UNIT 2

Mobile Telecommunication System

INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR SYSTEM

Early wireless systems had a high-power transmitter, covering the entire

service area. This required a very huge amount of power and was not
suitable for many practical reasons.

The cellular system replaced a large zone with a number of smaller

hexagonal cells with a single BS (base station) covering a fraction of the
area. Evolution of such a cellular system is shown in the given figures, with
all wireless receivers located in a cell being served by a BS.

Wireless devices need to be supported for different types of services, the

wireless device could be a wireless telephone laptop with wireless card,
personal digital assistant (PDA), or web enabled phone. For simplicity, it
could be called an MS.

In a cellular structure, a MS (mobile station) needs to communicate with the

BS of the cell where the MS is currently located and the BS acts as a gateway
to the rest of the world. Therefore, to provide a link, the MS needs to be in
the area of one of the cells (and hence a BS) so that mobility of the MS can
be supported. Several base stations are connected through hard-wires and
are controlled by a BS controller (BSC), which in turn is connected to a
mobile switching center (MSC).

Several mobile switching centers are interconnected to a PSTN (public

switched telephone network) and the ATM (asynchronous transfer mode)
backbone. To provide a better perspective of wireless communication
technology, simplified system infrastructure for cellular system is shown in
the figure:

A cellular system requires a fairly complex infrastructure. A generic block

diagram in shown in the figure:
A BS consists of a base transceiver system (BTS) and a BSC. Both tower and
antenna are a part of the BTS, while all associated electronics are contained
in the BSC.

The HLR (home location register) and VLR (visitor location register) are two
sets of pointers that support mobility and enable the use of the same
telephone numbers worldwide.

The AUC (authentication center) unit provides authentication and encryption

parameters that verify the user's identity and ensure the confidentiality of
each cell.

The EIR (equipment identity register) is a database that information about

identity of mobile equipment. Both AUC and EIR can be implemented as
individual stand-alone units or as a combined AUC/EIR unit.

The HLR is located at the MSC where MS is initially registered and is the
initial home location for billing and access information.

In simple words, any incoming call, based on the calling number, is directed
to the HLR of the home MS where the MS is registered. The HLR then points
to the VLR of the MSC where the MS is currently located.
Bidirectional HLR-VLR pointers help in carrying out various functionalities, as
illustrated in the figure:

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The VLR contains information about all MS visiting that particular MSC and
hence points to the HLR of the visiting MSs for exchanging related
information about the MS.

Such a pointer allows calls to be routed or rerouted to the MS, wherever it is

located. In cellular systems, a reverse direction pointer is needed that allows
traversal of many control signals back and forth between the HLR and VLR
such bidirectional HLR-VLR pointers help in carrying out various
functionalities.

GSM architecture
A GSM network comprises of many functional units. These functions and interfaces are
explained in this chapter. The GSM network can be broadly divided into −

 The Mobile Station (MS)

 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
 The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
 The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
GSM - The Mobile Station

The MS consists of the physical equipment, such as the radio transceiver, display and digital
signal processors, and the SIM card. It provides the air interface to the user in GSM networks. As
such, other services are also provided, which include −

 Voice teleservices
 Data bearer services
 The features' supplementary services

The MS also provides the receptor for SMS messages, enabling the user to toggle between the
voice and data use. Moreover, the mobile facilitates access to voice messaging systems. The MS
also provides access to the various data services available in a GSM network. These data services
include −

 X.25 packet switching through a synchronous or asynchronous dial-up connection to the

PAD at speeds typically at 9.6 Kbps.
 General Packet Radio Services (GPRSs) using either an X.25 or IP based data transfer
method at the speed up to 115 Kbps.
 High speed, circuit switched data at speeds up to 64 Kbps.
We will discuss more about GMS services in GSM - User Services.

What is SIM?
The SIM provides personal mobility so that the user can have access to all subscribed services
irrespective of both the location of the terminal and the use of a specific terminal. You need to
insert the SIM card into another GSM cellular phone to receive calls at that phone, make calls
from that phone, or receive other subscribed services.

GSM - The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The BSS is composed of two parts −

 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

 The Base Station Controller (BSC)

The BTS and the BSC communicate across the specified Abis interface, enabling operations
between components that are made by different suppliers. The radio components of a BSS may
consist of four to seven or nine cells. A BSS may have one or more base stations. The BSS uses
the Abis interface between the BTS and the BSC. A separate high-speed line (T1 or E1) is then
connected from the BSS to the Mobile MSC.

The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

The BTS houses the radio transceivers that define a cell and handles the radio link protocols with
the MS. In a large urban area, a large number of BTSs may be deployed.
The BTS corresponds to the transceivers and antennas used in each cell of the network. A BTS is
usually placed in the center of a cell. Its transmitting power defines the size of a cell. Each BTS
has between 1 and 16 transceivers, depending on the density of users in the cell. Each BTS
serves as a single cell. It also includes the following functions −

 Encoding, encrypting, multiplexing, modulating, and feeding the RF signals to the

antenna
 Transcoding and rate adaptation
 Time and frequency synchronizing
 Voice through full- or half-rate services
 Decoding, decrypting, and equalizing received signals
 Random access detection
 Timing advances
 Uplink channel measurements

The Base Station Controller (BSC)

The BSC manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It handles radio channel setup,
frequency hopping, and handovers. The BSC is the connection between the mobile and the MSC.
The BSC also translates the 13 Kbps voice channel used over the radio link to the standard 64
Kbps channel used by the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSDN) or ISDN.

It assigns and releases frequencies and time slots for the MS. The BSC also handles intercell
handover. It controls the power transmission of the BSS and MS in its area. The function of the
BSC is to allocate the necessary time slots between the BTS and the MSC. It is a switching
device that handles the radio resources.

The additional functions include−

 Control of frequency hopping

 Performing traffic concentration to reduce the number of lines from the MSC
 Providing an interface to the Operations and Maintenance Center for the BSS
 Reallocation of frequencies among BTSs
 Time and frequency synchronization
  Power management
 Time-delay measurements of received signals from the MS
GSM - The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The Network switching system (NSS), the main part of which is the Mobile Switching Center
(MSC), performs the switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network
users, as well as the management of mobile services such as authentication.

The switching system includes the following functional elements −

Home Location Register (HLR)

The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. The HLR is
considered the most important database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers, including
a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity status. When an individual buys a
subscription in the form of SIM, then all the information about this subscription is registered in
the HLR of that operator.

Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)

The central component of the Network Subsystem is the MSC. The MSC performs the switching
of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network users, as well as the management
of mobile services such as registration, authentication, location updating, handovers, and call
routing to a roaming subscriber. It also performs such functions as toll ticketing, network
interfacing, common channel signaling, and others. Every MSC is identified by a unique ID.

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that is needed by
the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the MSC.
When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request
data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR
will have the information needed for call setup without having to interrogate the HLR each time.

Authentication Center (AUC)

The Authentication Center is a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key stored in
each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and ciphering of the radio channel.
The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud found in today's cellular
world.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile
equipment on the network, where its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) identifies
each MS. An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is not type approved.

GSM - The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the switching
system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation and support system
(OSS).

Here are some of the OMC functions−

 Administration and commercial operation (subscription, end terminals, charging, and

statistics).
 Security Management.
 Network configuration, Operation, and Performance Management.
 Maintenance Tasks.

The operation and Maintenance functions are based on the concepts of the Telecommunication
Management Network (TMN), which is standardized in the ITU-T series M.30.

Following is the figure, which shows how OMC system covers all the GSM elements.
The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator monitors and controls the
system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for centralized,
regional, and local operational and maintenance activities that are required for a GSM network.
An important function of OSS is to provide a network overview and support the maintenance
activities of different operation and maintenance organizations.

A simple pictorial view of the GSM architecture is given below −

The additional components of the GSM architecture comprise of databases and messaging
systems functions −

 Home Location Register (HLR)

 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 Authentication Center (AuC)
 SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)
 Gateway MSC (GMSC)
 Chargeback Center (CBC)
 Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)

The following diagram shows the GSM network along with the added elements −
The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface. It is also known as the air
interface or the radio link. The BSS communicates with the Network Service Switching (NSS)
center across the A interface.
GSM network areas

In a GSM network, the following areas are defined −

 Cell − Cell is the basic service area; one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a Cell
Global Identity (CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.
 Location Area − A group of cells form a Location Area (LA). This is the area that is
paged when a subscriber gets an incoming call. Each LA is assigned a Location Area
Identity (LAI). Each LA is served by one or more BSCs.
 MSC/VLR Service Area − The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR
service area.
 PLMN − The area covered by one network operator is called the Public Land Mobile
Network (PLMN). A PLMN can contain one or more MSCs.

GSM architecture is a layered model that is designed to allow communications between two
different systems. The lower layers assure the services of the upper-layer protocols. Each layer
passes suitable notifications to ensure the transmitted data has been formatted, transmitted, and
received accurately.

The GMS protocol stacks diagram is shown below −

MS Protocols

Based on the interface, the GSM signaling protocol is assembled into three general layers −

 Layer 1 − The physical layer. It uses the channel structures over the air interface.
 Layer 2 − The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link layer is a modified
version of the Link access protocol for the D channel (LAP-D) protocol used in ISDN,
called Link access protocol on the Dm channel (LAP-Dm). Across the A interface, the
Message Transfer Part (MTP), Layer 2 of SS7 is used.
 Layer 3 − GSM signalling protocol’s third layer is divided into three sublayers −
o Radio Resource Management (RR),
o Mobility Management (MM), and
o Connection Management (CM).

MS to BTS Protocols

The RR layer is the lower layer that manages a link, both radio and fixed, between the MS and
the MSC. For this formation, the main components involved are the MS, BSS, and MSC. The
responsibility of the RR layer is to manage the RR-session, the time when a mobile is in a
dedicated mode, and the radio channels including the allocation of dedicated channels.

The MM layer is stacked above the RR layer. It handles the functions that arise from the mobility
of the subscriber, as well as the authentication and security aspects. Location management is
concerned with the procedures that enable the system to know the current location of a powered-
on MS so that incoming call routing can be completed.

The CM layer is the topmost layer of the GSM protocol stack. This layer is responsible for Call
Control, Supplementary Service Management, and Short Message Service Management. Each of
these services are treated as individual layer within the CM layer. Other functions of the CC
sublayer include call establishment, selection of the type of service (including alternating
between services during a call), and call release.
BSC Protocols

The BSC uses a different set of protocols after receiving the data from the BTS. The Abis
interface is used between the BTS and BSC. At this level, the radio resources at the lower
portion of Layer 3 are changed from the RR to the Base Transceiver Station Management
(BTSM). The BTS management layer is a relay function at the BTS to the BSC.

The RR protocols are responsible for the allocation and reallocation of traffic channels between
the MS and the BTS. These services include controlling the initial access to the system, paging
for MT calls, the handover of calls between cell sites, power control, and call termination. The
BSC still has some radio resource management in place for the frequency coordination,
frequency allocation, and the management of the overall network layer for the Layer 2 interfaces.

To transit from the BSC to the MSC, the BSS mobile application part or the direct application
part is used, and SS7 protocols is applied by the relay, so that the MTP 1-3 can be used as the
prime architecture.

MSC Protocols

At the MSC, starting from the BSC, the information is mapped across the A interface to the MTP
Layers 1 through 3. Here, Base Station System Management Application Part (BSS MAP) is said
to be the equivalent set of radio resources. The relay process is finished by the layers that are
stacked on top of Layer 3 protocols, they are BSS MAP/DTAP, MM, and CM. This completes
the relay process. To find and connect to the users across the network, MSCs interact using the
control-signaling network. Location registers are included in the MSC databases to assist in the
role of determining how and whether connections are to be made to roaming users.

Each GSM MS user is given a HLR that in turn comprises of the user’s location and subscribed
services. VLR is a separate register that is used to track the location of a user. When the users
move out of the HLR covered area, the VLR is notified by the MS to find the location of the
user. The VLR in turn, with the help of the control network, signals the HLR of the MS’s new
location. With the help of location information contained in the user’s HLR, the MT calls can be
routed to the user.

#Connection establishment
Step 1: A user dials the phone number of GSM subscriber. The fixed network
PSTN notices that the number belongs to the user in the GSM network and
forwards the call setup to the Gateway MSC .

Step 2: The GMSC identifies the HLR for the subscriber and signals the call setup
to the HLR.
Step 3: The HLR now checks whether the number exists and whether the user has
subscribed to the requested services, and the requests an MSRN from the current
VLR.

Step 4 : After receiving the request from MSRN

Step 5 : HLR can determine the MSC responsible for the MS and forwards this
information to GMSC

Step 6 : GMSC can now forward the call setup request to MSC indicated.

Step 7: From this, MSC is responsible for all further steps. First it requests the
current status of MS from VLR.

Step 8 : If MS is available, then MSC initiates paging in all cells it is responsible

for as searching for the right cell would be too time consuming.
Step 9: This approach puts some load on signalling channels so optimization exist.

Step 10: Location area (LA) can be determined.

Step 11: The BTSs of all BSSs transmit this paging signal to MS.

Step 12 & 13: If MS answers ( 12 and 13) the VLR has to perform security checks
set up be encryption techniques.

Steps 14 to 17: The VLR signals to MSC to setup a connection to MS.

FREQUENCY ALLOCATION:

Radio transmission can take place using many different frequency bands. Each
frequency band exhibits certain advantages and disadvantages. Figure gives a
rough overview of the frequency spectrum that can be used for data transmission.
The figure shows frequencies starting at 300 Hz and going up to over 300 THz.

where c ≅ 3·108 m/s (the speed of light in vacuum) and f the frequency. For
Directly coupled to the frequency is the wavelength λ via the equation: λ = c/f,

traditional wired networks, frequencies of up to several hundred kHz are used for
distances up to some km with twisted pair copper wires, while frequencies of
several hundred MHz are used with coaxial cable (new coding schemes work with
several hundred MHz even with twisted pair copper wires over distances of some
100 m).

Fiber optics are used for frequency ranges of several hundred THz, but
here one typically refers to the wavelength which is, e.g., 1500 nm, 1350 nm etc.
(infra red). Radio transmission starts at several kHz, the very low
frequency (VLF) range. These are very long waves. Waves in the low frequency
(LF) range are used by submarines, because they can penetrate water and can
follow the earth‟s surface. Some radio stations still use these frequencies, e.g.,
between

148.5 kHz and 283.5 kHz in Germany. The medium frequency

(MF) and high frequency (HF) ranges are typical for transmission of hundreds of
radio stations either as amplitude modulation (AM) between 520 kHz and 1605.5
kHz, as short wave (SW) between 5.9 MHz and 26.1 MHz, or as frequency
modulation (FM) between 87.5 MHz and 108 MHz. The frequencies limiting these
ranges are typically fixed by national regulation and, vary from country to country.
Short waves are typically used for (amateur) radio transmission around the world,
enabled by reflection at the ionosphere

. Transmit power is up to 500 kW – which is quite high compared to

the 1 W of a mobile phone. As we move to higher frequencies, the TV stations
follow. Conventional analog TV is transmitted in ranges of 174–230 MHz and
470–790 MHz using the very high frequency (VHF) and ultra high
frequency (UHF) bands. In this range, digital audio broadcasting (DAB) takes
place as well (223–230 MHz and 1452–1472 MHz) and digital TV is planned or
currently being installed (470– 862 MHz), reusing some of the old frequencies for
analog TV. UHF is also used for mobile phones with analog technology (450–465
MHz), the digital GSM (890–960 MHz, 1710–1880 MHz), digital cordless
telephones following the DECT standard (1880–1900 MHz), 3G cellular systems
following the UMTS standard (1900–1980 MHz, 2020–2025 MHz, 2110–2190
MHz) and many more. VHF and especially

UHF allow for small antennas and relatively reliable connections for mobile
telephony. Super high frequencies (SHF) are typically used for directed
microwave links (approx. 2–40 GHz) and fixed satellite services in the C-band (4
and 6 GHz), Ku-band (11 and 14 GHz), or Ka-band (19 and 29 GHz). Some
systems are planned in the extremely high frequency (EHF) range which comes
close to infra-red. All radio frequencies are regulated to avoid interference, e.g., the
German regulation covers 9 kHz–275 GHz.

Routing
Routing is the process of finding the best path for traffic in a network, or
across multiple networks. The role of routing is similar to the road map for a
hotel. In both cases, we need to deliver messages at proper location and in
an appropriate way.

Routing in a mobile ad-hoc network depends on many factors such as:

o Modeling of the topology,

o Selection of routers,
o Initiation of a route request,
 o And specific underlying characteristics that could serve as heuristics in
finding the path effectively.

In a MANET, each node or device is expected to serve as a router, and each

router is indistinguishable from another in the sense that all routers execute
the same routing algorithm to compute paths through the entire network.

Need for Routing

There are following needs for routing:

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o Since centralized routing in a dynamic and even for small networks is

impossible therefore routing computation must be distributed.
o Route computation should not add many more nodes.
o If any host demands for the route, they must have quick access.
o Maintenance of a global state should not involve in the route computation.
o Each node should care about their destination node to its route and should
not be involved in frequent topology updates for those portions of the
network that have no traffic.
o Since broadcast can be time consuming for MANETs, it must be avoided as
much as possible.
o In routing there must have a backup route when the primary route has
become stale.

Routing Classification
Routing protocol can be classified as:

1. Proactive Protocol
2. Reactive Protocol
3. Hybrid Protocol

1. Proactive Protocol
Proactive protocols attempt to evaluate continuously the routes within the
network. It means proactive protocol continuously maintain the routing
information, so that when a packet needs to be forwarded, the path is known
already and can be immediately used. The family of distance vector
protocols is an example of proactive scheme.

The advantage of the proactive schemes is that whenever a route is needed,

there is negligible delay in determining the route.

Unfortunately, it is a big overhead to maintain routing tables in the MANET

environment. Therefore, this type of protocol has following common
disadvantages:

o Requires more amounts of data for maintaining routing information.

o Low reaction on re-structuring network and failures of individual nodes.

2. Reactive Protocols
Reactive protocols do not maintain routes but invoke a route determination
procedure only on demand or we can say reactive protocols build the routes
only on demand. Thus, when a route is required, some sort of global search
procedure is initiated. The family of classical flooding algorithms belongs to
the reactive protocol group. Examples of reactive ad-hoc network routing
protocols include ad hoc on demand distance vector (AODV) and temporally
ordered routing algorithm (TORA).

These protocols have the following advantages:

o No large overhead for global routing table maintenance as in proactive

protocols.
o Reaction is quick for network restructure and node failure.
Even though reactive protocols have become the main stream for MANET
routing, they still have the following disadvantages:
o Latency time is high in route finding
o Excessive flooding can lead to network clogging.

3. Hybrid Protocols
Hybrid protocols attempt to take advantage of best of reactive and proactive
schemes. The basic idea behind such protocols is to initiate route discovery
on demand but at a limited search cost. One of the popular hybrid protocols
is zone routing protocol (ZRP).

Routing protocols may also be categorized as follows:

1. Table-driven protocols
2. Source initiated on -demand protocols

1. Table-driven routing protocol

o These protocols are called table-driven because each node is required to

maintain one or more tables containing routing information on every other
node in the network.
o They are proactive in nature so that the routing information is always
consistent and up to date.
o The protocols respond to changes in network topology by propagating the
updates throughput the network so that every node has a consistent view of
the network.

The table driven routing protocols are categorized as follows:

Destination - sequenced distance vector routing

o Destination sequenced distance vector routing (DSDV) is a table driven

routing protocol for MANET based on Bellman-Ford algorithm.
o DSDV was developed by C. Perkins and P. Bhagwat in 1994. The main
contribution of the algorithm was that the algorithm works correctly, even in
the presence of the loops in the routing table.
o As we know, each mobile node maintains a routing table with a route to every
possible destination in the network and the number of hops to the
destination.
o Each entry in the table contains a sequence number assigned by the
destination node.
o The sequence numbers allow the node to distinguish stale routes from new
ones, and help avoid formation of routing loops.
o A new route broadcast contains:
 o The destination address.
o The number of hops required to reach the destination.
o The sequence number of the information received about the
destination and a new sequence number unique to the broadcast.
o If there multiple routes are available for the same destination, the route with
the most recent sequence number is used. If two updates have the same
sequence number, the route with smaller metric is used to optimize the
routing.

For example the routing table of Node A from the above network is:

Destination Next Hop No. of Hops Sequence no. Install time

A A 0 A46 001000

B B 1 B36 001200

C B 2 C28 001500

Basically the table stores description of all possible paths reachable by node
A, along with the hop, number of hops, sequence number and install time.

Advantages

o Destination sequenced distance vector routing was one of the early

algorithms available. It is suitable for creating ad-hoc networks with small no.
of nodes.
Disadvantage

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o Destination sequenced distance vector routing requires a regular update of

its routing tables, which uses more battery power and a small amount of
bandwidth even when the network is idle.
o This algorithm is not suitable for highly dynamic networks.

Cluster Head gateway switch Routing

o The cluster head (CH) gateway switch routing (CGSR) protocol is different
from the destination sequenced distance vector routing in the type of
addressing and the network organization scheme employed.
o Instead of a flat network, CGSR uses cluster heads, which control a group of
ad hoc nodes and hence achieve a hierarchical framework for code
separation among clusters, routing, channel access, and bandwidth
allocation.
o Identification of appropriate clusters and selection of cluster heads is quite
complex. Once clusters have been defined, it is desirable to use a distributed
algorithm within the cluster to elect a node as the cluster head.
o The disadvantage of using a cluster head scheme is that frequent changes
adversely affect performance as nodes spend more time selecting a cluster
head rather than relaying packets. Hence, the least cluster change (LCC)
clustering algorithm is used rather than CH selection every time the cluster
membership changes. Using LCC, CHs change only when two CHs come into
contact, or when a node moves out of contact with all other CHs.
 o In this scheme, each node must maintain a cluster member table (CMT),
which stores the destination CH for each node in the network. The cluster
member tables are broadcast periodically by the nodes using the DSDV
algorithm.
o When a node receives such a table from a neighbor, it can update its own
information. As expected, each node also maintains a routing table to
determine the next hop required to reach any destination.

Wireless routing protocol (WRP)

The wireless routing protocol is a proactive unicast routing protocol for

MANETs. It uses an enhanced version of the distance vector routing protocol,
which uses the Bellman - Ford algorithm to calculate paths.

For the wireless routing protocol (WRP) each node maintains 4 tables:

o Distance table
o Routing table
o Link cost table
o Message retransmission list (MRL) table

Each entry in the message retransmission list has a sequence number of the
update message, a retransmission counter, an acknowledgment required
flag vector with one entry per neighbor, and a list of updates sent in the
update message. When any node receives a hello message from a new node,
it adds the new node to its routing table and sends the new node a copy of
its routing table. A node must send a message to its neighbors within a
certain time to ensure connectivity.

Advantages
 o The advantage of WRP is similar to DSDV. In addition, it has faster
convergence and adds fewer table updates.

Disadvantage

o The complexity of maintenance of multiple tables demands a large amount of

memory and greater processing power from nodes in the MANET.
o Since it suffers from limited scalability therefore WRP is not suitable for highly
dynamic and for a very large ad hoc wireless network.

2. Source initiated on -demand protocols

o Source - initiated on demand routing is reactive in nature, unlike table

driven routing. This type of protocols generates routes only when a source
demands it.
o In other words, when a source node requires a route to a destination, the
source initiates a route discovery process in the network. This process
finishes when a route to the destination has been discovered or all possible
routes have been examined without any success.
o The discovered route is maintained by a route maintenance procedure, until
it is no longer desired or the destination becomes inaccessible.

The source initiated on demand routing is categorized as follows:

Ad hoc on demand distance vector routing (AODV)

o AODV is a routing protocol for MANETs (mobile ad hoc networks) and other
wireless ad hoc networks.
o It is a reactive routing protocol; it means it establishes a route to a
destination only on demand.
o AODV routing is built over the DSDV algorithm. It is a significant improvement
over DSDV.
o The devices that are not on a particular path do not maintain routing
information, nor do they participate in the routing table exchanges.
 o When a source requires sending a message to a destination and does not
have a valid route to the latter, the source initiates a route discovery process.
o Source sends a route request (RREQ) packet to all its neighbors, the latter
forward the request to all their neighbors, and so on, until either the
destination or an intermediate mobile (node) with a "fresh enough" route to
the destination is reached.

The above figure illustrates the propagation of the broadcast request

(RREQs) across the network. Since in DSDV, destination sequence numbers
are used to ensure that all routes are loop free and contain the most recent
route information. Each node has a unique sequence number and a
broadcast ID, which is incremented each time the node, initiates RREQ.

The broadcast ID, together with the IP address of node, uniquely identifies
every RREQ.

Intermediate mobile reply only if they have a route to the destination with a
sequence number greater than or at least equal to that contained in the
RREQ. To optimize the route performance, intermediate nodes record the
address.
From the above figure, since RREP (route reply packet) travels back on the
reverse path, the nodes on this path set up their forward route entries to
point to the node from which RREP had just been received. These forward
route records indicate the active forward route. The RREP continues traveling
back along the reverse path till it reaches the initiator of the route discovery.
Thus, AODV can support only the use of symmetric links.

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

o Dynamic source routing is an on-demand routing protocol which is based on

source routing.
o It is very similar to AODV in that it forms a route on demand when a
transmitting computer requests one. But, it uses source routing instead of
relying on the routing table at each intermediate device. Many successive
refinements have been made to dynamic source routing.
o This protocol works in two main phases:
o Route discovery
o Route maintenance
o When a node has a message to send, it contacts to the route cache to
determine whether is it has a route to the destination. If an active route to
the destination exists, it is used to send a message.
o Otherwise a node initiates a route discovery by broadcasting a route request
packet. The route request stores the destination address, the source address,
and a unique identification number.
 o Each device that receives the route request checks whether it has a route to
the destination. If it does not, it adds its own address to the route record of
the packet and then rebroadcasts the packet on its outgoing links.
o To minimize the no. of broadcasts, a mobile rebroadcasts a packet only if it
has not seen the packet before and its own address was not already in the
route record.

Mobility management
The mobile station attempts to find a suitable cell by passing
through the list in descending order of received signal strength, the
first BCCH channel, which satisfies a set of requirements it has
selected.

Cell Selection Criteria

The requirements that a cell must satisfy before a mobile station

can receive service from it are −

 It should be a cell of the selected PLMN. The mobile station

checks whether the cell is part of the selected PLMN.
 It should not be "barred". The PLMN operator may decide not
to allow mobile stations to access certain cells. These cells
may, for example only be used for handover traffic. Barred cell
information is broadcast on the BCCH to instruct mobile
stations not to access these cells.
 The radio path loss between the mobile station and the
selected BTS must be above a threshold set by the PLMN
operator.
 If no suitable cell is found then the MS enters a "limited
service" state in which it can only make emergency calls.
Call to an Active Mobile Station

As an active mobile station (MS) moves in the coverage area of a

public land mobile network (PLMN), it reports its movements so that
it can be located as needed, using the update procedure locations.
When a mobile services switching center (MSC) in the network
needs to establish a call to a mobile station operating in its flow
area, following things occur −
  A page message its broadcast which contains the identification
code of the MS. Not every Base Station Controller (BSC) in the
network is requested to transmit the page message. The
broadcast is limited to a cluster of radio cells that together
form a location area. The last reported position of the MS
identifies the location area to be used for the broadcast.
 The MS monitors the page message transmitted by the radio
cell in which it is located and, on detecting its own
identification code, responds by transmitting a page response
message to the Base Transceiver Station (BTS).
 Communication is then established between the MSC and the
MS via BTS that received the page response message.
Location Update
Case 1 − Location never updates.

If location never updates the implementation for location update,

cost becomes zero. But we have to page every cell for locating the
MS and this procedure will not be cost effective.

Case 2 − Location update is implemented.

Location updates are taking place as per the requirements of the

network, may be time or movement or distance based. This
procedure involves high cost, but we have to page single cell or few
cells only for locating the MS and this procedure will be cost
effective.
Network Configuration

The configuration of a Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) is

designed so that active mobile station moving in the network area is
still able to report its position. A network consists of different areas
−
  PLMN area
 Location area
 MSC area
 PLMN Area

A PLMN area is the geographical area in which land mobile

communication services are provided to the public by a particular
PLMN operator. From any position within a PLMN area, the mobile
user can set up calls to another user of the same network, or to a
user of another network. The other network may be a fixed network,
another GSM PLMN, or another type of PLMN. Users of the same
PLMN or users of other networks can also call a mobile user who is
active in the PLMN area. When there are several PLMN operators,
the geographical areas covered by their networks may overlap. The
extent of a PLMN area is normally limited by national borders.

Location Area

To eliminate the need for network-wide paging broadcasts, the

PLMN needs to know the approximate positions of the MSs that are
active within its coverage area. To enable the approximate positions
of any MS to be represented by a single parameter, the total area
covered by the network is divided into location areas. A Location
Area (LA) is a group of one or more radio cells. This group fulfills the
following requirements −

 BTSs in one location area may be controlled by one or more

BSCs.
 BSCs those serve the same location area are always connected
to the same MSC.
 Radio cells with BTSs controlled by a common BSC can lie in
different location areas.
Location Area Identity

Every radio transmitter in the PLMN broadcast, via a control channel

BCCH, a Location Area Identity (LAI), code to identify the location
area that it serves. When an MS is not engaged in a call, it
automatically scans the BCCH transmitted by the base stations in
the locality and selects the channel that is delivering the strongest
signal. The LAI code broadcast by the selected channel identifies the
location area in which the MS is currently situated. This LAI code is
stored in the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) of the mobile
equipment.

As the MS moves through the network area, the signal received from
the selected control channel gradually diminishes in strength until it
is no longer the strongest. At this point the MS re-tunes to the
channel that has become dominant and examines the LAI code that
it is broadcasting. If the received LAI code differs from that stored on
the SIM, then the MS has entered another location area and initiates
a location update procedure to report the change to the MSC. At the
end of the procedure, the LAI code in the SIM is also updated.

Location Area Identity Format

It is a Location Area Identity (LAI) code to identify the location area

in a PLMN. The LAI code has three components −

Mobile Country Code (MCC)

The MCC is a 3-digit code that uniquely identifies the country of

domicile of the mobile subscriber (for example, India 404). It is
assigned by the ITU-T.

Mobile Network Code (MNC)

The MNC is a 2-digit code (3-digit code for GSM-1900) that identifies
the home GSM PLMN of the mobile subscriber. If more than one GSM
PLMN exists in a country, a unique MNC is assigned to each of them.
It is assigned by the government of each country. (For example Cell
one, Chennai 64).

Location Area Code (LAC)

The LAC component identifies a location area within a PLMN; it has a

fixed length of 2 octets and can be coded using hexadecimal
representation. It is assigned by an operator.

MSC areas
An MSC area is a region of the network in which GSM operations are
controlled by a single MSC. An MSC area consists of one more
location areas. The boundary of an MSC area follows the external
boundaries of the location areas on its periphery. Consequently, a
location area never spans beyond the boundary of an MSC area.

VLR area

A VLR area is region of the network that is supervised by a single

Visitor Location Register (VLR). In theory, a VLR area may consist of
one more MSC areas. In practice, however the functions of the VLR
are always integrated with those of the MSC so that the terms "VLR
area" and "MSC area" have become synonymous.

Location Related Databases

Two databases are used by Location Management to store MS

location related data.

 Visitor Location Register(VLR)

 Home Location Register(HLR)

Visitor Location Register

A VLR contains a data record for each of the MS that are currently
operating in its area. Each record contains a set of subscriber
identity codes, related subscription information, and a Location Area
Identity (LAI) code. This information is used by the MSC when
handling calls to or from an MS in the area. When an MS moves from
one area to another, the responsibility for its supervision passes
from one VLR to another. A new data record is created by the VLR
that has adopted the MS, and the old record is deleted. Provided
that aninter-working agreement exists between the network
operators concerned, data transaction can cross both network and
national boundaries.

Home Location Register

The HLR contains information relevant to mobile subscribers who

are fee-paying customers of the organization that operates the
PLMN.
The HLR stores two types of information −

Subscription Information

The subscription information includes the IMSI and directory number

allocated to the subscriber, the type of services provided and any
related restrictions.

Location Information

The location information includes the address of the VLR in the area
where the subscribers MS is currently located and the address of the
associated MSC.

The location information enables incoming calls to be routed to the

MS. The absence of this information indicates that the MS is inactive
and cannot be reached.

When an MS moves from one VLR area to another, the location

information in the HLR is updated with the new entry for the MS,
using subscription data copied from the HLR. Provided that an inter-
working agreement exists between the network operators,
concerned data transactions can move across both network and
national boundaries.

Types of Identification Numbers

During the performance of the location update procedure and the

processing of a mobile call different types of numbers are used −

 Mobile Station ISDN Number(MSISDN)

 Mobile Subscriber Roaming Number(MSRN)
 International Mobile Subscriber Identity(IMSI)
 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity(TMSI)
 Local Mobile Station Identity(LMSI)

Each number is stored in the HLR and/or VLR.

Mobile Station ISDN Number

The MSISDN is the directory number allocated to the mobile

subscriber. It is dialed to make a telephone call to the mobile
subscriber. The number consists of Country Code (CC) of the country
in which the mobile station is registered (e.g. India 91), followed by
national mobile number which consists of Network Destination Code
(NDC) and Subscriber Number (SN). An NDC is allocated to each
GSM PLMN.

The composition of the MSISDN is such that it can be used as a

global title address in the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP)
for routing message to the HLR of the mobile subscriber.

Mobile Station Roaming Number

The MSRN is the number required by the gateway MSC to route an

incoming call to an MS that is not currently under the control of the
gateway MSISDN. Using a mobile, terminated call is routed to the
MSC gateway. Based on this, MSISDN gateway MSC requests for a
MSRN to route the call to the current visited MSC International
Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).

An MS is identified by its IMSI. The IMSI is embedded in the SIM of

the mobile equipment. It is provided by the MS anytime it accesses
the network.

Mobile Country Code (MCC)

The MCC component of the IMSI is a 3-digit code that uniquely

identifies the country of the domicile of the subscriber. It is assigned
by the ITU-T.

Mobile Network Code (MNC)

The MNC component is a 2-digit code that identifies the home GSM
PLMN of the mobile subscriber. It is assigned by the government of
each country. For GSM-1900 a 3-digit MNC is used.

Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN)

The MSIN is a code that identifies the subscriber within a GSM PLMN.
It is assigned by the operator.
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

The TMSI is an identity alias which is used instead of the IMSI when
possible. The use of a TMSI ensures that the true identity of the
mobile subscriber remains confidential by eliminating the need to
transfer a non ciphered IMSI code over a radio link.

A VLR allocates a unique TMSI code to each mobile subscriber that is

operating in its area. This code which is only valid within the area
supervised by the VLR is used to identify the subscriber, in
messages to and from the MS. When a change of location area also
involves a change of VLR area, a new TMSI code is allocated and
communicated to the MS. The MS stores the TMSI on its SIM. The
TMSI consists of four octets.

Location Update Scenario

In the following location update scenario, it is assumed that an MS

enters a new location area that is under control of a different VLR
(referred to as the "new VLR") than the one where the MS is
currently registered (referred to as the "old VLR"). The following
diagram shows the steps of the mobile location update scenario.
The MS enters a new cell area, listens to the Location Area Identity
(LAI) being transmitted on the broadcast channel (BCCH), and
compares this LAI with the last LAI (stored in the SIM) representing
the last area where the mobile was registered.

 The MS detects that it has entered a new Location Area and

transmits a Channel Request message over the Random
Access Channel (RACH).
 Once the BSS receives the Channel Request message, it
allocates a Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)
and forwards this channel assignment information to the MS
over the Access Grant Channel (AGCH). It is over the SDCCH
that the MS will communicate with the BSS and MSC.
 The MS transmits a location update request message to the
BSS over the SDCCH. Included in this message are the MS
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) and the old
Location Area Subscriber (old LAI). The MS can identify itself
either with its IMSI or TMSI. In this example, we will assume
that the mobile provided a TMSI. The BSS forwards the location
update request message to the MSC.
 The VLR analyses the LAI supplied in the message and
determines that the TMSI received is associated with a
different VLR (old VLR). In order to proceed with the
registration the IMSI of the MS must be determined. The new
VLR derives the identity of the old VLR by using the received
 LAI, supplied in the location update request message. It also
requests the old VLR to supply the IMSI for a particular TMSI.
 Location Update Scenario-Update HLR/VLR is a point where we
are ready to inform the HLR that the MS is under control of a
new VLR and that the MS can be de-registered from the old
VLR. The steps in update HLR/VLR phase are −
o The new VLR sends a message to the HLR informing it
that the given IMSI has changed locations and can be
reached by routing all incoming calls to the VLR address
included in the message.
o The HLR requests the old VLR to remove the subscriber
record associated with the given IMSI. The request is
acknowledged.
o The HLR updates the new VLR with the subscriber data
(mobiles subscribers’ customer profile).

Steps in TMSI Reallocation Phase

 The MSC forwards the location update accept message to the

MS. This message includes the new TMSI.
 The MS retrieves the new TMSI value from the message and
updates its SIM with this new value. The mobile then sends an
update complete message back to the MSC.
 The MSC requests from the BSS, that the signaling connection
be released between the MSC and the MS.
 The MSC releases its portion of the signaling connection when
it receives the clear complete message from the BSS.
  The BSS sends a "radio resource" channel release message to
the MS and then free up the Stand-alone Dedicated Control
Channel (SDCCH) that was allocated previously. The BSS then
informs the MSC that the signaling connection has been
cleared.

Location Update Periodicity

Location Update automatically takes place when the MS changes its

LA. A lot of location updates may be generated if a user crosses LA
boundary frequently. If the MS remains in the same LA, Location
Update may take place based on time/movement/distance, as
defined by the network provider.

Hand Over

This is the process of automatically switching a call in progress from

one traffic channel to another to neutralize the adverse effects of
the user movements. Hand over process will be started only if the
power control is not helpful anymore.

The Hand Over process is MAHO (Mobile Assisted Hand Over). It

starts with the Down Link Measurements by the MS (Strength of the
signal from BTS, Quality of the signal from BTS). MS can measure
the signal strength of the 6 best neighboring BTS downlink
(candidate list).
Hand Over Types

There are two types of Hand Over −

 Internal or Intra BSS Handover

Intra-cell hand over
Inter cell hand over
 External or Inter BSS Hand over
Intra-MSC hand over
Inter MSC hand over
Internal handover is managed by the BSC and external
handover by MSC.

The objectives of Hand Over are as follows −

Maintain a good quality of speech.

 Minimize number of calls dropped.
 Maximize the amount of time the mobile station is in the best
cell.
 Minimize the number of hand overs.
When will a Hand Over take place?
 Distance (propagation delay) between the MS and BTS
becomes too big.
 If the received signal level is very low.
 If the received signal quality very low.
 Path loss situation for the mobile station to another cell is
better.
 GPRS and UMTS
Overview
GPRS and UMTS are evolutions of the global system for mobile communication (GSM)
networks. GSM is a digital cellular technology that is used worldwide, predominantly in Europe
and Asia. GSM is the world's leading standard in digital wireless communications.
GPRS is a 2.5G mobile communications technology that enables mobile wireless service
providers to offer their mobile subscribers packet-based data services over GSM networks.
Common applications of GPRS include the following: Internet access, intranet/corporate access,
instant messaging, and mutlimedia messaging. GPRS was standardized by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), but today is standardized by the Third
Generation Partnership Program (3GPP).
UMTS is a 3G mobile communications technology that provides wideband code division
multiple access (CDMA) radio technology. The CDMA technology offers higher throughput,
real-time services, and end-to-end quality of service (QoS), and delivers pictures, graphics, video
communications, and other multimedia information as well as voice and data to mobile wireless
subscribers. UMTS is standardized by the 3GPP.
The GPRS/UMTS packet core comprises two major network elements:
• Gateway GPRS support node (GGSN)—a gateway that provides mobile cell phone users
access to a public data network (PDN) or specified private IP networks. The GGSN function
is implemented via Cisco IOS software on the Cisco 7200 series router or on the Cisco Multi-
Processor WAN Application Module (MWAM) installed in a Catalyst 6500 series switch or
Cisco 7600 series Internet router. Cisco IOS GGSN Release 4.0 and later provides both the
2.5G GPRS and 3G UMTS GGSN functions.
• Serving GPRS support node (SGSN)—connects the radio access network (RAN) to the
GPRS/UMTS core and tunnels user sessions to the GGSN. The SGSN sends data to and
receives data from mobile stations, and maintains information about the location of a mobile
station (MS). The SGSN communicates directly with the MS and the GGSN. SGSN support
is available from Cisco partners or other vendors.
Figure 1-1 shows the basic GPRS/UMTS network components with GGSNs implemented on
Cisco 7200 series routers.

Figure 1-1
GPRS/UMTS Network Components with GGSNs Implemented on Cisco 7200 Routers
Figure 1-2 shows the network components with the GGSNs implemented on the Cisco MWAM
in the Catalyst 6500 / Cisco 7600 platform.

Figure 1-2 GPRS/UMTS Network Components with GGSNs Implemented on the Cisco
MWAM in the Catalyst 6500 / Cisco 7600 Platform
 Note that, as Figure 1-1 and Figure 1-2 show, the RAN is made up of different components for
2.5G and 3G.
In a 2.5G environment, the RAN is composed of mobile stations that connect to a base
transceiver station (BTS) that connects to a base station controller (BSC). In a 3G environment,
the RAN is made up of mobile stations that connect to NodeB, which connects to a radio
network controller (RNC).
The RAN connects to the GPRS/UMTS core through an SGSN, which tunnels user sessions to a
GGSN that acts as a gateway to the services networks (for example, the Internet and intranet).
The connection between the SGSN and the GGSN is enabled through a tunneling protocol called
the GPRS tunneling protocol (GTP): GTP Version 0 (GTP V0) for 2.5G applications, and GTP
Version 1 (GTP V1) for 3G applications. GTP is carried over IP. Multiple SGSNs and GGSNs
within a network are referred to collectively as GPRS support nodes (GSNs).

Note Depending on the specific operator configuration, the RAN, the GPRS/UMTS core, and the
services networks can be made up of IP or Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) networks.

To assign mobile sessions an IP address, the GGSN uses the Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP), Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) server, or a local
address pool defined specified for an access point configured on the GGSN. The GGSN can use
a RADIUS server to authorize and authenticate remote users. DHCP and RADIUS services can
be specified either at the global configuration level or for each access point configured on the
GGSN.
In Cisco IOS Release 12.1(5)T and later, the GGSN on the Cisco 7200 series router (with an
Integrated Services Adapter [ISA] card) supports IP Security (IPSec) protocol to provide data
confidentiality, data integrity, and data authentication between participating peers.
On the Cisco MWAM installed in a Catalyst 6500 series switch / Cisco 7600 series Internet
router platform, IPSec encryption is performed on the IPSec Virtual Private Network (VPN)
Acceleration Services Module.
GPRS Interface Reference Model
The 2.5G GPRS and 3G UMTS standards use the term interface to label (or identify) the
communication path between different network elements. The GPRS/UMTS standards define the
requirements and characteristics of communication between different GPRS/UMTS network
elements over these interfaces. These interfaces are commonly referred to in descriptions of
GPRS/UMTS networks.
Figure 1-3 shows the interfaces that are implemented in the Cisco IOS GGSN feature:
• Gn interface—Interface between GSNs within the same public land mobile network (PLMN)
in a GPRS/UMTS network. GTP is a protocol defined on the Gn interface between GSNs in
a GPRS/UMTS network.
• Gi interface—Reference point between a GPRS/UMTS network and an external packet data
network.
• Ga interface—Interface between a GGSN and charging gateway (CG) in a GPRS/UMTS
network.

Figure 1-3 GPRS Interfaces Configured in the Cisco IOS GGSN Feature Implemented on
the Cisco 7200 Series Router

Virtual Template Interface

To facilitate configuration of connections between the GGSN and SGSN, and the GGSN and
PDNs, the Cisco IOS GGSN software uses an internal interface called a virtual template
interface. A virtual template is a logical interface that is not tied directly to a specific interface,
but that can be associated dynamically with a interface.
As with a physical interface on a router, you can assign an IP address to the virtual template
interface. You can also configure IP routing characteristics on the virtual template interface. You
are required to configure certain GPRS/UMTS-specific elements on the virtual template
 interface, such as GTP encapsulation (which is necessary for communicating with the SGSN)
and the access list that the GGSN uses to determine which PDNs are accessible on the network.
Access Points
The GPRS/UMTS standards define a network identity called an access point name (APN). An
APN identifies the service or network to which a user can connect from a GGSN in a
GPRS/UMTS network.
To configure APNs, the Cisco IOS GGSN software uses the following configuration elements:
• Access point—Defines an APN and its associated access characteristics, including security
and method of dynamic addressing.
• Access point list—Logical interface that is associated with the virtual template of the GGSN.
The access-point list contains one or more access points.
• Access group—An additional level of security that is configured at an access point to control
access to and from a PDN. When an MS is permitted access to the GGSN as defined by a
traditional IP access list, the IP access group further defines whether access is permitted to
the PDN (at the access point). The IP access group configuration can also define whether
access from a PDN to an MS is permitted.
For more detailed information on access-point configuration, refer to the "Configuring Access
Points on the GGSN" section.

Benefits
The 2.5G GPRS technology provides the following benefits:
• Enables the use of a packet-based air interface over the existing circuit-switched GSM
network, which allows greater efficiency in the radio spectrum because the radio bandwidth
is used only when packets are sent or received
• Supports minimal upgrades to the existing GSM network infrastructure for network service
providers who want to add GPRS services on top of GSM, which is currently widely
deployed
• Supports enhanced data rates in comparison to the traditional circuit-switched GSM data
service
• Supports larger message lengths than Short Message Service (SMS)
• Supports a wide range of access to data networks and services, including VPN/Internet
service provider (ISP) corporate site access and Wireless Application Protocol (WAP).
In addition to the above, the 3G UMTS technology includes the following:
• Enhanced data rates of approximately
– 144 kbps—Satellite and rural outdoor
– 384 kbps—Urban outdoor
– 2048 kbps—Indoor and low-range outdoor
Handover mechanism

In cellular telecommunications, the terms handover or handoff refers to the

process of transferring an ongoing call or data connectivity from one Base
Station to another Base Station. When a mobile moves into a different cell while
the conversation is in progress then the MSC (Mobile Switching Center)
transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new Base Station.

When a mobile user A moves from one cell to another cell then BSC 1 signal
strength loses for the mobile User A and the signal strength of BSC 2 increases
and thus ongoing calls or data connectivity for mobile users goes on without
interrupting.
Types of Handoff
 Hard Handoff
 Soft Handoff
 Delayed Handoff
 Mobile-Assisted Handoff
Hard Handoff
When there is an actual break in the connectivity while switching from one Base
Station to another Base Station. There is no burden on the Base Station and
MSC because the switching takes place so quickly that it can hardly be noticed
by the users. The connection quality is not that good. Hard Handoff adopted the
‘break before make’ policy.
It is generally implemented in Time Division Multiplexing and Frequency
Division Multiplexing when a user connects to the base station with a fluctuating
radio frequency.
 Hard Handoff is cheaper in cost as compared to soft Handoff because only
one channel needs to be active at a time.
 It is more efficient than soft handoff, that’s why hard handoffs are widely
implemented.
 Sometimes, a delay can be experienced while switching base stations.

Soft Handoff
Soft Handoff is a mechanism in which the device gets connected with two or
more base stations at the same time. At least one of the links is kept when
radio signals are added or removed to the Base Station. Soft Handoff adopted
the ‘make before break’ policy. If a channel is in power loss then another
channel will always be on standby mode so this makes it best in terms of quality
as compared to Hard handoff. Soft handoffs are used in devices
supporting CDMA/WDMA networks
 High Transmission speed as more than one repeater can transmit signals.
 It has a very low delay in signals.
 It can’t be implemented on devices supporting GSM or LTE networks.
Delayed Handoff
Delayed handoff occurs when no base station is available for accepting the
transfer. The call continues until the signal strength reaches a threshold, and
after that, the call is dropped. Generally, it happens when the user is out of the
network coverage area, or at some dead spots where network reach is very low.
Mobile-Assisted Handoff
Mobile-Assisted handoff is generally used when a mobile phone helps a base
station to transfer the call to another base station with better-improvised
connectivity and more signal strength. This handoff is used in TDMA technique-
based GSM devices.

Introduction to 5G Wireless Technology

Abstract: 5G Technology stands for 5th generation mobile technology. 5G denote the next major
phase of mobile telecommunication standards beyond the upcoming 4G standards. 5G
technology will change the way most high bandwidth users access their phones. With 5G pushed
over a VOIP enabled device, people will experience a level of call volume and data transmission
never experienced before.

Keywords: 5G Technology, Features of 5G

INTRODUCTION

5G Technology stands for 5th generation mobile technology. 5G denote the next major phase of
mobile telecommunication standards beyond the upcoming 4G standards. 5G technology is
offering the service in Product Engineering, Documentation, supporting electronic transactions,
etc. As the customer become more and more aware of the mobile phone technology, he or she
will look for a decent package all together including all the advanced features a cellular phone
can have. Hence the search for new technology always the main motive of the leading cell phone
giants to out innovate their competitors. The goal of a 5G based telecommunication network
would ideally answer the challenges that a 4G model would present once it has entered
widespread use.

Wireless systems using orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) with wide area
coverage, high throughput at millimeter waves (10 mm to 1 mm) covering a frequency range of
30 GHz to 300 GHz, and enabling a 20 Mbps data rate to distances up to 2 km. The millimeter-
wave band is the most effective solution to the recent surge in wireless Internet usage. These
specifications are capable of providing wireless world wide web (WWWW) applications.

The WWWW allows a highly flexible network (flexible channel bandwidth between 5 and 20
MHz, optimally up to 40 MHz), and dynamic ad-hoc wireless network (DAWN). This technique
employs intelligent antennae (e.g., switched beam antennae and adaptive array antennae) and the
flexible modulation method, which helps in obtaining bidirectional high bandwidth, i.e., transfer
of a large volume of broadcasting data in giga bytes, sustaining more than 60,000 connections
and providing 25 Mbps connectivity. Users of 5G technology can download an entire film to
their tablets or laptops, including 3D movies; they can download games and avail of remote
medical services. With the advent of 5G, Piconet and Bluetooth technologies will become
outdated. The 5G mobile phones would be akin to tablet PCs, where you

could watch TV channels at HD clarity without any interruption.

FEATURES

Features of 5G Technology:

 5G technology offer high resolution for crazy cell phone user and bi-directional large
bandwidth
 Shaping
 The advanced billing interfaces of 5G technology makes it more attractive and
effective.
 5G technology also providing subscriber supervision tools for fast action.
 The high quality services of 5G technology based on Policy to avoid error.
 5G technology is providing large broadcasting of data in Gigabit which supporting
almost 65,000
 Connections.
 5G technology offer transporter class gateway with unparalleled consistency.
 The traffic statistics by 5G technology makes it more accurate.
 Through remote management offered by 5G technology a user can get better and fast
solution.
 The remote diagnostics also a great feature of 5G technology.
 The 5G technology is providing up to 25 Mbps connectivity speed.
 The 5G technology also support virtual private network.
 The new 5G technology will take all delivery service out of business prospect
 The uploading and downloading speed of 5G technology touching the peak.
 5th generation technology offers a wide range of features, which are beneficial for all
group of people including, students, professionals (doctors, engineers, teachers,
governing bodies, administrative bodies, etc.) and even for a common man.

IMPORTANT ADVANTAGES

 High resolution and bi-directional large bandwidth shaping.

 Technology to gather all networks on one platform.
 More effective and efficient.
 Technology to facilitate subscriber supervision tools for the quick action.
 Most likely, will provide a huge broadcasting data (in Gigabit), which will
support more than 60,000 connections.
 Easily manageable with the previous generations.
 Technological sound to support heterogeneous services (including private
network).
 Possible to provide uniform, uninterrupted, and consistent connectivity across
the world.

SOME OTHER ADVANTAGES FOR THE COMMON PEOPLE

 Parallel multiple services, such as you can know weather and

location while talking with other person.
 You can control your PCs by handsets.
 Education will become easier A student sitting in any part of world
can attend the class.
 Medical Treatment will become easier & frugal A doctor can treat the
patient located in remote part of the world.
 Monitoring will be easier A governmental organization and
investigating offers can monitor any part of the world. Possible to
reduce the crime rate.
 Visualizing universe, galaxies, and planets will be possible.
 Possible to locate and search the missing person.
 Possible, natural disaster including tsunami, earthquake etc. can be
detected faster.

DISADVANTAGES OF 5G TECHNOLOGY

Though, 5G technology is researched and conceptualized to solve

all radio signal problems and hardship of mobile world, but because
of some security reason and lack of technological advancement in
most of the geographic regions, it has following shortcomings

 Technology is still under process and research on its viability is going on.
  The speed, this technology is claiming seems difficult to achieve (in future, it might
be) because of the incompetent technological support in most parts of the world.
 Many of the old devices would not be competent to 5G, hence, all of them need to be
replaced with new one expensive deal.
 Developing infrastructure needs high cost.
 Security and privacy issue yet to be solved.

CONCLUSION

5G Technology stands for 5th Generation Mobile technology. 5G mobile technology has
changed the means to use cell phones within very high bandwidth. User never experienced ever
before such a high value technology.

Nowadays mobile users have much awareness of the cell phone (mobile) technology. The 5G
technologies include all type of advanced features which makes 5G mobile technology most
powerful and in huge demand in near future.

A user can also hook their 5G technology cell phone with their Laptop to get broadband internet
access. 5G technology including camera, MP3 recording, video player, large phone memory,
dialing speed, audio player and much more you never imagine. For children rocking fun
Bluetooth technology and Piconets has become in market.

REFERENCES

1. http://www.slideshare.net/upadhyayniki/5g-wireless- technology-14669479
2. 5G – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5G
3. http://recode.net/2015/03/13/what-is-5g-and-what-does-it- mean-for-consumers/