = s x Increase in surface area
= 0.073 x 3 x 10-6
= 0.69 x 10-6 J
21) Calculate the capillary effect in millimeter in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter . When immersed in
i) water ii) Mercury. The surface tension coefficient of water and mercury at 200C in contact with the
air is 0.0735 N/m and 0.48 N/m respectively. The contact angle of water and mercury in contact with
glass is 00 and1300 respectively.
Soln:Data : d = 4 mm , s water = 0.0735 N/m, s Mercury = 0.48 N/m, q H2o =00, q Hg= 1300

Capillary height in water = h = 4 s water x cosq H2o / gd

= 4 x 0.0735 x cos 0 / (9810 x 4 x 10-3)
= 7.49 x 10-3 m
= 7.49 mm
Capillary height in water = h = 4 s mercury x cosq Hg / gd
= 4 x 0.48 x cos130 / (9810 x 13.6 x 4 x 10-3)
= -2.31 x 10-3 m
= -2.31 mm

22) Find out the minimum size of the glass tube that can be used to measure level of water if the
capillary rise in the tube is restricted to the 3 mm . Assume surface tension of water in contact with air
as 0.0735 N/m.
Soln:Data: h = 3 mm ,  = 1000 kg/m3 , s = 0.0735 N/m , q = 00
Capillary rise h = 4 s x cosq / gd
d = 4 s x cosq / gh
= 4 x 0.0735 x cos0 / (9810 x 3 x 10-3)
= 9.98 x 10-3 m
= 7.49 mm

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

23) Find out the smallest diameter of the manometer tube such that error due to capillary action in the
measurement of pressure 100 N/m2 is less than 5% . The manometer liquid is water. Assume ,
s = 0.073 N/m, q = 00 , g = 9810 N / m3
Soln: Data: P =100 N/m2 , Error = 5% , s = 0.073 N/m, q = 00 , g = 9810 N / m3
From hydrostatic equation p = gH
Gauge pressure in terms of height of water column H = p/g
= 100/ 9810
= 0.01019 m of water
Capillary rise in the manometer tube = 4 s x cosq / gd
= 4 x 0.073 x cos0 / ( 9810 x d)
= 2.976 x 10-5 / d
Error in the measurement of pressure should be less than 5%
Error in measurement of pressure = Capillary rise x 100/ Height of liquid column
Capillary rise x 100/ Height of liquid column  5%
Using limiting condition
Capillary rise x 100/ Height of liquid column = 5
2.976 x 10-5 x 100 / 0.01019 x d = 5
d = 0.0584 m

24) A single column U –tube manometer made up of glass tubing having a nominal inside diameter of
2.5 mm has been used to measure pressure in a pipe of vessel containing air . If the limb opened to
atmosphere is 10% oversize .Find the error in mm of mercury in the measurement of air pressure due
to surface tension effect. It is stated that mercury is the manometric fluid for which surface tension is
0.514 N/m and the angle of contact is 140 degree.
Soln:Data :- d1 = 2.5 mm , d2 = 2.5 x 1.1 = 2.75 mm , s = 0.514 N/m, q =1400,
g = 13.6 x 9810 N / m3
Capillary rise in the small tube = h1 = 4 s x cosq / gd1
= 4 x 0.514 x cos 140 / (13.6 x 9810 x 2.5 x 10-3)
= 4.72 x 10-3m of mercury
= -4.72 mm of mercury

Capillary rise in the large tube = h2 = 4 s x cosq / gd2

= 4 x 0.514 x cos 140 / (13.6 x 9810 x 2.75 x 10-3)

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= 4.29 x 10-3m
= -4.29 mm
Error = h1-h2
= -4.72 –(-4.29)
= -0.43 mm

25) A U tube is made up of two capillary of bore 4 mm and 5 mm respectively. The tube is held
vertically and is partially filled with liquid of surface tension 0.05 N/m and zero contact angle.
Calculate the mass density of the liquid. If the estimated difference in the levels of the two menisci is
1.25 mm
Soln: Data: d1 = 4 mm , d2 = 5 mm , s = 0.05 N/m , q =00, h1 –h2 = 1.25 mm
h1 = 4 s x cosq / gd1 , h2 = 4 s x cosq / gd2
As cos0 = 1
h1 = 4 s / gd1
h2 = 4 s / gd2
h1 –h2 = 4 s / g [1/d1 – 1/d2]
1.25/1000= 4 x 0.05 [ 1/ 4 x 10-3 – 1/ 5 x 10-3 ] / ( x 9.81)
0.00125 = 0.2 [ 1/ 4 x 10-3 – 1/ 5 x 10-3 ] / ( x 9.81)
= 0.2 [ 250 – 200] / ( x 9.81)
 = 0.2 x 50 / ( 0.00125 x 9.81)
= 815.5 Kg/m3
26) A U tube made up of two capillaries of bore 4 mm and 5 mm respectively. The tube is held
vertically and partially filled with a liquid of mass density 1000 Kg / m3 and angle of contact is zero
degree. Calculate the surface tension of the liquid if the estimated difference in the levels of two
menisci is 1.5 mm .
Soln: Data: d1 = 4 mm , d2 = 5 mm , q =00,  = 1000 Kg/m3 s = ? , h1 –h2 = 1.5 mm
h1 = 4 s x cosq / gd1 , h2 = 4 s x cosq / gd2
As cos0 = 1
h1 = 4 s / gd1
h2 = 4 s / gd2
h1 –h2 = 4 s / g [1/d1 – 1/d2]
1.5/1000= 4 x s [ 1/ 4 x 10-3 – 1/ 5 x 10-3 ] / (1000 x 9.81)
0.0015 = 4 x s [ 1/ 4 x 10-3 – 1/ 5 x 10-3 ] / (1000 x 9.81)
Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 34
 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= 4 x s [ 250 – 200] / (1000 x 9.81)

s = 0.0736 N/m

27) A cylinder contains air at 200C and pressure = 250 Kpa, Then air is compressed to half of its
volume Determine the pressure and temperature of air if the process is i) Isothermal ii) Isentropic
(=1.4)
P1 = 250 KPa, T1 = 2930K, V1 = Vm3, V2 = 0.5Vm3,
i) Isothermal
Under isothermal condition P1V1 = P2V2
P2 = P1V1 / V2
= 250 x (1/0.5)
= 500KPa
Temperature does not change under isothermal condition T2 = T1

ii) Adiabatic condition

P1V1 = P2V2
P2 = P1V1 / V2
= 250 x ( 1/0.5) 1.4
= 659.754 Kpa
Temperature can be calculated by using relation T2 /T1 = ( V1/V2) -1
T2 = T1 x ( V1/V2) -1
= 293 x ( 1/ 0.5) 1.4 -1
= 386.615 K
28) i)Find the density , specific weight and specific volume of oxygen at 45oC and 115 Kpa .
ii) What would be the temperature and pressure of this gas if it is compressed isentropically to 45%
of its original volume.
iii) If the process described (ii) If isothermal what would be the temperature and pressure . Take
molecular weight of oxygen = 32.

Soln: Data: T1 = 45 + 273= 318 oK, P1 = 115 Kpa,

i) Gas constant R = 8312 / Molecular weight = 8312 / 32 = 259.75 J/Kg K
Pv = RT
P/ = RT

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

 = P / RT
= 115 x 1000 / (259.75 x 318)
= 1.392 Kg /m3
Specific volume = 1/  = 1 / 1.392 = 0.718 m3 / Kg
Temperature not changing in isothermal process therefore T1=T2 = 318 oK
Pressure calculated by using P1V1 = P2V2
P2 = P1V1 / V2
= 115 x (1/0.45)
= 255.55 KPa
ii) V2 = V1/2
Under isentropic condition
P1V1 = P2V2
P2 = P1V1 / V2
= 115 x ( 1/0.5) 1.4
= 351.72 Kpa
Temperature can be calculated by using relation T2 /T1 = ( V1/V2) -1
T2 = T1 x ( V1/V2) -1
= 318 x ( 1/ 0.45) 1.4 -1
= 437.66 K
29) A cylinder contains liquid of volume 0.0135 m3 at a pressure of 750 KP. When compressed
reaches to volume of 0.0134 m3,Pressure is increases to 1400 KPa . Find the bulk modulus of elasticity
Soln:Data: V1 = 0.0135 m3 , V2 = 0.0134 m3 , P1 = 750 Kpa, P2 = 1400Kpa
dv = V1-V2 = 0.0135 -0.0134 = 0.0001 m3
dp = P2 –P1 = 1400 -750 = 650 Kpa
Volumetric strain = dv/V = 0.0001/0.0135 = 7.4074 x 10-3
Bulk modulus K = Change in pressure / Volumetric strain
= 650 / 7.4074 x 10-3
= 87750 Kpa

30) A cylinder contains 0.3 m3 of air at 200 Kpa and is compressed to 0.06 m3. Calculate the pressure
and bulk modulus of compressed air if the compression is achieved i) Isothermally ii) Adiabatically.
For air take  = 1.4
Soln:Data: V1 = 0.3 m3 , V2 = 0.06 m3 , P1 = 200 Kpa,  = 1.4

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

i) Isothermal compression.
Pressure calculated by using P1V1 = P2V2
P2 = P1V1 / V2
= 200 x (0.3/0.06)
= 1000 Kpa
In isothermal process , the bulk modulus of elasticity equals the pressure
K = p2 = 1000Kpa
ii) Adiabatic compression
Under Adiabatic condition
P1V1 = P2V2
P2 = P1V1 / V2
= 200 x ( 0.3 /0.06) 1.4
= 1903.65 Kpa

In adiabatic condition the bulk modulus of elasticity equals  times the pressure
 K = P2 = 1.4 x 1903.65 = 2665.1Kpa

31) An increase in pressure of a liquid from 7.5 MPa to 15 Mpa results into 0.2 percent decrease in its
volume. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity and coefficient of compressibility of the liquid.
Soln:Data: P1 = 7.5 Mpa, P2 = 15Mpa , dV/V = 0.2%
dP = 15-7.5 = 7.5 Mpa,
The bulk modulus for finite increase in pressure = K = -dP/(dV/V)
= 7.5 / 0.002
= 3750 MPa
Coefficient of compressibility =  = 1/K = 1/ 3750 x 106 = 2.67 x 10-10 m2/ N

32) A t a depth of 8 Km from the surface of water pressure is stated to be 82 MN /m2 . Determine the
mass density. Weight density and specific volume of water at this depth. Take density at surface  =
1025 Kg/m3and bulk modulus of elasticity K = 2350 Mpa for the indicated pressure range.
Soln:Data: P1 =0 Pa, P2 = 82 MN /m2 , K = 2350 Mpa ,  = 1025 Kg/m3

dP = P2 – P1 = 82 - 0 = 82 MN /m2

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From relation K = -dP/(dV/V) = dP/(d  / )

The increase in density d  =  x dp/ K = 1025 x 82 / 2350 35.766 Kg/m3
Therefore , at a depth of 8 km from the free surface , mass density  = 1025 + 35.766
= 1060.766 Kg/m3

Weight density specific weight = g = 1060.766 x 9.81 = 10406.11 N / m3

Specific volume  = 1/ = 1/1060.766 = 9.427 x 10-4 m3 / Kg

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PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT

Introduction: A fluid element mass is essentially acted upon by two categories of forces: Body
forces and surface forces. Body forces on fluid elements are caused by agencies such as gravitational,
electric or magnetic fields. Surface forces represent the action of the surrounding fluid on the element
under consideration through direct contact. These forces are due to surface stresses like pressure
(Normal force) and shear (Tangential force). In fluids at rest, there is no relative motion between the
layers of the fluid. The velocity gradient is zero and hence there is no shear in the fluid. Consequently
there is no tangential component of force and hence for a stationary fluid, the force exerted is normal
to the surface of the containing vessel. This normal surface force is called the pressure force. The
mathematical definition of intensity of pressure, in the absence of shearing stress, is
p = dF/dA
Where dF represents the resultant force acting normal to an infinitesimal area dA. If the total force F
acts uniformly over the entire area A, then p= F/A . Pressure has the dimensions of [ML-1T-2] and is
usually expressed in N/m2 (Pascal) , bar or atmosphere .
1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 100 KPa
1 atm = 101.3 KPa

PASCAL’S LAW
It states that the “pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in all directions”.

This can be proved as :

Consider the fluid element having small dimensions i.e., dx, dy, and ds . Let the width of the element
perpendicular to the plane of the paper is unity and px, py and pz are the pressures or intensity of
pressure acting on the AB, AC an BC respectively. Let ABC = q. Then the forces acting on the
element are.

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pz.ds.1
B Y

q ds

px.dy.1 dy q

A C Z
dx

py.dx.1

1. Pressure forces normal to the surfaces.

2. Weight of element in the vertical direction
The forces on the face AB = px x Area of face AB
= px x dy x 1
Similarly force on the face AC = py x dx x 1
Force on the face BC = pz x ds x 1
Weight of the element = Mass of the element x g
= Volume x  x g = (AB x AC ) / 2 x 1 x  x g
Where  = density of fluid.
Resolving the forces in x direction , we have
px x dy x 1 - pz x ds x 1 cosq = 0
ds cosq = AB = dy
 px x dy x 1 - pz x dy x 1 = 0
 or px = pz 1
Similarly , resolving the forces in y direction, we get
py x dx x 1 - pz x ds x sinq x 1 -( dx x dy /2 ) x 1 x  x g = 0
But ds x sinq = dx , Neglect weight of the fluid element
py x dx - pz x dx = 0
Or py = pz 2
From equations 1 and 2 , we have
Px = py = pz 3
The above equation shows that the pressure at any pint in x, y and z directions is equal .Since the
the choice of the fluid element was completely arbitrary, which means the pressure at any point is
the same in all directions.

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PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST

The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by hydrostatic law. Which states that the
rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction must be equal to the specific weight
of the fluid at that point. This is proved as

Free Surface of fluid

px dA

h
A B

dh
D C
( p + ¶ p / ¶ h dh ) dA

Consider a small fluid element as shown in fig

Let dA = Cross sectional area of the element
dh = Height of the fluid element
p = Pressure on face AB
h = Distance of fluid element from free surface.
The forces acting on the fluid element are :
1. The pressure force on the face AB = p x dA and acting perpendicular to face AB in the down
ward direction.
2. Pressure force on the face CD = ( p + ¶p/¶h dh) x dA , acting perpendicular to face CD,
vertically upward direction.
3. Weight of fluid element = Density x g x Volume =  x g x ( dA x dh).
4. Pressure forces on the face BC and AD are equal and opposite . For equilibrium of fluid
element, we have.
p x dA - ( p + ¶p/¶h dh) x dA +  x g x ( dA x dh) = 0
p x dA - p x dA - ¶p/¶h (dh x dA) +  x g x ( dA x dh) = 0
or ¶p/¶h (dh x dA) =  x g x ( dA x dh) or
¶p/¶h =  x g = w ( Sp weight)
Since we are considering the variation of pressure only in the h –direction, the partial
differential ¶p/¶h can be replaced by exact differential dp / dh

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dp / dh =  x g = w ( Sp weight) 1
Equation 1 states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to weight density
of the fluid at that point. This is hydrostatic law.
By integrating the above equation 1 for liquids, we get
 dp =   x g dh
p=xgh 2
Where p is the pressure above atmospheric pressure and h is the height of the point from free
surfaces .
From equation 2 , we have h = p /  x g 3
Where h is called pressure head
In equation 1 when dh is zero , then dp =0 i.e., the pressure intensity remains the same if there is
no change in elevation. Thus the pressure will be constant every where over the same level surface
in a continuous body of static fluid.

ABSOLUTE , GAGE , ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM PRESSURES

A
GAGE PRESSURE

LOCAL ATOMSPHERIC
PRESSURE
( GAGE ZERO)
VACCUM PRESSURE
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AT A
PRESSURE

OR
NEGATIVE GAGE PRESSURE AT B
LOCAL BAROMETRIC PRESSURE

B
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AT B

ABSOLUTE ZERO
( OR COMPLETE VACCUM )

Atmospheric Pressure:
It is the pressure exerted by the air surrounding the earth’s surface. Atmospheric pressure always
acts normal to surfaces with which it is in contact. It always varies with altitude and it can be
measured using a barometer . As such it is also called barometric pressure. At sea level under
normal conditions the equivalent values of the atmospheric pressure are 1.010325 x 105 N/m2 ; or
1.010325 bar or 1.010325 x 105 Pascals; or 1.03 Kgf /cm2 ; or 10.3 m of water or 760 mm of
mercury.

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Absolute Pressure:
Fluid pressure may be measured with respect to any arbitrary datum. The two most common datum
used are i) Absolute zero pressure ii) Local atmospheric pressure. When pressure is measured
above absolute zero (or complete vacuum) , it is called an absolute pressure. When it is measured
above or below the atmospheric pressure as a datum , it is called gage pressure. If the pressure of a
fluid is below atmospheric pressure it is designated as vacuum pressure ( Suction pressure or
negative gage pressure) . It is also known as the vacuum gage. All the absolute pressures are
positive . However , gage pressures are positive if they are above that of the atmosphere and
negative if they are vacuum pressure

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gage pressure

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric pressure – Vacuum pressure.

Static and total Pressure:

Static pressure is defined as the force per unit area acting on the wall by a fluid at rest or flowing
parallel to the wall in pipeline. Static pressure of a moving fluid is measured with an instrument
which is at rest relative to the fluid. The instrument theoretically should move with the same speed
as that of the fluid particle itself.
Total or stagnation pressure is defined as the pressure that would be obtained if the fluid stream
were brought to rest isentropically.

TUBE A TUBE B

INDICATED
DYNAMIC PRESSURE TOTAL PRESSURE
STATIC PRESSURE

In the above figure , tube B senses the total pressure while tube A senses the static pressure. The
difference between the total and the static pressure gives the pressure due to fluid velocity referred to
as the dynamic pressure. The dynamic pressure is due to flow speed and is also known as the velocity
or impact pressure.

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MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
The various devices adopted for measuring fluid may be broadly classified under the following two
categories.
1) Manometers
2) Mechanical gages
1) Manometers: Manometers are those pressure measuring devices which are based on the principle
of balancing the column of liquid by the same or another column of liquid . The manometers may be
classified as
a) Simple manometers .
b) Differential manometers.
Simple manometers are those which measure pressure at a point in a fluid contained in a pipe or a
vessel. On the other hand differential manometers measure the difference of pressure between any two
points in a fluid contained in a pipe or a vessel.
Simple manometers:
In general a simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to the gage
point where the pressure is to be measured and the other remains open to atmosphere. Some of the
common types of simple manometers are as noted below.
i) Piezo meter
ii) U – tube manometer.
iii) Single Column Manometer.
a) Vertical single column manometer
b) Inclined single column manometer

b) Differential Manometers
i) Two piezo manometers.
ii) Inverted U tube manometers
iii) U –tube differential manometers
iv) Micro manometer.

2) Mechanical gages: Mechanical gages are those pressure measuring devices, which embody an
elastic element , which deflects under the action of the applied pressure, and this movement
mechanically magnified , operates a pointer moving against a graduated circumferential scale. Some
of the mechanical pressure gages are
i) Bourdon Tube Pressure gage.
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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

ii) Diaphragm Pressure gage.

iii) Bellows Pressure gage
iv) Dead weight pressure gage.

a) Simple manometers:
i) Piezo meter:

h
A

PIEZOMETER

A piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which can be used for measuring the moderate
pressures of liquids. It consists of a glass tube inserted in the wall of a pipe or a vessel , containing a
liquid whose pressure is to be measured . The tube extends vertically upward to such a height that
liquid can freely rise in it without overflowing. The pressure at any point in the liquid is indicated by
the height of the liquid in the tube above that point, which can be read on the scale attached to it If at a
point A, the height of liquid say water is h in piezometer tube, then pressure at A
=  x g x h N /m2
Piezometers can also be used to measure pressure heads in pipes where the liquid is in motion. In
order prevent the capillary action affecting the height of the column of liquid in a piezometer , the
glass tube having an internal diameter less than 12 mm should not be used.
Limitations:
1. Piezometers cannot be used when large pressures in the lighter liquids are to be measured , since
this would require very long tubes, which cannot be handled conveniently.
2. Gas pressures cannot be measured by piezometers because a gas forms no free atmospheric surface.

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ii) U – Tube manometer.

The limitations of piezometers can be overcome by using the U tube manometers. It consists of a glass
tube bent in U – shape, one end of which is connected to the gage point and the other end remains
open to the atmosphere. The tube contains a liquid of specific gravity greater than that of the fluid
which is to be measured. The liquids used in the manometers should be such that they do not get
mixed with the fluids of which the pressures are to be measured. Some of the liquids that are
frequently used in the manometer are mercury, oil, salt solution, carbon disulphide, carbon
tetrachloride, Bromoform and alcohol. A U-tube manometer can also be used to measure negative or
vacuum pressure. For

Q h2
h1

A A

For gage pressure or positive pressure

Gage pressure: Let Q is the point at which pressure is to be measured. Whose value is p . The datum
line is A-A. Let h1= Height of the light liquid above the datum line.
h2 = Height of the heavy liquid above the datum line .
S1 = Sp .gr. of light liquid.
S2 = Sp.gr. of heavy liquid .
1 = Density of light liquid = 1000 x S1.
2 = Density of heavy liquid = 1000 x S2.
As the pressure is same for the horizontal surface . Hence pressure above the horizontal datum line
A – A in the left column and in the right column of U –tube manometer should be same.
Pressure above A-A in the left column = p + 1 x g x h1
Pressure above A-A in the right column = 2 x g x h2
Hence equating the two pressures p + 1 x g x h1 = 2 x g x h2
 p = (2 x g x h2 - 1 x g x h1)

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For vacuum Pressure :

Q
h1

h2
A A

For vacuum gage pressure or negative pressure

A U –tube manometer used for measuring the negative or vacuum pressure is as shown in the figure
above. It is evident that for the pressure at Q being negative (i.e., less than atmospheric pressure) the
liquid surface in the open limb of the manometer will be below Q. The pressure at Q may be
determined from the gage equation as obtained below.
Pressure above datum line A-A in the left column = 2 x g x h2 + 1 x g x h1 + p
Pressure head in the right column above A-A = 0
 2 x g x h2 + 1 x g x h1 + p = 0
 p = -(2 x g x h2 + 1 x g x h1)
A U tube manometer without any manometric liquid may also be used .
Single Column Manometer
The U – tube manometers described above usually require readings of fluid levels at two or more
points, since a change in pressure causes a rise of liquid in one limb of the manometer and a drop in
the other. This difficulty may however be overcome by using single column manometers. A single
column manometer is a modified form of a U –tube manometer in which a shallow reservoir having a
large cross sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to the area of the tube is introduced into one
limb of the manometer, as shown in figure. For any variation in pressure , the change in the liquid
level in the reservoir will be so small that it may be neglected, and the pressure is indicated
approximately by the height of the liquid in the other limb. As such only one reading in the narrow
limb of the manometer need to be taken for all pressure measurements. The narrow limb of the
manometer may be vertical or it may be inclined as shown in the figure.

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Vertical single column manometer

h2
h1
RESERVOIR X
X
dh

Y Y

VERTICAL SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER

Figure shows the vertical single column manometer. Let X-X be the datum line in the reservoir and in
the right limb of the manometer, when it is not connected to the pipe When manometer is connected to
the pipe, due to high pressure at A, the heavy liquid in the reservoir will be pushed downward and
will rise in the right limb.
Let dh = Fall of heavy liquid in the reservoir.
h2 = Rise of heavy liquid in the right limb
h1 = Height of centre of pipe above X-X
pA = Pressure at A, which is to be measured
A = Cross sectional area of the reservoir
A = Cross sectional area of the right limb
S1 = Sp .gr. of liquid in pipe
S2 = Sp.gr. of liquid in the reservoir and right limb
1 = Density of liquid in pipe
2 = Density of liquid in the reservoir
Fall of the heavy liquid in reservoir cause a rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb
A x dh = a x h2
dh = a x h2 / A 1
Now consider the datum line Y – Y as shown in the figure . The the pressure risee in the right limb
above Y-Y = 2 x g x ( dh+h2) 2
Pressure in the left limb above Y-Y = 1 x g x ( dh+h1) + pA 3
Equating these pressures , we have

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

2 x g x ( dh+h2) = 1 x g x ( dh+h1) + pA
Pa = 2 x g x ( dh+h2) - 1 x g x ( dh+h1)
= dh(2g - 1g) + h22g- h11g
But from equation 1 dh = a x h2 / A
Pa = (a x h2 / A) (2g - 1g) + h22g- h11g
As area A is very large compared to a, hence ratio a / A becomes very small and can be neglected
Then pA = h22g- h11g 4

Inclined single column manometer

A
L

h1 h2

RESERVOIR X
X
dh
Y Y

INCLINED SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER

Above figure shows the inclined single column manometer . This is more sensitive. Due to inclination
the distance moved by the heavy liquid in the right limb will be more. As in single column vertical
manometer when manometer is not connected to the pipe , the manometric liquid surface in the
reservoir will stand at X-X . When it is connected high pressure fluid entering reservoir , the
manometric liquid surface will drop to level Y – Y by a distance dh .
Let L = Length of heavy liquid moved in right limb from X-X
q = Inclination of right limb with horizontal
h2 = Vertical rise of heavy liquid in the right limb from X-X = L x sinq
From the equation 4 , the pressure at A is
pA = h22g- h11g
Substituting the value of h2 , we get
pA = L x sinq 2g- h11g 5

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Single Column manometers can also be used for measuring the negative gage pressures or vacuum
pressure. If the pressure at point A in the pipe is negative, manometric liquid surface in the reservoir
will be raised by a certain distance and consequently there will be drop in the liquid surface in the
tube . Again by adopting the same procedure the gage equations for the negative pressure
measurement can also be obtained.

Differential manometers: For measuring the difference of pressure between any two points in a
pipeline or in two pipes or containers, a differential manometer is employed. In general differential
manometer consists of a bent glass tube , two ends of which are connected to each of the two gage
points between which the pressure difference is required to be measured . Some of the common types
of diferential manometers are

i) Two –Piezo meter manometer

ii) Inverted U –Tube manometer.
iii) U- Tube differential manometer
iv) Micrometer.

i) Two – Piezo meter manometer: It consists of two separate piezo meters which are inserted at the
two gage points between which the difference of pressure is required to be measured. The difference
in the levels of the liquid in the two tubes denote the pressure difference between two points. This
method is useful only when pressure at each of the two points is small .

ii) a) Inverted U tube differential manometer (At different level) : It consist of a glass tube bent in
U-Shape and held inverted as shown in figure. It is similar to two piezo meters but are connected with
each other at top. When the two ends of the manometer are connected to the points between which the
pressure difference is required to be measured, the liquid under pressure will enter the two limbs of the
manometer, thereby causing the low specific gravity fluid within manometer to get compressed. The
difference of the compressed fluid restricting the height of the liquids raised in the two limbs of the
manometer. An fluid cock as shown in the figure is usually provided at the top of the inverted U-tube
which facilitates the raising of liquid columns to suitable level in both the limbs by driving out a
portion of compressed lighter fluid. Some times air can also be used as the manometric fluid.

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

x x

h
h2
B

h1
A

INVERTED U TUBE DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER

If pA and pB are pressure intensities at points A and B between which the inverted U –tube
manometer is connected, then corresponding to these pressure intensities the liquid will rise above
points A and B upto X and X’ in the two limbs of the manometer as shown in figure .
Let
1 = Density of liquid in pipe A
2 = Density of liquid in the pipe B
f = Density of lighter fluid in the manometer .
The pressure at X-X in the left limb and pipe A
pA - 1 x g x h1 1
Since the points X and X’ are at the same horizontal level and in the continuous static mass of liquid ,
Pressure at X = Pressure at X’
Similarly pressure at X-X’ in the right limb and pipe B
pB – h2x 2 g – f g h 2
Equating equations 1 and 2
pA - 1 x g x h1 = pB –2 g h2 – f g h
pA - pB = (1h1- 2 h2) g - f gh 3

When same type of fluid flows through pipes 1 = 2 = 1

pA - pB = (h1- h2) 1g - f gh 4

a) Inverted U tube differential manometer (At same level) :

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

If pA and pB are pressure intensities at points A and B between which the inverted U –tube
manometer is connected, then corresponding to these pressure intensities the liquid will rise above
points A and B upto X and X’ in the two limbs of the manometer as shown in figure .
Let
1 = Density of liquid in pipe A
2 = Density of liquid in the pipe B
f = Density of lighter fluid in the manometer .
The pressure at X-X in the left limb and pipe A
pA - 1 x g x h1- 1 x g x h 1
Since the points X and X’ are at the same horizontal level and in the continuous static mass of liquid ,
Pressure at X = Pressure at X’
Similarly pressure at X-X’ in the right limb and pipe B
pB – h1x 2 g – f g h 2
Equating equations 1 and 2
pA - 1 x g x h1- 1 x g x h = pB –2 g h1 – f g h
pA - pB = (1- 2 ) h1g + gh(1 - f ) 3

When same type of fluid flows through pipes 1 = 2 = 1

pA - pB = gh(1 - f ) 4

ii) b) U tube differential manometer

It consists of glass tube bent in U shape , the two ends of which are connected to the two gage points
between which the pressure difference is required to be measured. Following figure shows such an

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arrangement for measuring the pressure difference between any two points A and B . The lower part
of the manometer contains a manometric liquid which is heavier than the liquid for which the pressure
difference is to be measured and is immiscible with it.

a) When two points are at the different level.

A
x

y
h
X X

Two pipes at different levels

Let h = Difference of mercury level in the U –tube.

y = Distance of the centre of B , from the mercury level in the right limb.
x = Distance of the centre of A, from the mercury level in the right limb
1 = Density of liquid in pipe A
2 = Density of liquid in the pipe B
f = Density of heavy liquid or mercury
Taking datum line at X-X
Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 1 g(h+x) + pA
Pressure above X-X in the right limb = fgh + 2gy +pB
Equating pressures in both the limb above X-X
1 g(h+x) + pA = fgh + 2gy +pB
pA - pB = fgh + 2gy - 1 g(h+x)
= h g (f - 1) + 2gy - 1gx
b) When A and B are at same level

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

A B

x
h
X X

Two pipes at same levels

a) A and B are at same level with different liquids . Then

Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 1g (h+x) + pA 1
Pressure above X-X in the right limb = f g h+2gx + pB 2
Equating the pressures in the both the limbs
1g (h + x) + pA = f g h+2gx + pB
pA - pB = f g h + 2gx - 1g h - 1g x
= gh(f - 1) + gx(2 - 1) 3

b) A and B are at same level with same liquid . Then

Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 1g (h+x) + pA 1
Pressure above X-X in the right limb = f g h+1gx + pB 2
Equating the pressures in the both the limbs
1g (h + x) + pA = f g h+1gx + pB
pA - pB = f g h + 1gx - 1g h - 1g x
= gh(f - 1) 3

iv) Micro manometers: For the measurement of very small pressure differences, or for the
measurement of pressure differences with very high precision, special forms of manometers called
micro manometers are used. A wide variety of micro manometers have been developed, which either
magnify the readings or permit the readings to be observed with greater accuracy. In order to increase
the sensitivity of the U-tube manometer enlarged ends are provided .

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Micrometer is the modification of differential manometer. The ends of the two limbs of differential
manometer are modified in to two large bulbs as shown in the figure. Assume that in the beginning
the pressure acting on the fluid in the two bulbs is same . Then separation of the fluid is at the level of
X-X

B C
P2
P1

ay/A A

hc
hb

a
X X
Y Y

y
Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 1g hB 1
Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 2g hC 2
Equating equations 1 and 2 we get
1g hB= 2g hC
Or hB =2g hC / 1
If pressure p2 > p1 level of liquid falls in the bulb C and in the bulb B rises fluid in tubes
settles down at Y-Y . Both bulbs are having same area A and area of tubes is a .
Using volume conservation principle
h x A = a x y
h = a x y / A
Considering final separation
Pressure above Y-Y in left limb = p1 + 1g(hB + y +ay/A) 3
Pressure above Y-Y in right limb = p2 + 2 g (hB + y - ay/A) 4
Equating equations 3 and 4
p1 + 1 g (hB + y +ay/A) = p2 + 2 g (hB + y - ay/A)
p1 - p2 = 2 g (hB + y - ay/A) - 1 g (hB + y +ay/A)

Problems of Pressure and its measurement.

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

1) The diameters of the ram and plunger of a hydraulic jack are 250 mm and 40 mm respectively. Find
the load that can be lifted. When a force of 450 N is applied on the plunger.
Soln:Data:

W
P = 450 N

dp = 0.04m
dr = 0.25 m

Area of Plunger Ap = dp2/4 =  x 0.042/4 = 1.2566 x 10-3 m2

Area of ram Ar = dr2/4 =  x 0.252/4 = 49.087x 10-3 m2
Force applied on the plunger = P = 450 N.
Pressure intensity at plunger pp = P / Ap = 450 / 1.2566 x 10-3
= 358.109 KN / m2 1
Pressure intensity at ram pr = P / Ar = W / 49.087x 10-3 2
As the pressure intensity at both plunger and ram is same equate equations 1 and 2
p p = pr
358.109 x 103 = W / 49.087x 10-3
 W = 17578.5 N
Where W is the load that can be lifted

2) In a hydraulic jaw the area of the small piston is 800 mm2 and that of the large piston is 8000 mm2.
A force of 1 KN is applied on the small piston .What load can be lifted on the large piston. When i)
The both piston are at the same level ii) The small piston is 0.5 m above the large piston. Iii) The large
piston is 0.5 m above the small piston. Take the specific weight of the liquid in the jack as 9.81 KN/m3
Soln: Data: a1 = 800 mm2 , a2 = 8000 mm2 , P = 1 KN, Specific weight = 9.81 KN/m3

i) When both pistons are at the same level

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

W
P = 1 KN

a2 = 8000 mm2
2
a1= 800 mm

When both the pistons are at same level

P/a1 = W/a2
W = P x a2/a1
= 1000 x 8000/800
= 10 KN
ii) When small piston is 0.5 m above the large piston
P

W
0.5 m
a2 = 8000 mm2
a1= 800 mm 2

Pressure intensity at small piston p1 = P/a1

Pressure intensity at large piston p2 = Pressure intensity at small piston +gh
= P/a1+ gh 1
Pressure intensity at large piston is also equal to W / a2 2
Equating both equations 1 and 2
W / a2 = P/a1+ gh
W = a2( P/a1+ gh )
= 8000 x 10-6 ( 1000 / 800 x 10-6 + 9810 x 0.5 )
= 10.039 KN

ii) When small piston is 0.5 m above the large piston

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

W
0.5 m
a2 = 8000 mm2
a1= 800 mm 2

Pressure intensity at small piston p1 = P/a1

Pressure intensity at large piston p2 = Pressure intensity at small piston +gh
= P/a1+ gh 1
Pressure intensity at large piston is also equal to W / a2 2
Equating both equations 1 and 2
W / a2 = P/a1+ gh
W = a2( P/a1+ gh )
= 8000 x 10-6 ( 1000 / 800 x 10-6 + 9810 x 0.5 )
= 10.039 KN

iii) When large piston is 0.5 m above the small piston

a2 = 8000 mm2
a1= 800 mm 2

Pressure intensity at small piston p1 = P/a1

Pressure intensity at large piston p2 = Pressure intensity at small piston - gh
= P/a1- gh 1
Pressure intensity at large piston is also equal to W / a2 2

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Equating both equations 1 and 2

W / a2 = P/a1- gh
W = a2( P/a1- gh )
= 8000 x 10-6 ( 1000 / 800 x 10-6 - 9810 x 0.5 )
= 9.96076 KN
3) Find the head of water corresponding to a pressure intensity of 20 Kpa .Specific weight of water is
9.81 KN/m3
Soln: Data: p = 20 Kpa, Sp weight = 9.81 KN/m3
Pressure intensity p = specific weight of liquid x Height of liquid column
20 x 1000 = 9.81 x 1000 x h
h = 2.0387 m of water.

4) Convert a pressure of 50 m of oil in to corresponding head of water if the specific gravity of oil is
0.8 .
Soln:Data : ho = 50 m of oil , Sp gravity of oil = 0.8

Pressure equivalent of 50 m of oil = ghoil

= 0.8 x 1000 x 9.81 x 50 = 392.400 KN/m2
For same amount of pressure in terms of water column = ghw
392400 = 1000 x 9.81 x hw
 hw = 40 m of water

5) A rectangular tank of 5 m long and 1.50m wide containing water to a depth of 2 m. Find the
pressure intensity on the bottom of the tank. Find also the total pressure on the end wall. Take specific
weight of water equall to 9.81 KN/m3.
Soln:Data: h = 2m, Sp weight = 9.81 KN/m3.
Pressure intensity on the bottom of the tank = gh
= 9810 x 2
= 19.620 KN/ m2.
On the end wall of the tank pressure intensity varies from zero at top to 19.62 KN/ m2 at the bottom.
Therefore average pressure intensity on the end wall = 0 + 19.62 /2
= 9.81 KN/ m2.
The total pressure force on the end wall = Average pressure x area

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= 9.81 x (1.5 x 2)
=29.43 KN

6) An open tank contains water for a depth of 1.5 m , and above it oil of specific gravity 0.80 for a
depth of 0.75 m. Find the 1) Pressure intensity at the two liquid interface 2) At the bottom
Soln: Data: ho = 0.75 m , hw = 1.5 m , Sp Gr of oil = 1.5 m

Sp Gr = 0.8

0.75m
Oil

Water

1.5m
Pressure intensity at the interface = (g)oil x ho
= 1000 x 0.8 x 9.81 x 0.75
= 5886 N /m2
Pressure intensity at the bottom of the tank = (g)oil x ho + (g)water x hw
= 1000 x 0.8 x 9.81 x 0.75 + 9810 x 1.5
= 20601 N /m2

7) A vessel of uniform area of 1000 mm2 and height 2 m contains water to a depth of 1.5 m and oil of
specific gravity 0.8 for the remaining portion. The vessel is open to atmosphere. Find the gauge
pressure and the absolute pressure on the base of the vessel. Express this pressure as 1) Pressure
intensity ii) Pressure head in terms of water iii) Pressure head of oil. Take atmospheric pressure head
equal to 1.013 bar. Also calculate the net force on the base of the vessel.
Soln:Data: A = 1000 mm2 , h = 2 m , hw = 1.5 m , ho = 0.5 m , Patm = 1.013 Bar

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Sp Gr = 0.8

0.5m
Oil

Water

1.5m
Pressure intensity of oil = (g)oil x ho
= 1000 x 0.8 x 9.81 x 0.5
= 3924 N /m2
Pressure intensity due to water = (g)water x hw
= 1000 x 9.81 x 1.5
= 14715 N /m2

Gauge pressure = Pressure due to oil +Pressure due to water

= 3924 + 14715
= 18639 N /m2
Gauge pressure head in terms of water column = Gauge Pressure / Sp weight of water
= 18639 / 9810
= 1.9 m of water
Gauge pressure head in terms of oil column = Gauge Pressure / Sp weight of oil
= 18639 / (9810 x 0.8)
= 2.375 m of oil
Absolute pressure at the base = Atmospheric pr + Gauge pressure
= 101300 + 18639
= 119939 N /m2
Absolute pressure head in terms of water column = Absolute Pressure / Sp weight of water
= 119939 / 9810
= 12.226 m m of water
Absolute pressure head in terms of oil column = Absolute Pressure / Sp weight of oil
= 119939 / (9810 x 0.8)
= 15.28 m of oil

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

8) Right limb of simple manometer contains mercury is open to atmosphere while the left limb is
connected to pipe in which fluid of specific gravity of 0.95 is flowing . The center of the pipe is 15 cm
below the level of mercury in the right limb. Find the pressure of the fluid in the pipe if the difference
of mercury level in the two limb is 35 cm.
Soln: Data:1 = 1000 x 0.95 Kg/m3 , 2 = 13600 Kg/m3 , h1 = 0.20 m, h2 = 0.35 m

15 cm
Q

35 cm
20 cm

A A

Let p is pressure in the pipe

Pressure in the left limb at the level A-A = p + 1 x g x h1
= p + 1000 x 0.95 x 9.81 x 0.2
= p + 1863.9 1
Pressure in the right limb at the level A-A = 2 x g x h2
= 13600 x 9.81 x 0.35
= 46695.6 N/m2 2

As the pressure is same for the horizontal surface . Hence pressure above the horizontal datum line
A – A in the left column and in the right column of U –tube manometer should be same.
Therefore equating equations 1 and 2 we get
p + 1863.9 = 46695.6
p = 46695.6 – 1863.9
= 44831.7 N/m2

9) A simple U tube manometer is connected to a pipe carrying a fluid having specific gravity of 0.8 at
vacuum pressure. Other end is open to the atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in the pipe. If the
difference in the level of mercury in the two limb is 50 cm . The level of mercury in the left limb is
from center of the pipe is 20 cm below.
Soln: Data: h1 = 0.2 m, h2 = 0.5m , :1 = 1000 x 0.8 Kg/m3 , 2 = 13600 Kg/m3

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Q
0.2 m

0.5 m
A A

Pressure in the left limb at the level A-A = p + 1 x g x h1 + 2 x g x h2

= p + 1000 x 0.8 x 9.81 x 0.2 + 13600 x 9.81 x 0.5
= p + 1569.6 + 66708 1

Pressure in the right limb at the level A-A = 0 2

As the pressure is same for the horizontal surface . Hence pressure above the horizontal new datum
line A – A in the left and in the right limbs of U –tube manometer should be same.
Therefore equating equations 1 and 2 we get
p + 1569.6 + 66708 = 0
 p = -68277.6 N/m2

10) A U tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of water in a pipe line which is in excess of
atmosphere pressure . The right limb of the manometer contain mercury and open to atmosphere . The
contact between water and mercury is in the left limb. Determine the pressure of water in the main line
. If the difference in the level of mercury in the limbs of U tube is 15 cm and the surface of mercury is
in level with center of the pipe. If the pressure of the water in the pipe line is reduced to 9810 N/m2.
Calculate the new difference in the level of mercury.

Soln:Data: 1 = 1000 Kg/m3, 2 = 1000 Kg/m3

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Case1: When surface of mercury is in level with center of the pipe.

15 cm

A A

Let p is pressure in the pipe

Pressure in the left limb at the level A-A = p + 1 x g x h1
= p + 1000 x 9.81 x 0.15
= p + 1471.5 1
Pressure in the right limb at the level A-A = 2 x g x h2
= 13600 x 9.81 x 0.15
= 20012.4 N/m2 2

As the pressure is same for the horizontal surface . Hence pressure above the horizontal new datum
line A – A in the left and in the right limbs of U –tube manometer should be same.
Therefore equating equations 1 and 2 we get
p + 1471.5 = 20012.4
p = 20012.4 – 1471.5
= 18540.9N/m2

Case2: When pressure in the pipe line reduced to 10000 N/m2

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

P
x
0.15 -x
0.15 m 0.15 - 2x
Y Y
A x
A

When pressure is reduced in the pipe line , level of mercury drops in the right limb at the same time
level of mercury rises in the left limb. The diameter of the U tube is same in left and right limb hence
the drop in right limb is equal to rise in the left limb mercury level.
Let drop in mercury level in the right limb is equal to x m
The new position of mercury level in the left limb is equal to 0.15 – x m from the center of the pipe
line .
The new mercury level difference between two limb is equal to 0.15 -2x m
p = 10000 N/m2
Let p is pressure in the pipe
Pressure in the left limb at the datum Y-Y = p + 1 x g x h1
= 10000 + 1000 x 9.81 x (0.15 – X )
= 10000 + 9810 x 0.15 – 9810 X
= 10000 + 1471.5 - 9810 X
= 11471.5 -9810 X 1
Pressure in the right limb at the datum Y-Y = 2 x g x h2
= 13600 x 9.81 x (0.15 – 2X)
= 20012.4 - 266832 X N/m2 2

As the pressure is same for the horizontal surface . Hence pressure above the horizontal new datum
line Y – Y in the left and in the right limbs of U –tube manometer should be same.
Therefore equating equations 1 and 2 we get
11471.5 -9810 X = 20012.4 - 266832 X

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

-9810 X +266832 X = 20012.4 – 11471.5

257022 X = 18540.9
 X = 0.033 m
The new difference in the level of mercury is equal to 0.15 – 2X
= 0.15 – 2 x 0.033
= 0.084 m

11) A single column manometer is connected to a pipe containing a liquid of specific gravity 0.9 as
shown in the figure. Find the pressure in pipe if the area of the reservoir is 100 times the area of the
tube for manometer reading shown in figure. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.
Soln:Data: a/A = 100 , h1 = 0.2 m, h2 = 0.4 m , 1= 900 Kg/m3 , 1= 13600 Kg/m3 ,

A
0.4 m
0.2 m

RESERVOIR
Y Y

Pressure in the pipe line is

Pa = (a x h2 / A) (2g - 1g) + h22g- h11g
= (1 x 0.4/100 ) (13600 x 9.81 – 900 x 9.81 )+ (0.4 x 13600 x 9.81 – 0.2 x 900 x 9.81)
= 0.004 x (133416-8829 ) + (53366.4 – 1765.8)
= 498.348 + 51600.6
= 52098.948 N/m2

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

12) An inclined manometer having a ratio of area of reservoir to limb as 10 was used to determine the
pressure in a pipe containing water. Determine the pressure in the pipe for manometer reading shown
in the figure . The slope of the inclined limb as shown in the figure . Assume manometric fluid as
mercury.
Soln:Data: a /A = 1/10 , h1 = 0.5 m , L = 0.25 m ,

A
0.25 m

0.5 m h2

RESERVOIR X
X

1
q

tanq = ¼ ,
q = tan -1(1/4) = 14.0360
h2 = L sinq
= 0.25 x sin 14.036
= 0.0606 m
Pressure in the pipe line is
Pa = (a x h2 / A) (2g - 1g) + h22g- h11g
= (1 x 0.0.0606/10 ) (13600 x 9.81 –1000 x 9.81 )+ (0.0606 x 13600 x 9.81 – 0.5 x 1000 x 9.81)
= 0.00606 x (133416-9810) + (8085 – 4905)
= 749.05 + 3180
= 3929 N/m2

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

13) One end of the simple manometer is connected to a empty conical vessel whose diameter is 1m
and height 3m and the other end is open to atmosphere. The configuration is as shown in the figure.
Find out the difference in mercury level in the manometer when the vessel is completely filled with
water.
Soln:Data:
When vessel is empty

1m

3m

h1
0.2 m
A A

When the vessel is empty h1 can be calculated by equating the pressure in the left and right limb
above the datum line A-A

Pressure in the left limb = 1 x g x h1 = 1000 x 9.81 x h1 1

Pressure in the right limb = 2 x g x h2 = 13600 x 9.81 x 0.2 2
Equating equations 1 and 2 we get
1000 x 9.81 x h1 = 13600 x 9.81 x 0.2
h1 = 2.72 m

When vessel is completely filled with water

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

1m

3m

2.73
A A
h
B B

When conical vessel is completely filled with water, level of mercury drops in left limb and rises in
the right limb by same amount .
Let drop in mercury level in the left limb is h m.
Rise in mercury level in the right limb is h m
The new difference in mercury level between two limb is 0.2 + 2h

Pressure in the left limb = 1 x g x (3+2.72+h) = 1000 x 9.81x (5.72 + h) 3

Pressure in the right limb = 2 x g x (0.2+2h) = 13600 x 9.81 x (0.2+2h) 4
Equating equations 3and 4 we get
1000 x 9.81x (5.72 + h) = 13600 x 9.81 x (0.2+2h)
1000 x (5.72 + h) = 13600 x (0.2+2h)
13.6 (0.2+2h) = (5.72 + h)
2.72 + 27.2h = 5.72 + h
26.2h = 3
h = 0.1145 m

The new difference in mercury level between two limb is

0.2 + 2h = 0.2 + 2x 0.1145 = 0.429m

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

14) A differential mercury manometer is used for measuring the pressure difference between two pipes
A and B.Pipe A is 500 mm above the pipe B and deflection in mercury manometer is 200 mm.
Pressure intensity in pipe A is greater than pipe B . Pipes carry oil of specific gravity 0.9 . Find the
pressure difference between the two pipe.
Soln:Data:- 1 = 2 =  = 900 Kg/m3 , f = 13600 kg /m3

Sp gr 0.9

0.5 m

y- 0.2 B

y
0.2 m

X X

Two pipes at different levels

Let y is the position of mercury in the left limb from center of pipe B
Taking datum line at X-X
Pressure above X-X in the left limb = g(0.5+y) + pA
Pressure above X-X in the right limb = fg x 0.2 + g(y-0.2) + pB
Equating pressures in both the limb above X-X
g(0.5+y) + pA= fg x 0.2 + g(y-0.2) + pB
pA - pB = fg x 0.2 + g(y-0.2) - g(0.5+y)
= 13600 x 9.81 x 0.2 + 900 x 9.81 (y – 0.2) – 900 x 9.81(0.5+y)
= 26683.2 + 8829 y – 1765.8 – 4414.5 – 8829 y
= 20502.9 N/m2
15) ) A differential mercury manometer is used for measuring the pressure difference between two
pipes A and B.Pipe A and B both are at the same level .The deflection in mercury manometer is 200
mm. Pressure intensity in pipe A is greater than pipe B . The level of mercury in the right limb is 500
mm below center of pipe B. Pipes carry an oil of specific gravity 0.9 . Find the pressure difference
between the two pipe.

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Soln:Data:- 1 = 2 =  = 900 Kg/m3 , f = 13600 kg /m3

Sp gr 0.9

A B
0.5 m

0.2 m
X X

Taking datum line at X-X

Pressure above X-X in the left limb = g(0.5+0.2) + pA
Pressure above X-X in the right limb = fg x 0.2 + g x 0.5 + pB
Equating pressures in both the limb above X-X
g(0.5+0.2) + pA = fg x 0.2 + g x 0.5 + pB
pA - pB = fg x 0.2 + g x 0.5 - g x 0.7
= 13600 x 9.81 x 0.2 + 900 x 9.81x 0.5 – 900 x 9.81x 0.7
= 26683.2 + 4414.5 – 6180.3
= 24917.4 N/m2

16) An inverted differential manometer is connected to two pipes A and B which convey water. The
fluid in the manometer is oil of specific gravity 0.9. For the manometer reading shown in the figure
find pressure difference between A and B .
Soln: Data: 1 = 2 =  = 900 Kg/m3
a)

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

x x

0.2 m
0.3 m
0.8 m
B

b)

x X'
0.2 m
0.3 m

A B

a) h1 = 0.8 m , h2 =0.3 m , h = 0.2 m

1 = Density of liquid in pipe A
2 = Density of liquid in the pipe B
f = Density of lighter fluid in the manometer .
The pressure at X-X’ in the left limb and pipe A
pA -  x g x h1 1
Since the points X and X’ are at the same horizontal level and in the continuous static mass of liquid ,
Pressure at X = Pressure at X’

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Similarly pressure at X-X’ in the right limb and pipe B

pB – h2x  g – f g h 2
Equating equations 1 and 2
pA -  x g x h1 = pB – g h2 – f g h
pA - 1000 x 9.81 x 0.8 = pB –1000 x 9.81x 0.3 – 900 x 9.81 x 0.2
pA - pB = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.8–1000 x 9.81x 0.3 – 900 x 9.81 x 0.2 3
= 7848 – 2943 – 1765.8
= 3139.2 N/m2
b) a) h1 = 0.5 m , h2 =0.3 m , h = 0.2 m
f = Density of lighter fluid in the manometer .
The pressure at X-X’ in the left limb and pipe A
pA -  x g x h1 1
Since the points X and X’ are at the same horizontal level and in the continuous static mass of liquid ,
Pressure at X = Pressure at X’
Similarly pressure at X-X’ in the right limb and pipe B
pB – h2x  g – f g h 2
Equating equations 1 and 2
pA -  x g x h1 = pB – g h2 – f g h
pA - 1000 x 9.81 x 0.5 = pB –1000 x 9.81x 0.3 – 900 x 9.81 x 0.2
pA - pB = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.5–1000 x 9.81x 0.3 – 900 x 9.81 x 0.2 3
= 4905 – 2943 – 1765.8
= 196.2 N/m2
17) In the arrangement shown in the figure . Find the difference of pressure of water in the pipes A
and B.
Soln: Data:-  = 1000 Kg/m3 , f = 1000 Kg/m3 , h1 = 0.15 m , h2 = 0.1 m , h = 0.2 m

Pressure at P = Pr at A –  x g x h1 = Pr at A – 1000 x 9.81 x 0.15 1

Pressure at P = Pressure at B +  x g x h2 + f x g x h
= Pr at B + 1000 x 9.81 x 0.1 + 13600 x 9.81 x 0.2 2
Equating 1 and 2 we get
PA – PB = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.15 +1000 x 9.81 x 0.1+ 13600 x 9.81 x 0.2
= 29135.7 N/m2

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 73

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

WATER

0.1 m
B
Q
P
A

0.2 m
0.15 m
MERCURY

18) Find the pressure difference at two points A and B in the pipe carrying water and connects to a
mercury differential manometer and also has oil filled between it as shown . Take specific weight of
water = 10 KN/m3, Sp Wt of mercury 136 KN / m3, Sp wt of oil = 8.5 KN / m3
WATER

A OIL B

0.96M
1.08M

0.6M
0.48M
0.72M

MERCURY

Soln: 1 =1019.36 Kg/m3 , 2 = 13863.4 Kg/m3, 3 = 866.46 Kg/m3, h1 = 1.08 m , h2 = 0.96 m , hg1=
0.72 m , hg2 = 0.6m , ho=0.48 m .
Starting from A
PA + 1 x g x h1 - 2 x g x hg1 + 3 x g x ho - 2 x g x hg2 -1 x g x (h2 - hg2 ) = PB
PA + 1019.36 x 9.81 x 1.08 – 13863.4 x 9.81 x 0.72 + 866.46 x 9.81 x .48 – 13863.4x 9.81 x 0.6 -
1019.36 x 9.81 x (0.96 – 0.6 ) = PB
PA + 10800 – 97920 + 4080 – 81600 - 3600 = PB
PA - PB = 168240 N /m2

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

19) In order to measure the pressure at the centre of a pipe containing an oil of specific gravity of 0.8
two U tubes are used , connected in series as shown in the figure . The gauging liquid in all the U
tubes is mercury of specific gravity 13.6 , between two column of mercury the liquid in the U tube is
water. Find the pressure at the center of the pipe.

OIL
WATER

0.6 M
B B'

0.25 M
A A' D

0.35 M

0.3 M
C C'

MERCURY
Soln: Data; 1 =800 Kg/m3 , 2 = 13600 Kg/m3, 3 = 1000 Kg/m3, ho = 0.6 m , hg1 = 0.25 m , hw =0.35
hg2 = 0.3m .
Pressure at D = 0
Pressure at CC’ = 2 x g x hg2 = 13600 x 9.81 x 0.3 = 40002.48 N /m2
Pressure at BB’ = Pressure at CC’ - 3 x g x hw
= 40002.48 – 1000 x 9.81 x 0.35
= 36591.3 N /m2
Pressure at AA’ = Pressure at BB’ + 2 x g x hg1
= 36591.3 + 13600 x 9.81 x 0.25
= 69945.3 N /m2
Pressure in the pipe = Pressure at AA’- 1 x g x ho
= 69945.3 – 800 x 9.81 x 0.6
= 65236.5 N /m2
Pressure of oil in the pipe in terms of oil column = Pressure in terms of Pascal / Sp wt of oil
= 65236.5 /( 800 x 9.81)
= 8.3125 m of oil

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

20) A pressure gauge of two cylindrical bulbs B and C of 1000 mm2 cross sectional area which are
connected by U tube with vertical limbs, each of 25 mm2 cross sectional area .A red liquid of specific
gravity 0.9 filled in to C and clear water is filled in to B. Find the displacement of surface of
separation. When the pressure on the surface in C is greater than that in B by an amount equal to 10
mm head of water.
Soln:Data: A = 1000 mm2 , a = 50 mm2 , 2 = 900 Kg /m3 , 1 = 1000 Kg /m3

B C
P2
P1
ay/A

hc
hb

a
X X
Y Y
y

p1 - p2 = 10 x 9810 /1000 = 98.1 N/m2

Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 1g hB 1
Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 2g hC 2
Equating equations 1 and 2 we get
1g hB= 2g hC
Or hB =2 hC / 1
= 900 x hC / 1000
= 0.9 hC
If pressure p2 > p1 level of liquid falls in the bulb C and in the bulb B rises fluid in tubes settles
down at Y-Y . Both bulbs are having same area A and area of tubes is a .
Using volume conservation principle
h x A = a x y
h = a x y / A
= 25 x y / 1000
= 0.025y

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Considering final separation

Pressure above Y-Y in left limb = p1 + 1 g (hB + y +ay/A) 3
= p1 + 1 g (0.9 hc + y +0.025 y)
Pressure above Y-Y in right limb = p2 + 2 g (hC + y – 0.025 y) 4
Equating equations 3 and 4
p1 + 1g (0.9 hc + y +0.025 y) = p2 + 2 g (hC + y – 0.025 y)
p1 - p2 = 2 g (hC + y – 0.025 y)- 1 g (0.9 hc + y +0.025 y)
98.1 = 900 x 9.81((hC + y – 0.025 y)- 1000 x9.81 (0.9 hc + y +0.025 y)
= 8829 hc + 8829 y – 220.725y – 8829 hc – 9810y -245.25y
= 1446.975 y
y = 98.1 / 1446.975 = 0.06779 m = 67.8 mm

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 77

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES

Introduction: When a static mass of fluid comes in contact with a surface, either plane or curved, a
force is exerted by the fluid on the surface. This force is known as total pressure. Since for a fluid at
rest no tangential force exists , the total pressure acts in the direction normal to the surface. The point
of application of total pressure on the surface is known as centre of pressure . In many practical
applications engineer is required to determine the pressure forces on the entire surface rather than the
pressure intensity at a point . Examples are
i) Forces on submerged objects such ad submarines , ship and balloons.
ii) Forces on the walls of containers such as pipes, tanks, and dams.
iii) Forces on gates in the walls of containers, submerged bodies and many other hydraulic
structures.

1) Total pressure on horizontal plane surface.

Consider a plane surface submerged in a static mass of liquid with density  , such that it is held in a
horizontal position at a depth h below the free surface of the liquid as shown in the figure. Since every
point on the surface is at the same depth below the free surface of the liquid, the pressure intensity is
constant over the entire plane surface , being equal to p = gh . Thus if A is the total area of the
surface then the total pressure on the horizontal surface is P = pA = Agh. The direction of the force
is normal to the surface at the centroid of the surface.

P
h

Horizontal plane
surface with area A

2) Vertical plane surface.

Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape and total area, wholly submerged in a static mass of liquid
of density . The surface is held in a vertical position, such that the centroid of the surface is at a

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

vertical depth of h’ below the free surface of the liquid. In this case pressure intensity is not constant
over the entire surface. The total pressure on the surface may be determined by dividing the entire
surface into a number of small parallel strips and computing the total pressures on each of these strips.
The force on the small strip is then calculated and the total pressure force on the entire area is
calculated by integrating the force on small strip.

Let A = Total area of the surface

h = Distance of C.G. of the area from free surface of liquid.
G = Centre of gravity of plane surface.
P = Centre of pressure
h* = Distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid.

b
h

h'

h*

G
dh

Consider a strip of thickness dh and width b at a depth of h from free surface of liquid as shown in
figure .
Pressure intensity on the strip p = gh
Area of the strip, dA = bxdh
Total pressure force on strip , dF = p x Area = gh x b x dh
 Total pressure force on the whole surface ,
F =  dF =  gh x b x dh = g  b x h x dh
But  b x h x dh =  h x dA

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= Moment of the surface about the free surface of liquid

= Area of surface x Distance of C.G. from free surface
=Axh
F = gAh 1

b) Centre of pressure(h*)
Centre of pressure is calculated by using the Principle of moments which states that the moment of the
resultant force about an axis is equal to the sum of the moments of the components about the same
axis.
The resultant force F acting at pint P , at a distance of h* from free surface of the liquid as shown in
figure. Hence moment of the force F about free surface of the liquid = F x h* 2
Moment of the force dF , acting on a strip about free surface of liquid = dF x h
= gh x b x dh x h
Sum of all the moments about the free surface of liquid =  gh x b x dh x h = g  b x h x hdh
= g  bh2 dh = g  h2 dA
But  h2 dA =  bh2 dh
= Moment of inertia of the surface about the free surface of the liquid.
= I0
 Sum of the moments about the free surface = g I0 3
Equating the equations 2 and 3 , we get F x h* = g I0
But F = gAh
 gAh x h* = g I0
Or h* = g I0 / (gAh) = I0 / Ah 4
By theorem of parallel axis , we have I0 = IG + A x h2
Where IG = Moment of inertia of area about an axis passing through the C.G of the area and parallel to
the free surface of liquid.
Substituting Ig in equation 4 , we get
h* = IG+ A x h2/ Ah = (IG /Ah) + h 5

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

The moments of inertia and other geometric properties of some important plane surfaces.

Plane surface Area Moment of Inertia about an

axis passing through the
centroid (IG)

G
h

bh bh3/12

b
h

Triangle bh/2 bh3/36

Od

d2/4 d4/64

Circle

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

a
d

a2 d4/48 = a4 /12

Rhombus

G
b

h
bh/2 bh3/48
Triangle

g G R
g

R2/2 0.1102 R4
Half circle

g g
R
G
R2/4 0.055 R4
Quarter cirle

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

g g
G h
[ a2+4ab + b2/ 36(a+b)] h3

b
(a+b)h/2 y = [ (2a+b) /(a+b) ] h/3
Trapezium

h
g G g
2bh/3 8bh3/175

Parabola

b/2

g g
G
h
3h/5
bh/3 4bh3/175

Half Parabola

g g
G
h

bh/4 bh3/64

b
Ellipse

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

a b
g g

(a+b)h/2 h/288[7a3-13a2b+25ab2+3b3]

Quadrilateral

3) Inclined plane surface submerged in liquid.

Consider a plane surface submerge in liquid in such a way that the plane of the surface makes an angle
q with the free surface of the liquid as shown in figure.

o
h q
h* h dF y y*

F y o
G

P dy

Let A = Total A = Total area of inclined surface

h’ = Depth of C.G of inclined area from free surface.
h* = Distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid.
q = Angle made by the plane of the surface with free liquid surface.
Let the plane of the surface , if produced meet the free liquid surface at O. Then O-O is the axis
perpendicular to the palne of the surface.
Let y = Distance of the C.G of the inclined surface from O-O
y* = Distance of the centre of pressure fromm O-O

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Consider a small strip of area dA at a depth of h from free surface and at a distance y from the axis O-
O as shown in fig
Pressure intensity on the strip p = gh
 Pressure force , dF , on the strip , dF = p x Area of strip = gh x dA
Total pressure force on the whole area F =  dF = gh x dA
But from figure h/y = h/y = h*/y* = sinq
 h = ysinq
 F = g x ysinq x dA = g sinq ydA
But ydA = Ay
Where y = Distance of C.G from axis O-O
 F = g sinqyA = gAh 1
Centre of pressure (h*)
Pressure force on the strip dF = gh x dA = g ysinq dA
Moment of the force , dF , about axis O-O
= dF x y = g ysinq dA x y =g sinq y2dA
Sum of moments of all such forces about O-O = g sinq y2dA
= g sinq  y2dA
But  y2dA = M.O.I of the surface about O-O = I0
 sum of all the forces about O-O F = g sinq I0 2
Moment of the total force , F , about O-O is also given by
= F x y* 3
Where y* = Distance of centre of pressure from O-O
Equating the two values given by equations 2 and 3
F x y* = g sinq I0
y* = g sinq I0 / F 4
Now y* = h*/ sinq , F = gAh
And I0 by the theorem of parallel axis = IG + A y2
Substituting this relation in equation 4 , we get
h*/ sinq = g sinq x (IG + A y2) / gAh
 h* = sin2q (IG + A y2) / Ah
But h/y = sinq or y = h / sinq
h* = (sin2q / Ah) (IG + A h2 / sin2q )

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

or h* = IG sin2q / Ah + h 5

Curved surface submerged in liquid.

Consider a curved surface AB, submerged in a static fluid as shown in figure. Let dA is the area of
small strip at a depth of h from water surface.
Then the pressure intensity on the area dA is = gh
And pressure force, dF = p x Area = gh x dA 1
This force dF acts normal to the surface
Hence total pressure force on the curved surface should be
F =  gh x dA 2

Water surface
C

dAsin q
O dFy A dA
dF
q
dFx q q

Area dA dAcosq
B

By resolving the force dF in two components dFx and dFy in the x and y directions respectively. The
total force in the x and Y directions i.e., Fx and Fy are obtained integrating dFx and dFy . The total
force on the curved surface is
dF = (dFx2 + dFy2)1/2 3
And inclination of resultant with horizontal is tan q = dFy/ dFx 4
Resolving the force dF given by equation 1 in x and y directions:
dFx = dF sinq = gh x dA sinq
and dFy = dF cosq = gh x dAcosq
Total force in the x and y direction are :
Fx =  dFx =  gh x dA sinq = g  h x dA sinq 5
Fy =  dFy =  gh x dA cosq = g  h x dA cosq 6

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

In the above figure enlarged view of dA is obtained from triangle EFG

EF = dA
FG = dA sinq
EG = dA cosq
Thus in equation 5 dAsinq = FG = Vertical projection of the area dA and hence the expression
g  h x dA sinq represents the total pressure force on the projected area of the curved surface on the
vertical plane. Thus
Fx = Total pressure on the projected area of the curved surface on vertical plane. 7
Also dAcosq = EG = Horizontal projection of dA and hence hdAcosq is the volume of the liquid
contained in the elementary area dA up to free surface of the liquid. Thus  h x dA cosq is the total
volume contained between the curved surface extended up to free surface.
Hence g  h x dA cosq is the total weight supported by the curved surface . Thus
Fy = g  h x dA cosq = Weight of liquid supported by the curved surface upto
free surface of liquid.
In figure below the curved surface AB is not supporting any fluid. In such cases, Fy is equal to the
weight of the imaginary liquid supported by AB upto free surface of liquid. The direction of Fy will be
taken upward direction.

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Numerical Problems on hydrostatic forces on surfaces

1) A rectangular plate of 3mx 4m . It lies in vertical plane in water. Determine the total pressure and
position of centre of pressure force on the plane surface. When i) its shorter edge is horizontal and
coincides with the water surface . ii) 3 m below the free surface .
Soln:Data: A = 3 x 4 = 12 m2 ,  = 1000 Kg/m3 , b = 3 m , h = 4 m
A = A = 3 x 4 = 12 m2
IG = bh3/12 = 3 x 43 /12 = 16 m4
a)

h~

h*
4m

3m

h = h / 2 = 4 /2 = 2 m
Force on plate = F = gAh
= 1000 x 9.81 x 12 x 2
= 235440 N
Centre of pressure = h*= IG / Ah + h
= 16 / (12 x 2) + 2
= 2.67 m from top

b) h = 3 + h / 2 = 3 + 4 /2 = 3 +2 = 5 m
Force on plate = F = gAh
= 1000 x 9.81 x 12 x 5
= 588600 N
Centre of pressure = h*= IG / Ah + h
= 16 / (12 x 5) + 5
= 5.267 m from free surface of water

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

3m

h*
4m
3m

2) A gate used for closing the entrance to dry dock is of trapezoidal form 16 m wide at the top and 10
m wide at the bottom and 6 m deep . Find the total pressure force and position of centre of pressure on
the gate. If the water on the outside is just coincides with top end and dock is empty.
Soln:Data: a = 10m, b = 16 m , h = 6m.

16m = b

h = 3m
h
a = 10m

A = (a+ b)/2 x h = (10 +16) / 2 x 6 = 1378 m2

h = [(2a +b)/(a+b)] x h/3
= (2x 10+16) / (16+10) x 6/3
= (36/26) x 2
= 2.77 m
Total pressure force
F = gAh
= 1000 x 9.81 x 78 x 2.77 = 2119548.6 N
IG = [( a2 +b2 +4ab) /(a+b)] x h3/36
= [( 162 +102 +4 x 16x 10) /(16+10)] x 63/36
= 229.846 m4

Centre of pressure = h*= IG / Ah + h

=229.846/ (78 x 2.77) + 2.77
= 3.834 m from free surface of water

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

3) A square door with side dimension of 50cm is provided in the side wall of a tank which is filled
with water of specific weight 9810 N/m3 . What force must be applied at the lower end of the gate so
as to hold the hinged door closed .The hinged end of the door lies at a depth of 3 m from the free
surface of water .How this force is changed if the surface is subjected to pressure of 0.5 bar .
Soln:Data:- A = 0.5 m x 0.5 m ,

3m
h

h*
G

50 cm
F CP
F'
50cm

a) Without Pressure on surface of water

A = 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25 m2
h = 3+ 0.5 /2 = 3.25 m
Hydrostatic force on the gate F = gAh
= 1000 x 9.81 x 0.25 x 3.25
= 7970.625N
IG = h4/12 = 0.54/12 = 5.208 x 10-3 m4
Centre of pressure = h*= IG / Ah + h
=5.208 x 10-3 / (0.25 x 3.25) + 3.25
= 3.256 m from free surface of water
Position of centre of pressure from hinged end = h* - 3
= 3.256 -3
= 0.256 m
Let F’ is the force required to hold the door in closed position
Taking the moments about the hinged end of door
F’ x 0.5 = F x 0.256

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= 7970.625 x 0.256
= 2040.48
F’ = 4080.96 N
b) When pressure of 0.5 bar acts on the surface
Water column equivalent to the pressure of 0.5 bar = 0.5 x 105/ 9810 = 5.097 m
h = 5.097 + 3+ 0.5 /2 = 8.347 m
Hydrostatic force on the gate F = gAh
= 1000 x 9.81 x 0.25 x 8.347
= 20471N

IG = h4/12 = 0.54/12 = 5.208 x 10-3 m4

Centre of pressure = h*= IG / Ah + h
=5.208 x 10-3 / (0.25 x 8.347) + 8.347
= 8.3495 m from free surface of water
Position of centre of pressure from hinged end = h* - 8.097
= 8.3495 -8.097
= 0.2525m
Let F’ is the force required to hold the door in closed position
Taking the moments about the hinged end of door
F’ x 0.5 = F x 0.2525
= 20471 x 0.2525
F’ = 10337.855 N

4) A sluice gate is 4m wide and 2.5 m height. It is hinged at the bottom. On the upstream side there is
sea water extending to a height of 2.0 m above the top of gate. Find a) The resultant foce acting on the
gate b ) Position of the centre of pressure c) The least force acting on the top of the gate which will
open the gate. Fresh and sea water having specific weight of 9.81 KN/m3 and 10.05 KN/m3
respectively.
Soln: Data:- b = 4 m , h = 2.5 m

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

2m
Sea water

F2

2.5 m
Fresh water F1

A = 4 x 2.5 = 10 m2
IG = bh3/12 = 4 x 2.53/12 = 5.208 m4
For fresh water side
H = h/2 = 2.5 / 2 = 1.25 m
Total pressure force exerted by the fresh water on the gate F1= gAh
= 9810 x 10 x 1.25
= 122625 N
This acts at a depth of h1* = IG / Ah + h
=5.208 / (10 x 1.25) + 1.25
= 1.67 m from free surface of fresh water
Position of this force from hinged end hd1= 2.5 – 1.67 = 0.83 m

on sea water side

h = 2+ h/2 = 2+ 2.5 / 2 = 3.25 m
Total pressure force exerted by the fresh water on the gate F2= gAh
= 10050 x 10 x 3.25
= 326625 N
This acts at a depth of h2* = IG / Ah + h
=5.208 / (10 x 3.25) + 3.25
= 3.41 m from free surface of sea water
Position of this force from hinged end hd2= 4.5 – 3.41 = 1.09 m
Resultant force acting on the gate F= F2-F1 = 326625 – 122625
= 204000 N

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Taking the moments about hinge

F x h* = F2 x hd2 – F1 x hd1
= 326625 x 1.09 – 122625 x 0.83 / 204000 = 1.2463 m above hinge
The force capable of opening the gate
Taking the moments about the hinge
F’ x 2.5 = F2 x hd2 – F1 x hd1
F’ x1.254 = 326625 x 1.09 – 122625 x 0.83
F = (326625 x 1.09 – 122625 x 0.83) / 2.5 = 101697 N m above hinge

5) A circular plate of 2m diameter is immersed in an oil of specific gravity of 0.8 , such that its surface
is 300 to the free surface. Its top edge is 2.5 m below the free surface find the pressure force and
position of centre of pressure .
Soln:Data:- D = 2 m, Sp gr = 0.8, q = 300 ,

D
30°

2.5

B
C
h
h*

A
1m

2m

A = d2/4 = 22/4 = 3.1416 m2

h = AD = AC + CD
= AB x sinq + CD
= 1 x sin30 + 2.5
=3m
F = gAh = 800 x 9.81 x 3.1416 x 3 = 73965.83 N
A = d4/64 = 24/64 = 0.7854 m4
h* = IG sin2q / Ah + h
=0.7854 x sin2q / (3.1416 x 3) + 3
= 3.0208 m

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

6) A plate 3 m external diameter and 1.5 m internal diameter is immersed in water with its greatest and
least depth below the surface at 3.6 m and 1.2 m respectively . Determine the total pressure and
position of pressure on one face of the plate.
Soln:Data: - d0 = 3 m , di = 1.5 m
D
q

1.2 m
B
C

h
h*
3.6 m
A
2.4 m
m
1 .5

3m

1.5 m

Sinq = 2.4 /3 = 0.8

H = CD + AC
= CD + AB x Sinq
= 1.2 + 1.5 x 0.8
= 2.4 m
A = (d02 - di2 ) / 4
= (32 - 1.52 ) / 4
= 5.3 m2
IG = (d04 - di4 ) / 64
= (34 - 1.54 ) / 64
= 3.73 m4
F = gAh =1000 x 9.81 x 5.3 x 2.4 = 124783.2 N
h* = IG sin2q / Ah
=3.73 x 0.82 / (5.3 x 2.4) + 2.4
= 2.587 m

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

7) A triangular plate having base 5 m and altitude 4.5 m is immersed in fresh water and vertex is 2 m
below the free surface of water . The plate is inclined at 30 degree to free surface find the total
pressure force and its location.
Soln:Data: b = 5m, h = 4.5 m , q = 300.

30°

2.0
h 3m
h*

G
CP
5m

4.5 m

H = 2 + 3 sin30 = 3.5 m
A = 5 x 4.5 /2 = 11.25 m2
IG = bh3/36 = 5 x 4.53/36 = 12.656 m4
F = gAh =1000 x 9.81 x 11.25 x 3.5 = 386268.75 N
h* = IG sin2q / Ah
=12.656 x sin230/ (11.25 x 3.5) + 3.5
= 3.5804m

8) An inclined rectangular gate of AB 1.2 m by 5m size as shown in figure is installed to control the
discharge of water. The end A is hinged. Determine the force normal to the gate applied at B to open it
Soln:Data q = 450, b = 5m , h = 1.2m

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

45
h
A

h*
5m
E C y*

D
B

5m m
1.2

h = 5 – BE = 5 – 0.6 x sin 45 = 4.576 m

A = b x h = 5 x 1.2 = 6 m2
IG = bh3/12 = 5 x 1.23/12 = 0.72 m4
F = gAh =1000 x 9.81 x 6 x 4.576 = 269343.36 N
h* = IG sin2q / Ah
=0.72 x sin230/ (6 x 4.576) + 4.576
= 4.58m
5/y = sinq
y = 5 / sinq = 5 / sin 45 = 7.071 m
y* = h* / sinq = 4.58 / sin45 = 6.477 m = OD
DB = OB – OD = 7.071 – 6.477 = 0.594 m
AD = AB – DB = 1.2 -0.594 = 0.606 m
Let F’ is the force required to open the gate 1
Taking the moments about hinge A
F’ x AB = F x AD
F’ x 1.2 = 269343.36 x 0.606
F’ = 269343.36 x 0.606 / 1.2 = 136018.4 N

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 96

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

9) Figure shows a gate having diameter 4m supporting water. If the gate is 2m long , find the
horizontal and vertical components of the resultant , pressure force on the gate and point of application
of the gate .
Soln:Data: d = 4 m , l = 2m

C D

2m
O A

2m
B

Fx = Total pressure force acting on the curved surface of the gate

= Total pressure force acting on the projected area of the curved surface on vertical plane.
= Total pressure force on OB
A = 2 x 2 = 4 m2
h = OC +OB /2 = 2 +2 /2 = 3 m
Fx = gAh = 9810 x 4 x 3 = 117720N
Fy = Weight of water supported by the curved surface up to the free surface of water
= Sp Wt x Volume of water supported.
= Sp Wt x length[ Area of OADC + Area of sector OAB]
= Sp Wt x length[OA x OC + d2 /4 ]
= 9810 x 2 [ 2 x 2 + d2 /4]
= 140118.05 N
Resultant = (Fx2 +Fy2 )1/2
= (1177202 +140118.052 )1/2
= 183005.6 N
tan = Fy / Fx
= 140118.05 / 117720
  = 49.96 0
IG = bd3/12 = 2 x 23/12 = 0.1.33 m4

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

h* = IG / Ah
=1.33 / (4 x 3) + 3
= 3.11m

10) Find the vertical and horizontal forces exerted by water on 2 m long quadrant gate shown in the
figure . Find also the resultant on the gate.
Soln: Data : l = 2 m.

C D

B
2m

O
A

Fx = Sp wt x projected area of of AB x h
= Sp wt x (OA x l) x (BC+OB/2)
= 9810 x ( 2 x2) (2+2/2)
= 9810 x 4 x 3
= 117720 N
Fy = Weight of the block of the water supported by the ABCD
= Sp Wt x Volume of water supported.
= Sp Wt x length[ Area of OADC - Area of sector OAB]
= Sp Wt x length[OA x OC + r2 /4 ]
= 9810 x 2 [ 2 x 4 - r2 /4]
= 95321.95 N
Resultant = (Fx2 +Fy2 )1/2
= (1177202 +95321.952 )1/2

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= 151473.67 N
tan = Fy / Fx
= 95321.95 / 117720
  = 38.990

11) Find the resultant force exerted by water on the gate shown in the figure per meter run of the
gate. Show also that the resultant force on the gate passes through the hinge.
Soln:Data: l = 1 m
A
O

1m
B

A = 1x 1 = 1 m2
h = r/ 2 = ½ = 0.5 m
Fx = gAh =1000 x 9.81 x 1 x 0.5 = 4905 N
IG = OA4/12 = 14/12 = 0.0833m4
h* = IG / Ah
=0.0833 / (1 x 0.5) + .5
= 0.67 m
Fx acts at a distance of = 0.67 m from OA
Fy = Weight of water supprted by the block OAB
= Sp wt x volume of the block
= Sp wt x Area of AOB x length
= Sp wt x r2 /4 x l
= 9810  1 2 / 4 x1 = 7704.7 N
Fy is acting at a distance of 4r/3 from OB = 4 x 1 / 3  = 0.4244 m
Resultant = (Fx2 +Fy2 )1/2
= (49052 +7704.72 )1/2
= 9133.5 N

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

tan = Fy / Fx
= 7704.7 / 4905
  = 57.520
Taking the moments about the hing O
Horizontal component moment about O = Fx x h* = 4905 x 0.67 = 3286.35 N m (Clock wise)
Horizontal component moment about O = Fy x 0.4244 = 7704.7 x 0.4244 = 3269.87N m
(Anti clok wise )
As these two moments ar almost equal the resultant passes through the hinge.

12) Find the horizontal and vertical component of water pressure acting on the gates of a tainter gate
of 900 sector of radius 4m as shown in the figure .Take width of gate as unity.
Soln:Data:

A
4m

C D O
90

AD / OA = sin45
AD = OA x sin45 = 4 x sin 45 = 2.828 m
AB = 2 x AD = 2 x 2.828 = 5.656 m
A = AB x width of the gate = 5.656 x 1 = 5.656 m
h = 2.828 m
Fx = Force on area of gate projected on vertical plane = Force on ADB
Fx = gAh =1000 x 9.81 x 5.656 x 2.828 = 156912.6 N
Fy = Vertical component = Weight of water enclosed by the curvature = Weight of water in portion
ACBDA= g x Area of ACBDA x width of the gate = g x [Area of sector ACBOA - Area of triangle
ABO]
= 1000 x 9.81[ r2 /4 – AO x BO/2] = 1000 x 9.81[ 42 /4 – 4 x 4 /2] = 44796.1 N

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 100

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

13) The magnitude and direction of the resultant water pressure acting on a curved face of a dam
which is shaped according to the relation y = x2/9 as shown in the figure. The height of the water
retained by the dam is 10 m . Consider the width of the dam as unity.
Soln:Data: h = 10m , b = 1m

C A
x
10 M

DAM
dy

y = x2/9
x2 = 9y
x = 3 y1/2
A = 10 x1 = 10 m2
H = 10 /2 = 5m
Fx = Pressure on BC = Fx = gAh = 9810 x 10 x 1 x 5 = 490500 N.
Vertical component Fy is given by
Fy = Weight of water supported by the curve AB
= Weight of water in the portion ABC
= Sp wt [Area of ABC ] x Width of the dam
10

= g x  x dy x l =
0

10

= 9810 x  3 y1/2 dy x 1
0

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 101

 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

10
3/2
= 9810 x [ 3y / (3/2) ]
0

= 9810 x 3 x 103/2 / (3/2)

= 620438.87 N

Resultant = (Fx2 +Fy2 )1/2

= (4905002 +620438.872 )1/2
= 790907.47 N

tan = Fy / Fx
= 620438.87 / 490500
  = 51.670

14) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant hydrostatic pressure force acting on the
curved face of a dam which has a shape prescribed by the relation y = y0(x/xo)2 with apex having cor
ordinates x0 = 4m and y0 = 8m. The dam has a width of 2m and the fluid is water with mas density of
1000 kg/m3
Soln:Data:- x0 = 4m , y0 = 8m , Width = 2 m

4m

C A
x
8M

DAM
dy

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

y = y0(x/xo)2
Using x0 = 4m , y0 = 8m in the above equation
y = 8 (x/4)2 = x2/2
x2 = 2y
x = (2y) ½

A = 8 x2 = 16 m2
h = 8 /2 = 4m
Fx = Pressure on BC = Fx = gAh = 9810 x 16 x 4 =627840 N.
Vertical component Fy is given by
Fy = Weight of water supported by the curve AB
= Weight of water in the portion ABC
= Sp wt [Area of ABC ] x Width of the dam
8

= g x  x dy x 2
0

= 9810 x  (2y) ½ dy x 2
0

8
= 9810 x [21/2 y3/2 / (3/2) ] x 2
0

= 9810 x 21/2 x 83/2 / (3/2) x 2

= 418560N

Resultant = (Fx2 +Fy2 )1/2

= (6278402 +4185602 )1/2
= 754569.77 N

tan = Fy / Fx

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= 418560 / 627840
  = 33.690

15) A 2 m diameter horizontal cylinder lying across the full width of a 3m wide channel supports
water and oil on the two sides as shown in figure. Find the vertical and horizontal forces exerted by the
liquids on the cylinder.
Soln:Data:- d = 2m , width = 3 m

2m

WATER
A

O D
B
2m

1m
OIL
C

Down force on curved surface ABC = Weight of water supported by the curve ABC
Fy1 = g x ( x r2 / 2) x l = 9810 x ( x 12 / 2) x 3
= 46228.5 N

Upward force on curved surface CD = Weight of water supported by the curve CD

Fy2 = (g)oil x ( x r2 / 4) x l = 9810 x 0.8 ( x 12 / 4) x 3
= 18491.4 N
Net downward force acting on the cylinder = Fy1 – Fy2 = 46228.5 – 18491.4 = 27737.1 N

Horizontal force exerted by water on the cylinder = CA x l x g x (2+OA)

= 2 x 3 x 9810 (2 + 1)
= 176580 N = Fx1
Horizontal force exerted by the oil on the cylinder = CD x l x g x OC/2
= 1 x 3 x 9810 x 0.8 x 0.5
=11772 N = Fx2

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

Net horizontal force acting on the cylinder = Fx1-Fx2

= 176580 -11772
=164808 N

16) A cylinder of 2m diameter having qa weight of 150 KN is used to support the water as shown in
the figure. Find the horizontal reaction at point A and vertical reaction at B.Also find out the net force
acting and its direction of action. Consider the length of the cylinder equal to 5 m .
Soln:Data:- d = 2m , W = 150KN, length = 5 m

D
O2 M

A
C

Fx = g x A h
= 9810 x (2 x5) x (2/2)
= 98100 N
This force acts at h* is given by = h* = IG / Ah + h
The upward motion of the cylinder will be caused by the vertical component Fv of the water pressure
acting on the cylinder in the upward direction which is given as
Fv = Weight of water in the portion BDC = Buoyancy force
= g x l x ( x r2/2)
= 9810 x 5 x (( x 12/2)
= 77047.56 N
Net vertical force acting at B is Fvnet = W-Fv = 150000 – 77047.56 = 72952.44 N Reaction at B
The reaction at A is equal to 98100 N
Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 105
 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

17) The figure given below shows the cross section of a tank full of water under pressure . The length
of the tank is 2 m. an empty cylinder lies along the length of the tank on one corner as shown in the
figure. Find the magnitude and loctation of the horizontal and vertical components of the force acting
on the curved surface ABC of the cylinder. Also compute the magnitude of this force and locate its
line of action as well as point of application.
Soln: Data- l = 2 m

B' A' C'

2
19.62 KN/ m
0.866 M

2M
A
D
A
B O B O
1.5 m

C C

TANK FULL OF WATER TANK FULL OF WATER

Pressure head corresponding to 19.62 KN/m2

= P/g = 19.62 x 1000 / 9810 = 2 m

Above figure shows equivalent free surface of water

Horizontal force on ABC Fx = g x A h = 9810 x (1.50 x2) [ 2 +1.5/2] = 80.9325 KN

AD = OA x cos30 = 0.866 m.
Fy = Weight of water supported by the sector OABC upto equivalent free water surface.

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 Fluid Mechanics (18ME43)

= g [ Volume of water supported by the sector OABC upto equivalent free water surface].
= g x l [Area of rectangle AA’C’D+ Area of triangle AOD+ Area of sector OABC].
= g x l [AA’x AD + ½ x OD x AD +  x OA2/3].
= 9810 x 2 [(2 x 0.866 + 0.5 x 0.866 + +  x 12/3]
{ OD = 1 x cos 30 = 0.5 and AD = 1 x sin30 = 0.866}
= 19620 x [1.732 +0.2165 + 1.0472]
= 58.776 KN

Dept. of Mechanical Engg, BIT 1 - 107