RADIOACTIVITY PART 3

Some materials (isotopes) contain atoms with unstable nuclei and these isotopes are said to
be radioactive. The nuclei can become stable by emitting tiny particles, energy or both.
These particles and energy from the nucleus are called radioactive
emissions/radioactivity/nuclear radiation and the breaking-up process is called radioactive
decay.

There are three main types of radioactive emissions, namely:-

a) Alpha radiation (α- radiation)

b) Beta radiation (β-radiation)

c) Gamma radiation (γ-radiation)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nW0S1C6wVrg

Summary of main properties of the alpha, beta and gamma radiation

Type of radiation Alpha particle (α) Beta particle(β) Gamma rays (γ)

Nature 2 protons + An electron Electromagnetic waves

2 neutrons
(identical to a
nucleus of
helium-4)
Charge +2 -1 0
Mass High, compared to low None
β
Ionizing efect strong weak Very weak
Penetrating efect Not Penetrating: it Very penetrating:
very penetrating: can penetrate never completely
can be stopped through stopped, though lead
by a thick sheet and thick concrete
several metres of
of paper or by the will reduce intensity
air but stopped by
skin. It can
penetrate through a thin (e.g 2 mm)
a sheet of
aluminium or
few centimetres other metals
of air
Efects offields Deflected Deflected Not deflected
by magnetic and by magnetic and by magnetic or
electric fields electric fields electric fields

*Ionization occurs when a radioactive emission such as alpha particle knocks electrons out
of the surrounding molecules or atoms leaving them as charged ions. Alpha particle is the
most ionizing radiation because it has the greatest size and mass.
*Penetration power:

all the three radioactive emissions can penetrate materials because their sizes are much
smaller than the spaces separating the atoms in materials. Beta particles are more
penetrating than alpha particles because they are much smaller. Gamma radiation is the
most penetrating because it is an electromagnetic wave without mass or size.
 Radiation-detector(G.M.Tube)

*Deflection in electric and magnetic field: https://youtu.be/k4xF4Mo2lL0

Alpha and beta particles are deflected by electric fields because they are electrically
charged. Alpha particles are least deflected because of their larger mass and inertia.

Alpha particles will be attracted towards negatively charged plates because they are
positively charged.

Beta particles are attracted towards positively charged plates because they are
negatively charged.

Gamma radiation has no charge and is unaffected by charged plates.

Any electrically charged particle experiences a force when it moves through a magnetic field
(motor effect). Alpha and beta particles are electrically charged, therefore they will
experience a force if they move through a magnetic field and they will be deflected. Gamma
rays have no mass or charge, this means they will pass through a magnetic field without
deflection.

The direction of deflection can be predicted using Fleming’s left hand rule.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F_Y1-JieCrg

Radioactive decay is a process in which heavy nuclides (radioisotopes) spontaneously

break down/disintegrates to smaller more stable nuclides. This is a random process; it can
never be predicted when an individual nucleus will suddenly split up. It does not matter
whether the substance is in its pure state or combined with others. Also cooling or heating
has no effect on the disintegration of the nucleus. Examples of radioactive elements:

carbon-14, uranium-235, uranium-238, cobalt-60, caesium-137, polonium-213, iodine-131,

barium-143

The number of nuclei that disintegrate per second is called the activity of the radioactive
material. The unit of the activity is called the Becquerel, Bq

activity = number of nuclei which decayed/time taken in seconds

1 Bq = 1 disintegration (decay) per second

(a) Alpha (α) decay

During alpha decay, an unstable nucleus emits 2 protons and 2 neutrons as single particle ,
known as alpha particle, that travels at high speed. Therefore an alpha particle is a
nucleus of a helium atom. When an atom decays by α emission, its mass number decreases
by 4 and its atomic number decreases by 2.
AX -------------------------> A-4 Y + 4He
Z Z-2 2

(parentnuclide) (daughter nuclide) α-particle

e.g. 226Ra -------------------> 86222Rn + 4 He

88 2

238U ------------------> 90234Th + 4 He

92 2

*Note: when an element decays by emission of an alpha particle it turns into an element
with chemical properties similar to those of an element two places earlier in the periodic
table.

(b) Beta (β) decay

In a beta decay, a neutron changes to a proton and an electron. The proton remains in the
nucleus but the electron escapes at high speeds in form of a beta particle. The new nucleus
has the same mass number but its atomic number increases by one.

A A
Z X ------------------------> Z+1 Y
+ -1 0e
(parent nuclide) (daughter nuclide)
(β-particle)

e.g. 14C -----------------------------> 14N

6 7
-1
0
e
19
40K ------------------------> 20
40Ar +
0
-1 e
+
*Note: When an element disintegrates by emission of β-particle it turns into an element
with properties similar to those of an element one place later in the periodic table.

(c) Gamma radiation

After emitting α-particle or β-particle, some nuclei are left still in an excited state, i.e. has
surplus energy and therefore unstable. So such nucleus emits this energy as γ-radiation/rays.
When a nucleus undergoes gamma decay, it keeps the same atomic number Z and the same
mass number A. The gamma radiation only carries away energy so that the nucleus
becomes more stable.

Note: Cobalt-60 and Radium-226 are common gamma emitting nuclides.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYnfLcHDbZ8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c9WfZJYUWv0
https://youtu.be/u0L3vG9XSyw?t=645

https://youtu.be/vZQkNdCvMRE

Detection of radioactive emissions

Most methods of detection depend on the fact that all three radiations can ionize air
molecules.

a) Photographic paper or film: https://youtu.be/igVGe9EwY4U

Radiation can affect photographic film in much the same way as light or X-rays.

b) The gold-leaf electroscope: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVCyaAEoMAI

a charged electroscope discharges if a radioactive isotope is moved to the cap. The

radioactive emissions ionize the surrounding air molecules. If the electroscope is
negatively charged, the positively charged ions are attracted to the cap and the charge
on the electroscope is neutralized. If the electroscope is positively charged the electrons
which were removed from the air molecules are attracted to the electroscope.

c) Geiger-Muller tube: https://youtu.be/KmOYdVk73S8

G.M tube contains argon gas that ionizes when radiation passes through, thereby
creating ions and electrons. The positive ions move towards the cathode and
negative electrons move to the anode. This produces some electric current which
will be fed to a scaler or ratemeter.

Scaler- counts pulses and shows total received in a certain time.

Ratemeter – gives counts per seconds. Some have a loudspeaker which would give a
‘click’ per each count.
Other detectors are i) spark counter, ii) ionization detector and iii) cloud chamber

HALF-LIFE (https://youtu.be/zXw2cOSBB8E)
Some isotopes decay much more rapidly than others. Scientists measure the decay rate of
an isotope in the form of half-lives.

Half-life is defined as the time taken for half the original number of radioactive nuclides to
decay or the time taken for the activity of a radioactive isotope to fall to half its original
value. This time is the same no matter what the original activity is.

Example: Thoron gas is radioactive and has a half-life of 52 s. the table shows how the
amount of thoron is halved every 52 s.

Time/s 0 52 104 156 208

Mass 120 60 30 15 7.5

of
thoron/g

Fraction 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/

16
remaining

*very unstable nuclides decays quickly than one with greater stability but in every case the
rate of radioactive

decay is proportional to number of nuclei present.

Rate of decay α N

Rate of decay = λN
where N = number of nuclei present

λ = is a constant
EXAMPLES

Isotope Type of emission Half-life

Uranium-235 α 700 million

years 5 700
Carbon- 14 β
years
Cobalt-60 β, γ
5 years
Sodium-24 β
15 hours
Strontium-93 β, γ
8 minutes
Barium- 143 β
12 seconds
Polonium- 123 α
4 x 10-6 seconds
A graph for radioactive decay (Decay curve):https://youtu.be/zXw2cOSBB8E
The graph is known as exponential curve. Even though the curve falls, it never quite reaches
x-axis. The graph shows that activity reduces by the same fraction in successive equal time.
E.g.

If the curve falls from 80 counts/s to 40 counts/s in 10 min, then from 40 counts/s to 20
counts/s in the next 10 min, from 20 to 10 counts/s in the 3rd 10 min and so on, half-life is
then 10 min.

*If count rate is N at time t1 and has fallen to N/2 at time t2 then half-life t1/2 is t2 – t1.
Similarly, if the count

rate has fallen to N/4 at time t3, the half-life is t3 – t2.

If at the beginning there are N undecayed nuclei, after 1 half-life there will be N/2, after a
second half-life there will be ½ x N/2 = N/4, after third half-life there will be ½ x N/4 = N/8
undecayed nuclei, etc.

17.1.4 Uses of radioactivity

1. Thickness gauges:

https://youtu.be/hZ6TWGD_am4?t=545

Radioactive isotopes help manufacturers to check and carefully control the thickness of
product like duplicating machines paper.

a radioactive isotope is placed on one side of the material and a detector on

the other side.
 The amount of particles (radiation) reaching the detector is monitored closely
by the machine operator or control unit. If the thickness of the material
(paper) increases, fewer particles will reach the detector and visa versa

*The isotope has to be chosen to suit the requirements of the manufacturer.

For example, an alpha emitting isotope would be suitable choice for a
paper factory and a beta source would be more suitable for a steel mill.
Gamma sources are not suitable since gamma is a very penetrating
radiation
.
2. Sterilization of surgical equipment:

https://youtu.be/hZ6TWGD_am4?t=545

Surgical equipment is placed in sealed bags and then exposed to short bursts of gamma
radiation. The gamma rays kill any microbes inside the bag and the contents will remain
sterile until the bag is opened.

Penetrating gamma rays from cobalt-60 are used to kill cancer cells in the body.

3. Long-life fruits and vegetables: Many fruits are also exposed to short bursts of gamma
radiation. The

gamma rays kill any micro-organisms which may be inside the fruit, reducing the
chances of the fruit rotting

whilst on the shop shelves.

4. Medical tracers- https://youtu.be/hZ6TWGD_am4?t=545

some isotopes are used as tracers to see the performance of specific organs in the body
such as kidneys or the thyroid gland. The patient will be given a liquid containing iodine- 123,
a gamma emitter and a detector would then be used to measure the activity of the tracer to
find out how quickly iodine becomes concentrated in the gland.

5. Radioactive isotopes can be used as tracers to detect leaks in underground pipes for gas,
water and sewage. A small amount of gamma radiation source is injected into the pipe and
the leak can later be detected with Geiger- Muller tube.
https://youtu.be/hZ6TWGD_am4?t=545
6. In Agriculture isotopes can be used:- i) as tracers to find how fertilisers and other
nutrients are used in

plants. ii) to alter genes in seeds to produce genetically modified plants with
superior qualities to natural

plants.
7. Carbon dating: this technique is used by historians and archaeologists to estimate age of
historic artefacts

and also it is used by geologists to estimate the age of rocks and fossils.

Dangers ofRadiation

The danger from alpha particles is slight.

Large doses of beta and gamma rays can cause radiation burn

Gamma rays can penetrate deep into the body and destroy cells inside the body or
cause cells to multiply uncontrollably forming cancer or damage chromosomes
causing genetic defects (mutation).

Safe handling and storage of radioactive isotopes:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F-NvpqGEfJ0

Even when a radioactive material emits low levels of radiation, (e.g. materials used in school
laboratories), it must be handed with extreme care.

Handling:

Always handle isotopes using forceps or special gloves

Keep away from eyes. Do not point the source towards any person.

Always wash hands after handling.

Storage

Keep the samples in special boxes lined with lead

Store the boxes in a locked cupboard

Disposal of radioactive waste

Burn low-level waste or bury it in the ground or release it into the sea

High-level waste in steel drums are buried in disused mines or granite caves or
bedded in concrete and dumped in deep oceans. Or stored at special factories for
re-processing.

Background Radiation:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z7394DMkfQs

It is low level radiation that is always present around, mainly because of radioactive
materials in the ground and air. Every person on Earth is exposed to this form of radiation.
Major sources are:

Rocks
Soils and underground water
Cosmic and solar rays

Food and drinks

Man-made radiation

Buildings
DETECTING ALPHA, BETA PARTICLES AND GAMMA RAYS BY INVRESTIGATING
PENETRATING ABILITY - EXAMPLE:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-N0pb40ZWI

detecting radiation

The source is a piece of radium which emits all the three types of radiation.
X Y

Switch on the meter and record the background radiation.

Set the source at position X and take a reading all the three radiation.

Put a sheet of paper at Y (between the source and the G. M tube)and take a reading
for beta gamma rays.

Put a 3 mm sheet of aluminium at Y and take the reading for gamma rays only.

In each case subtract the background radiation from the meter reading

A typical set of results is shown below on the table

Material at Y Meter Background Radiation Reading -

detected
reading background

None 186 6 α, β, γ 180

Paper 126 6 Β, γ 120

Aluminium (3 87 6 γ 81
mm)

Using these results:

The alpha radiation is

The beta radiation is
180 – 120 = 60
The gamma radiation is
120 – 81 = 39
= 81
Nuclear fission

Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus (such as U-235) by hitting it with a neutron
into two nearly equal smaller nuclei and two or three neutrons. The lost mass appears as
energy.

A beam of neutrons is directed at the uranium atom. If a neutron strikes a nucleus of U-235,
this splits into two roughly equal parts, and shoots out two or three neutrons as well. If
these neutrons hit other U-235 nuclei, they make them split and give out more neutrons.
And so on. This process is known as a chain reaction.
235U + 01 n -------> 56144Ba + 3690Kr + 2 01 n
92

If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, huge numbers of nuclei are split in a very short time.
The heat builds up so rapidly that the material bursts apart into an explosion. This happens
in a nuclear (atomic) bomb. If the chain reaction is controlled, there is a steady output of
heat. This happens in a nuclear reactor.

A NUCLEAR REACTOR: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UHZ_KDplY-M

In nuclear reactors, fission is carried out in a controlled way. Reactors use naturally
occurring uranium, U-235 and U-238 but only U-235 undergoes fission with slow neutrons.
Neutrons from the fuel rods go into graphite core, where they collide with graphite atoms
and lose K.E. The graphite is called a moderator because it slows down the neutrons. The
neutrons then pass into fuel rod (which consists of uranium) and cause fission. The boron
steel rods control the rate of fission by absorbing some neutrons. The heat generated by
nuclear fission warms a coolant fluid which circulates through the moderator. The coolant
may be water or gas CO2 . The heat is used to turn water into steam. The steam drives the
turbines and generates electricity.
Nuclear fusion

In fission a heavy nucleus split in two to release energy. On the other hand in nuclear fusion
the opposite is done to produce large amounts of energy.

Nuclear fusion is the combination of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, e.g. two
nuclei of hydrogen-2 (deuterium) can be combined to form a nucleus of helium-3.
2 2 3 1
1 H + 1 H --------------> 2 He + 0 n
For two nuclei to fuse, they must be brought sufficiently close to each other. But it is
difficult to do this as they repel each other with large electrical force. To overcome this
repulsion, the nuclei have to be heated to high temperature (e.g. 108 K) so that they gain
enough K.E.

The sun obtains its energy from nuclear fusion. In the sun the temperature is about
10 million °C and the hydrogen-2 atoms have enough energy to fuse.

Uncontrolled fusion on Earth can result with hydrogen bomb. Initial high
temperature required is obtained by using an atomic (nuclear) bomb to trigger off
fusion. A hydrogen bomb releases much more energy than an atomic bomb.

Nuclear energy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rcOFV4y5z8c

In radioactive changes (or nuclear reaction), a little bit of mass disappears (this is called
mass defect), and equivalent amount of energy appears as kinetic energy of the formed
particles.

The relationship between these mass and energy can be given by the following equation
(formulated by Albert Einstein)

E = mc2
where c = speed of light, 3 x 10 m/s

E.G :- When radium decays into radon, about 1/40 000 0f the mass of each decaying atom
disappears. Calculate

the energy released from 1 g (1/ 1000 kg) when it decays to radon.

Data: m = mass disappearing = (1/400 000) x (1/1000 kg) = 1/(4 x 107) = 2.5 x 10-8 kg

c = 3 x 108 m/s

E = mc2
= 2.5 x 10-8 x (3 x 108)2

= 2.25 x 109 J