Probability and Vector Spaces.

Department of Mathematics
Jain Global campus, Jakkasandra Post, Kanakapura Taluk, Ramanagara District -562112

MODULE 3:
VECTOR SPACES

Department of Mathematics
FET-JAIN (Deemed-to-be University)
Table of Content
• Aim
• Objective
• Introduction.
• Linear span.
• Vector spaces & subspaces
• Linear independence and dependence.
• Basis, and dimension.
• The four fundamental subspaces.
• Self Assessments
• Summary
• Terminal Questions
• Reference Links*
• Thank You
Aim

To equip students in the fundamental concepts of vector

space and subspaces. Also Familiarize the prospective
engineers with techniques in Vector spaces, Linear
transformations, Linear span, Linear independence and
dependence, basis and dimension, the four fundamental
subspaces.
 • State axioms used in the definition of a real vector space and

subspace.

• Describe the examples of real vector space and subspaces.

• Define the terms linear dependence and linear independence.

• Define the term basis for a finitely generated vector space.

• Describe the examples of finitely generated vector spaces and

Objective give a basis for each vector space.

• Define the term dimension of a vector space.

• Describe an example of a infinite dimensional vector space.

• Describe four fundamental subspaces.

Introduction

The importance of linear algebra for applications has risen in direct proportion to the
increase in computing power, with each new generation of hardware and software
triggering a demand for even greater capabilities.
Computer science is thus intricately linked with linear algebra through the explosive
growth of parallel processing and large-scale computations.
Pre-requisites

Elementary transformations of a matrix:

The following are the elementary row transformations of a matrix. The
transformations can be applied for columns.
1. The interchange of any two rows (columns).
2. The multiplication of any row (column) by a non-zero constant.
3. The addition of a constant multiple of the elements of any row (column)
to the corresponding elements of any other row (column).
Some Selected Applications
➢ Vector space model or term vector model is an algebraic model for
representing text documents (and any objects, in general) as vectors of
identifiers (such as index terms). It is used in information filtering,
information retrieval, indexing and relevancy rankings.
➢ The Vector Space Model is an algebraic model used for Information
Retrieval. It represent natural language document in a formal manner by
the use of vectors in a multi-dimensional space, and allows decisions to
be made as to which documents are similar to each other and to the
queries fired.
➢ Vectors are used in many programming languages as data structure
containers. They have a dynamic structure and provide programmers with
the ability to allocate container size and memory space quickly. In this
sense, vectors can be thought of as dynamic arrays.
 Vector Spaces
Let 𝐹 be a field, 𝑉 be non-empty set for every ordered pair ∝, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉 . Let there be defined uniquely a sum ∝ + 𝛽
and for every ∝ ∈ 𝑉 and 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹 a scalar product 𝑐. ∝ in 𝑉.The set 𝑉 is called a vector space over the field 𝐹, If the
following axioms are satisfied for every ∝, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉 and for every 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ∈ 𝐹.

1. If ∀∝, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉 then ∝ + 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉 → closed law

2. If ∀∝, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉 then ∝ + 𝛽 = 𝛽 + ∝ → commutative law
3. If ∀∝, 𝛽, 𝛾 ∈ 𝑉 then ∝ + 𝛽 + 𝛾 =∝ +( 𝛽 + 𝛾) → Associative under addition
4. If ∀∝∈ 𝑉 , ∃0 ∈ 𝑉, ∃ ∝ +0 = 0 +∝=∝∈ 𝑉 → Existence of zero vector
5. If ∀∝∈ 𝑉 , ∃ −∝∈ 𝑉 , ∃ ∝ +(−∝) = (−∝) +∝= 0 → Existence of inverse
6. If for any 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∝∈ 𝑉 , then 𝑐. ∝∈ 𝑉 → Scalar multiplication
7. If for any 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∝, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉, then 𝑐 ∝ + 𝛽 = 𝑐 ∝ +𝑐𝛽.
8. If ∀𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ∈ 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∝∈ 𝑉 , then (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 ) ∝= 𝑐1 ∝ +𝑐2 ∝ .
9. If ∀𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ∈ 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∝∈ 𝑉 , then 𝑐1 𝑐2 ∝ = (𝑐1 . 𝑐2 ) ∝ .
10. If ∀∝∈ 𝑉 , ∃ 1 ∈ 𝐹 , ∃ 1 . ∝= ∝→ Existence of multiplicative inverse.
To Show that a Set with Two Operations is a Vector Space:
Step 1: Identify the set 𝑉of objects that will become vectors.
Step 2: Identify the addition and scalar multiplication operations on 𝑉.
Step 3: Verify Axioms 1 and 6; that is, adding two vectors in 𝑉 produces a vector in 𝑉, and multiplying a vector
in 𝑉 by a scalar also produces a vector in 𝑉. Axiom 1 is called closure under addition and Axiom 6 is called
closure under Multiplication.
Step 4: Confirm that Axioms 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10 hold.

Note:
1. The elements of the vector space 𝑉 are called vectors.
2. The set 𝑀of all 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices is a vector space under the matrix addition and scalar multiplication.
3. For 𝑛 ≥ 0, the set 𝑃𝑛 of polynomials of degree utmost 𝑛 consists of all polynomials of the form 𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑎0 +
𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 +. . . +𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 is a vector space.
Problems
1. Let 𝑽 be the set of all positive real numbers where addition is defined by 𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝒙𝒚 and scalar multiplication
is defined by 𝒌𝒙 = 𝒙𝒌 . Determine whether 𝑽 is vector space.
Solution:
𝑉 = 𝑅+
I. If ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 + then 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 + → closed law.
II. If ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 + then 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥 = 𝑦 + 𝑥 → commutative law
III. If ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅+ then (𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧) = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧
= 𝑥 𝑦𝑧
= 𝑥𝑦 𝑧
= 𝑥+𝑦 𝑧
= 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 → Associative under addition
IV. If ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅+ , ∃ 1 ∈ 𝑅+ , ∃ 𝑥 + 1 = 1 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅+
Here 1 act as a zero vector which is identity under addition
1 1 1 1
V. If ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 + , ∃ ∈ 𝑅+ , ∃ 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑥. 𝑥 = 1. Here act as a inverse under addition
𝑥 𝑥
VI.If ∀ 𝑘 ∈ 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 + , 𝑘. 𝑥 = 𝑥. 𝑥. 𝑥. … … … . 𝑥(k times) = 𝑥 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅+
VII. If ∀ 𝑘 ∈ 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅+ , 𝑘. (𝑥 + 𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑘 = (𝑥. 𝑦)𝑘 = 𝑥 𝑘 . 𝑦 𝑘
= (𝑘𝑥)(𝑘𝑦)
= 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦
VIII. If ∀𝑘1 , 𝑘2 ∈ 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅+ , 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑘1 +𝑘2
= 𝑥 𝑘1 . 𝑥 𝑘2 = 𝑥 𝑘 . 𝑦 𝑘
= 𝑘1 𝑥. 𝑘2 𝑥
= 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑥
IX. If ∀𝑘1 , 𝑘2 ∈ 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅+ , 𝑘1 (𝑘2 𝑥) = (𝑘2 𝑥)𝑘1
= (𝑥 𝑘2 )𝑘1
= 𝑥 𝑘1𝑘2
= (𝑘1 𝑘2 )𝑥
X. If ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑅+ ∃ 1 ∈ 𝐹 ∃ 1. 𝑥 = 𝑥 1 = 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅+
This proves existence identity under multiplication.
Hence 𝑉 = 𝑅+ is a vector space over the field.
2.Prove that the set 𝑽𝒏 of all ordered 𝒏 −tuples of real numbers is a vector space.
Solution:

Let 𝑢 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ), 𝑣 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , . . . , 𝑦𝑛 ), & 𝑤 = (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , . . . , 𝑧𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑉 and all scalars 𝑘&𝑚

(i)𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) + (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , . . . , 𝑦𝑛 ) = (𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑉

(ii)𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑣 + 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉

(iii)𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤) = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) + ((𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , . . . , 𝑦𝑛 ) + (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , . . . , 𝑧𝑛 ))

= (𝑥1 + 𝑦1 + 𝑧1 , 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑧𝑛 )

= (𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛 ) + (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , . . . , 𝑧𝑛 )

= (𝑣 + 𝑢) + 𝑤

(iv)There exists 0 = (0,0, . . . , 0) such that 𝑢 + 0 = 0 + 𝑢 = 𝑢∀𝑢

(v)For 𝑢 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) there exists −𝑢 = (−𝑥1 , −𝑥2 , . . . , −𝑥𝑛 ) such that 𝑢 + (−𝑢) = 0 = (−𝑢) + 𝑢
 (vi) 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑘 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑘𝑥1 , 𝑘𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑘𝑥𝑛 ∈ 𝑉

(vii) 𝑘(𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑘((𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) + (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , . . . , 𝑦𝑛 )) = 𝑘(𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛 )

= (𝑘𝑥1 + 𝑘𝑦1 , 𝑘𝑥2 + 𝑘𝑦2 , . . . , 𝑘𝑥𝑛 + 𝑘𝑦𝑛 )
= 𝑘(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) + 𝑘(𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , . . . , 𝑦𝑛

(viii) (𝑘 + 𝑚)𝑢 = (𝑘 + 𝑚)(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) = ((𝑘 + 𝑚)𝑥1 , (𝑘 + 𝑚)𝑥2 , . . . , (𝑘 + 𝑚)𝑥𝑛

= (𝑘𝑥1 , 𝑘𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑘𝑥𝑛 ) + (𝑚𝑥1 , 𝑚𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑚𝑥𝑛 )
= 𝑘𝑢 + 𝑚𝑢
𝑰𝑿 𝑘(𝑚𝑢) = 𝑘(𝑚𝑥1 , 𝑚𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑚𝑥𝑛 ) = (𝑘𝑚𝑥1 , 𝑘𝑚𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑘𝑚𝑥𝑛 ) = 𝑘𝑚(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) = 𝑘𝑚(𝑢)

(x) 1. 𝑢 = 1. (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) = 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉

∴The 𝑉𝑛 of 𝑛 −tuples is a vector space.

3.Let 𝑽 be the set of all ordered pairs (𝒙, 𝒚) where 𝒙, 𝒚 are real number Let 𝒖 = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and 𝒗 = (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) be two elements in
𝑽. Define the addition as 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 = (𝟐𝒙𝟏 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 ) and the scalar multiplication as 𝒌 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 =
𝒙𝟏 𝒚
(𝒌 , 𝒌 𝟏 ). Show that 𝑽 is not vector space.
𝟑 𝟑

Solution:
Let 𝑢 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ), 𝑣 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , . . . , 𝑦𝑛 ), &𝑤 = (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , . . . , 𝑧𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑉and all scalars 𝑘&𝑚
(i) Communicative law : For some 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑅2
Consider 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 = (2𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) ≠ (2𝑥2 − 3𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) ≠ 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ≠ 𝑣 + 𝑢
Hence, commutative law does not hold good.
(ii)Associative law :
𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤) = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 + ( 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 + 𝑥3 , 𝑦3 )
= 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 + (2𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦3 )
= 2𝑥1 − 6𝑥2 + 9𝑥3 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 + 𝑦3
(𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤 = ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) + 𝑥3 , 𝑦3
= 2𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 + 𝑥3 , 𝑦3
= (2(2𝑥1 −3𝑥2 ) − 3(𝑥3 ) , (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) − 𝑦3
= 4𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 ) − 3(𝑥3 ) , (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) − 𝑦3
𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤) ≠ (𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤
Hence, associative law does not hold good.
Thus 𝑣2 𝑅 is not vector space.
3.Let 𝑽 be the set of all ordered pairs (𝒙, 𝒚) where 𝒙, 𝒚 are real number Let 𝒖 = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and 𝒗 = (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) be two elements in
𝑽. Define the addition as 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 = (𝟐𝒙𝟏 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 ) and the scalar multiplication as 𝒌 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 =
𝒙𝟏 𝒚
(𝒌 , 𝒌 𝟏 ). Show that 𝑽 is not vector space.
𝟑 𝟑

Solution:
Subspace

Let 𝒘 be a non-empty subset of a vector space 𝑉, then 𝑤 is said to be a subspace of 𝑉 if 𝑤 is a vector space under
vector addition and scalar multiplication as in 𝑉.

Note: The set {0} consists of zero vectors of 𝑉 and the whole set {𝑉} of 𝑉 are called trivial or improper subspaces
of 𝑉, all other subspaces of 𝑉are called the non-trivial subspaces of 𝑉.

Theorem

A non-empty subset 𝑤 of a vector space 𝑉is a subspace of 𝑉 if the following conditions are satisfied

(a) If 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑤 then 𝛼 + 𝛽 ∈ 𝑤
(b) If 𝛼 ∈ 𝑤 and a scalar, 𝑘 then 𝑘𝛼 ∈ 𝑤
OR
If 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ∈ 𝐹 then 𝑐1 𝛼1 + 𝑐2 𝛽1 ∈ 𝑤
Problems
1. Let 𝑽 = 𝑹𝟑 the vector space of all ordered triplets of real numbers, over the field of real numbers. Show that
the subset 𝒘 = (𝒙, 𝟎, 𝟎)/𝒙 ∈ 𝑹 is a subspace of 𝑹𝟑 .
Solution:
Given = 𝑅3 , 𝑤 ⊂ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 = 𝑅
a) Let ∝= (𝑥1 , 0,0), 𝛽 = (𝑥2 , 0,0) ∈ 𝑤
∝ +𝛽 = (𝑥1 , 0,0) + (𝑥2 , 0,0) = (𝑥1 +𝑥2 , 0,0) ∈ 𝑤
Hence w is closed under addition

b) ∀∝= 𝑥1 , 0,0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅

𝑐. ∝= 𝑐. (𝑥1 , 0,0) = (𝑐𝑥1 , 0,0) ∈ 𝑤
w is closed under multiplication
Thus w is a subspace of under 𝑅3 over F.
2. Show that the subset 𝒘 = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒙𝟑 )/𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 +𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎 of the vector space 𝑽𝟑 (𝑹) is a subspace of 𝑽𝟑 (𝑹).
Solution:
Let ∝= (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ), 𝛽 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 ) ∈ 𝑉3 (𝑅) ⊃ 𝑤(F=R)
Now ∝, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ∈ 𝑅
𝑐1 𝛼1 + 𝑐2 𝛽1 = 𝑐1 (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) + 𝑐2 (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 )
= (𝑐1 𝑥1 , 𝑐1 𝑥2 , 𝑐1 𝑥3 ) + (𝑐2 𝑦1 , 𝑐2 𝑦2 , 𝑐2 𝑦3 )
= 𝑐1 𝑥1 + 𝑐2 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑥2 + 𝑐2 𝑦2 + 𝑐2 𝑦3 +𝑐1 𝑥3
= 𝑐1 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑐2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3
= 𝑐1 . 0 + 𝑐2 . 0 = 0
Hence w is a subspace of 𝑉3 (𝑅).
3. Is the subset 𝒘 = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒙𝟑 )/𝒙𝟐𝟏 +𝒙𝟐𝟐 +𝒙𝟐𝟑 ≤ 𝟏 of the vector space 𝑽𝟑 (𝑹) is a subspace of 𝑽𝟑 (𝑹).
Solution:
Consider Let ∝= (1,0,0), 𝛽 = (0 , 1, 0) ∈ 𝑤
∝ +𝛽 = (1,0,0) + (0 , 1, 0)
= (1,1,0)
= 12 + 12 + 02
=2≰1
∝ +𝛽 ≠ 𝑤
Hence, w is not a subspace of 𝑉3 (𝑅)
4.Which of the following set of real functions of f(x) defined on 𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟏 are the subspaces of a vector space of
all such functions over the field of real numbers?
(a) All polynomials of degree less than five.
(b) All polynomial of degree 3.
Solution:
Given 𝑉 = 𝐹(𝑅), where F is vector space over field R

a) Let ∀ 𝑓1 (𝑥), 𝑓2 (𝑥) ∈ 𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ∈ 𝑅

where 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 are polynomials of degree less than five.
𝑐1 . 𝑓1 (𝑥) + 𝑐2 . 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝑓3 (𝑥) ∈ 𝑤
where 𝑓3 (𝑥) is polynomial of degree less than five
a) Let for some 𝑓3 (𝑥), 𝑓4 (𝑥) ∈ 𝑤
where 𝑓3 , 𝑓4 are polynomials of degree less than three
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓3 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
𝑓4 (𝑥) = − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4
𝑓3 (𝑥) + 𝑓4 (𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3 ∉ 𝑤 (Since it is not a polynomial of degree three)
Hence V is not a vector space over the field R.
5.Let 𝑺 = (𝒙, 𝟐𝒙, −𝟑𝒙, 𝒙) in 𝑽𝟒 , show that 𝑺 is a subspace of 𝑽𝟒
Solution:
Let 𝑢 = (𝑥, 2𝑥, −3𝑥, 𝑥)&𝑣 = (𝑦, 2𝑦, −3𝑦, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑆
Consider
(i) 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑥, 2𝑥, −3𝑥, 𝑥) + (𝑦, 2𝑦, −3𝑦, 𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑦, 2𝑥 + 2𝑦, −3𝑥 − 3𝑦, 𝑥 + 𝑦) ∈ 𝑆
(ii) 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑘(𝑥, 2𝑥, −3𝑥, 𝑥) = (𝑘𝑥, 2𝑘𝑥, −3𝑘𝑥, 𝑘𝑥) ∈ 𝑆
Thus, 𝑆is closed under vector addition and scalar multiplication
Therefore, 𝑆 = {(𝑥, 2𝑥, −3𝑥, 𝑥)/𝑥 ∈ 𝑅} is a subspace of 𝑉4 .
6. Is the set (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)/𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 ≤ 𝟏 is a subspace of 𝑹𝟑 or not?
Solution : Let 𝑆 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑅3 / 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ≤ 1and𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅
Suppose 𝑢 = (1,0,0)&𝑣 = (0,1,0) ∈ 𝑆
Consider 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (1,0,0) + (0,1,0) = (1,1,0) = 12 + 12 + 02 = 2 ≤ӏ 1
⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∉ 𝑆 ∴ 𝑆 is not closed under vector addition
Hence, 𝑆 is not a subspace of 𝑅3
1. Show that the set V in a vector space over the field F mentioned under usual addition and scalar
𝒙 𝟎
multiplication where 𝑽 = , 𝒙, 𝒚 ∈ 𝑹 and 𝑹 = 𝑭.
𝟎 𝒚

2. Construct a subset of xy-plane in 𝑹𝟐 is

(i) Closed under vector addition but not scalar multiplication
(ii) Closed under scalar multiplication but not vector addition.

3. Prove that the set of all solutions (𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄) of the equation 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒄 = 𝟎 is a subspace of 𝑹𝟑 .
 Linear Combination of Vectors:A vector 𝑣 is said to be a linear combination of 𝑛 −vectors of 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛
of a vector space 𝑉 if 𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 +. . . +𝑐𝑛 𝑢𝑛 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑐𝑖 𝑢𝑖 = 𝑣 for some scalars 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , . . . , 𝑐𝑛 .

Span of Set:
Let 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 be 𝑛 −vectors in 𝑅𝑛 , then the set of all linear combinations of 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 denoted by
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 and is called the subset of 𝑅𝑛 spanned (or generated) by 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 .
i.e. 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 is the collection of all vectors that can be expressed as linear combinations of
𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 .

i.e If 𝑏 ∈ 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 +. . . +𝑐𝑛 𝑢𝑛 for some scalars 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , . . . , 𝑐𝑛 .

The span of subset 𝑆 of a vector space 𝑉is denoted by 𝑆 .

Linear Independence:
If 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 are 𝑛 −vectors of a vector space 𝑉, then 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 are said to be linearly independent
(LI) if 𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 +. . . +𝑐𝑛 𝑢𝑛 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑖 = 0 for some scalars 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , . . . , 𝑐𝑛 .
Linear dependence:
If 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 are 𝑛 −vectors of a vector space 𝑉, then 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 are said to be linearly dependent
(LD) if 𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 +. . . +𝑐𝑛 𝑢𝑛 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑖 ≠ 0 for scalars 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , . . . , 𝑐𝑛 .
Basis and Dimension:
A basis for a vector space is a set of vectors having two properties
a. It is linearly independent and
b. It spans the space
(or)
A subset 𝐵 of a vector space 𝑉 is said to be a basis for 𝑉 if
a. 𝐵 is linearly independent and
b. [𝐵] = 𝑉
Dimension
If a vector space 𝑉 has a basis consisting of a finite number of elements, then the
space is said to be finite dimensional and the number of elements in a basis is called
the dimension of the space and it is denoted by 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑉.
 Problems
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
1. Express as a linear combination of 𝒖𝟏 = , 𝒖𝟐 =
𝟒 𝟏 −𝟐
Solution:
We need to find scalars 𝑎and 𝑏such that
2 2 2
=𝑎 +𝑏
4 1 −2
This gives to solving a system of linear equations
2𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 2(1)
𝑎 − 2𝑏 = 4(2)
On solving (1) & (2), we get
𝑎 = 2&𝑏 = −1
2 2 2
Now we can write as a linear combination of & as follows:
4 1 −2
2 2 2
=2 + (−1)
4 1 −2
 2
Geometrically speaking, this means that the vector is the diagonal of the parallelogram determined by
4
2 2 2 2
2 &(−1) . The original vectors & are shown below together with the parallelogram and its
1 −2 1 −2
diagonal.
2. Express the vector (𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟐) as a linear combination of the vector (𝟏, 𝟏, 𝟎) , (𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟎) , (𝟎, 𝟎, 𝟏) 𝒐𝒇 𝑽𝟑 (𝑹)

Solution:

To express the vector (3,5,2) as a linear combination

We have to find the values of 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐3 . Such that

𝑐1 (1,1,0) + 𝑐2 (2,3,0) + 𝑐3 (0,0,1) = (3,5,2)

𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 0. 𝑐3 = 3

𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 + 0. 𝑐3 = 5

0. 𝑐1 + 0. 𝑐2 + 1. 𝑐3 = 2

Solving we get
𝑐1 = −1, 𝑐2 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐3 = 2

Thus (−1)(1,1,0) + 2(2,3,0) + 2(0,0,1) = (3,5,2) is the required vector

3.let 𝒔 = {(𝟏, −𝟑, 𝟐) , (𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟏) , (𝟏, 𝟏, 𝟏)} 𝒃e a subset of 𝒐𝒇 𝑽𝟑 (𝑹) Show that the vector (𝟑, −𝟕, 𝟔) is in 𝑳(𝑺)
Solution:

To prove (3, −7,6) ∈ 𝐿(𝑠)

We have to find the values of 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐. Such that

𝑎(1, −3,2) + 𝑏(2,4,1) + 𝑐(1,1,1) = (3, −7,6)

𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 3

−3𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 𝑐 = −7

2𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 6

Solving

we get 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 3

Thus (3, −7,6) is in 𝐿(𝑆),

4.Show that the vector (𝟐, −𝟓, 𝟑) ∈ 𝑽𝟑 (𝑹) is not in 𝑳(𝑺) where 𝒔 = {(𝟏, −𝟑, 𝟐) , (𝟐, −𝟒, −𝟏) , (𝟏, −𝟓, 𝟕)}

Solution:
If (2, −5,3) ∈ 𝐿(𝑆) Then the values x,y,z such that
𝑥(1, −3,2) + 𝑦(2, −4, −1) + 𝑧(1, −5,7) = (2, −5,3)

1 2 1 : 2
𝐴: 𝐵 = −3 −4 −5 : −5 and 𝐴 = 0 implies 𝐴−1 does not exit we may or may not
2 −1 7 : 3
have solution.
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 + 3𝑅1
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1

1 2 1 : 2
𝐴: 𝐵 = 0 1 −1 : 1/2
0 0 0 : 3/2
𝜌 𝐴: 𝐵 ≠ 𝜌 𝐴
No solution for the system, hence (2, −5,3) ∉ 𝐿(𝑆)
5. Determine whether the polynomial 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + 𝟓. Is the linear span of the set 𝑺 = { 𝒙𝟑 , 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙, 𝒙𝟐 +𝟐, 𝟏 − 𝒙 }
of the vector space of all polynomials over the field 𝑹.
Solution:
Let 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 5 ∈ 𝐿[𝑆] Then we have to find the values of 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 , 𝑘3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘4 such that
3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 5 = 𝑘1 𝑥 3 + 𝑘2 ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) + 𝑘3 ( 𝑥 2 +2) + 𝑘4 (1 − 𝑥)
0. 𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 5 = 𝑘1 𝑥 3 + (𝑘2 + 𝑘3 )𝑥 2 + (2𝑘2 − 𝑘4 )𝑥 + 2𝑘3 + 𝑘4
𝑘1 = 0 , 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 = 3 , 2𝑘2 − 𝑘4 = 1 and 2𝑘3 + 𝑘4 = 5

1 1 0 : 3 𝑘2
𝐴: 𝐵 = 2 0 −1 : 1 ,𝑋= 𝑘3 and 𝐴 = 0 implies 𝐴−1 does not exit we may or may not
0 2 1 : 5 𝑘4
have solution.
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1
1 1 0 : 3
= 0 −2 −1 : −5
0 2 1 : 5
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅1
1 1 0 : 3
= 0 −2 −1 : −5
0 0 0 : 0
 𝜌 𝐴: 𝐵 = 𝜌 𝐴 = 2 < 3

Since 2 equations and 3 unknowns, 3-2=1 arbitrary can be chosen to solve the system

Let 𝑘4 = 𝑎

Solving 𝑘2 = 1/2 + 𝑎/2 and 𝑘3 = 5/2 − 𝑎/2

𝑘1 0
𝑘2 1/2 + 𝑎/2
= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅
𝑘3 5/2 − 𝑎/2
𝑘3 𝑎
6.Show that the set 𝒔 = {(𝟏, 𝟎, 𝟏) , (𝟏, 𝟏, 𝟎) , (−𝟏, 𝟎, −𝟏)} is linearly dependent in 𝑽𝟑 (𝑹)
Solution:
To find 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐3 all not zeros such that
𝑐1 (1,0,1) + 𝑐2 (1,1,0) + 𝑐3 (−1,0, −1) = 0
1 1 −1 𝑐1 0
0 1 0 𝑐2 = 0 and 𝐴 = 0 we have non trivial solution
1 0 −1 𝑐3 0
1 1 −1 : 0
𝐴: 𝐵 = 0 1 0 : 0
1 0 −1 : 0
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1

1 1 −1 : 0
= 0 1 0 : 0
0 −1 0 : 0
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅2

1 1 −1 : 0
= 0 1 0 : 0
0 0 0 : 0
 Since 2 equations and 3 unknowns, 3-2=1 arbitrary can be chosen to solve the system
Let 𝑐3 = 𝑘
Solving
𝑐2 = 0 and 𝑐1 = 𝑘
Thus, the given vectors are linearly dependent.
7.Check the linear dependence or independence of the vectors 𝒗𝟏 = (𝟏, 𝟏, 𝟏) , 𝒗𝟐 = (𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝟑 =
(𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟖).
Solution:
Let if possible 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐3 all not zeros such that
𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + 𝑐3 𝑣3 = 0
𝑐1 (1,1,1) + 𝑐2 (1,2,3) + 𝑐3 (2,3,8) = (0,0,0)
𝑐1 = 0 = 𝑐2 = 𝑐3
𝐴 =4 ≠0.
Thus, system have only trivial solution
Thus, the vectors are linearly independent
8.Show that the vectors 𝒆𝟏 = (𝟏, 𝟎, 𝟎, … , 𝟎), 𝒆𝟐 = (𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟎, … , 𝟎), … 𝒆𝒏 = (𝟎, 𝟎, 𝟎, … , 𝟏) of the vector space 𝑽𝒏 (𝑹)
form a basis of 𝑽𝒏 (𝑹).
Solution: To show that 𝑆 = {𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , … , 𝑒𝑛 } is linearly independent, It is necessary to prove that all 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑛 are
zero’s such that
𝑐1 𝑒1 + 𝑐2 𝑒2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑒𝑛 = 0
𝑐1 1,0,0, … , 0 + 𝑐2 0,1,0, … , 0 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 0,0,0, … , 1 = 0 1×𝑛

𝑐1 , 0,0, … , 0 + 0, 𝑐2 , 0, … , 0 + ⋯ + 0,0,0, … , 𝑐𝑛 = (0,0,0, … , 0)

𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑛 = (0,0,0, … , 0)
𝑐1 = 0, 𝑐2 = 0 and 𝑐𝑛 = 0
Thus, the vectors 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , … , 𝑒𝑛 are linearly independent.
Now, any vector (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅) can be expressed as linear combination of the elements of S at
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥1 𝑒1 + 𝑥2 𝑒2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 𝑒𝑛
Hence 𝐿 𝑆 = 𝑉
Therefore, S forms a linearly independent vector as well as span the vectors in 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅).
Thus, S is a basis of 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅).
9.Show that the set 𝑩 = { 𝟏, 𝟏, 𝟎 , 𝟏, 𝟎, 𝟏 , 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟏 } is a basis of the vector space 𝑽𝟑 (𝑹).
Solution:
Firstly prove 𝛼1 = 1,1,0 , 𝛼2 = 1,0,1 , 𝛼3 = (0,1,1) are linearly independent.
Consider 𝑐1 𝛼1 + 𝑐2 𝛼2 + 𝑐3 𝛼3 = 0
𝑐1 (1,1,0) + 𝑐2 (1,0,1) + 𝑐3 (0,1,1) = (0,0,0)

1 1 0 0
Or 𝑐1 1 + 𝑐2 0 + 𝑐3 1 = 0
0 1 1 0
𝐴 = −2 ≠ 0
System will have only trivial solution
⟹ 𝑐1 = 𝑐2 = 𝑐3 = 0
Thus, the vectors 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 are linearly independent.
Secondly, Let (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) be arbitrary vector in 𝑉3 (𝑅) such that
 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 = 𝑘1 (1,1,0) + 𝑘2 (1,0,1) + 𝑘3 (0,1,1)
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 = (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 , 𝑘1 + 𝑘3 , 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 )
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 = 𝑥1 ………..(1)
𝑘1 + 𝑘3 = 𝑥2 ……......(2)
𝑘2 + 𝑘3 = 𝑥3 ………...(3)
(1)+(2)-(3) ⟹ 2𝑘1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3
𝑘1 =
2
𝑘2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑘1
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3
𝑘2 = 𝑥1 − =
2 2
−𝑥1 +𝑥2 +𝑥3
Similarly, 𝑘3 = 2

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 −𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3
∴ 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 = (1,1,0) + (1,0,1) + (0,1,1)
2 2 2
Thus 𝐿 𝐵 = 𝑉3 (𝑅)
Hence B is basis of vector space 𝑉3 (𝑅).
10. Let 𝑨 = { 𝟏, −𝟐, 𝟓 , (𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟏)} be a linearly independent subset of 𝑽𝟑 (𝑹). Extend this to a basis of 𝑽𝟑 (𝑹).
Solution:
Let 𝛼1 = (1, −2,5) and 𝛼2 = (2,3,1)
So ‘S’ be the subspace spanned by {𝛼1 , 𝛼2 }
𝑆 = {𝑐1 𝛼1 + 𝑐2 𝛼2 / 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ∈ 𝑅}
𝑆 = {𝑐1 (1, −2,5) + 𝑐2 (2,3,1)/ 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ∈ 𝑅}
𝑆 = {(𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 , −2𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 , 5𝑐1 + 𝑐2 )/ 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ∈ 𝑅}
11. Test the following set of vectors for linear dependent { 𝟏, 𝟎, 𝟏 , 𝟎, 𝟐, 𝟐 , (𝟑, 𝟕, 𝟏)}. Do they form a basis?

Solution:
1 0 3
Let 𝐴 = 0 2 7 𝐴 = −18 ≠ 0
1 2 1
The system will have only trivial solution.
𝑐1 = 𝑐2 = 𝑐3 = 0
Then the given vectors are linearly independent.
Hence, of course yes the vectors form a basis.
12.Let 𝑺 be the subspace of 𝑹𝟑 defined by 𝑺 = { 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 / 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝟎}. Find a basis and dimension of S.
Solution:
Clearly 𝑆 ≠ 𝑅3 , as (1,2,3) ∉ 𝑆 ∵ 1 + 2 + 3 ≠ 0
Thus 𝑑 𝑠 < 3, Also 𝑑 𝑠 > 1 (Since (𝑥1 , 0,0) ∉ 𝑆)
Further 𝛼 = (1,0, −1) and 𝛽 = (1, −1,0) are the elements of S which form linearly independent vectors.
Hence 𝑑 𝑠 = 2 and thus (𝛼, 𝛽) form a basis of S.

13.Determine do the following set S from a basis of 𝑹𝟑 In case is not basis determine the dimension and a
basis of the subspace spanned by 𝑺 = {(𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑) , (𝟑, 𝟏, 𝟎) , (−𝟐, 𝟏, 𝟑)}

Solution:
1 2 3
Let 𝐴 = 3 1 0 and 𝐴 = 0 The system will have non trivial solution as well . Thus the vector
−2 1 3
are linearly dependent
1 2 3
Now 𝐴 = 3 1 0
−2 1 3
 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 2𝑅1

1 2 3
= 0 −5 −9
0 5 9
𝑅2 → (−1/5)𝑅2
𝑅3 → (1/5)𝑅3

1 2 3
= 0 1 9/5
0 1 9/5
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2
1 2 3
= 0 1 9/5
0 0 0
The matrix reduced to echelon form which has 2 non zero rows therefore the
𝜌𝐴 =2
Further the non-zero rows {(1,2,3) , (0,1,9/5) } is the basis of the subspace spanned by S
14.Show that the vectors (𝟏, 𝟏, , 𝟐, 𝟒) , (𝟐, −𝟏, −𝟓, 𝟐) , (𝟏, −𝟏, −𝟒, 𝟎) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟐, 𝟏, 𝟏, 𝟔) are linearly dependent in 𝑹𝟒
and extract a linear independent subset. Also find the dimension and a basis of the subspace spanned by them.
Solution:
Let
1 1 2 4
2 −1 −5 2
𝐴=
1 −1 −4 0
2 1 1 6
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1
𝑅4 → 𝑅4 − 2𝑅1

1 1 2 4
0 −3 −9 −6
𝐴=
0 −2 −6 −4
0 −1 −3 −2
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 (−1/3)
𝑅3 → (−1/2)𝑅3
𝑅4 → −𝑅4
 1 1 2 4
0 1 3 2
𝐴=
0 1 3 2
0 1 3 2
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2
𝑅4 → 𝑅4 − 𝑅2
1 1 2 4
0 1 3 2
𝐴=
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

The matrix reduced to echelon form which has 2 non zero rows therefore the
ρ[A]=2
The vectors are linearly independent
Further the non-zero rows {(1,1,2,4) ,(0,1,3,2) } is the linearly independent set
Hence
ρ[A]=2 and S form basis since L[S]= R^4
15.Let 𝑽 be the vector space of ordered pairs of complex numbers over the real field 𝑹.Show that 𝑽 is of
dimension 4.
Solution: Let 𝑉 ={ (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ) /𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ 𝑐} Consider the set 𝐵 = { (1,0) , (𝑖, 0) , (0,1) , (0, 𝑖)}
Clearly ⊂ 𝑉 , we shall show that B is a basis of V
Let ∝∈ 𝑉
Then ∝= (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 )
∝= (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑) where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅
∝= 𝑎 1,0 + 𝑏 𝑖, 0 + 𝑐 0,1 + 𝑑 0, 𝑖
Thus every ∝∈ 𝑉 can be expressed as a linear combination of the elements of B.Hence B generates V.ie 𝐿[𝐵] =
𝑉
Further, we need to prove B is linearly independent
Suppose
𝑐1 (1,0) + 𝑐2 (𝑖, 0) + 𝑐3 (0,1) + +𝑐4 (0, 𝑖) = (0,0)
(𝑐1 + 𝑖𝑐2 , 𝑐3 + 𝑖𝑐4 ) = (0,0)
𝑐1 + 𝑖𝑐2 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐3 + 𝑖𝑐4 = 0
𝑐1 = 0 , 𝑐2 = 0 , 𝑐3 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐4 = 0
Implies B is linearly independent set
It is clear that B is a basis for V containing 4 elements
Hence V is a vector space of dimension 4.
FOUR FUNDAMENTAL SUBSPACES

Row Spaces

The row space of an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 is the set of all linear combinations of the rows of 𝐴. It is denoted by
𝑅𝑜𝑤𝐴(𝑜𝑟)𝑅(𝐴).

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅𝑜𝑤𝐴 = All linear combinations of rows of 𝐴

Or
Row space = {𝑋1 /All the non-zero row vectors in the row reduced echelon form of matrix A}
Ex:

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
Let 𝐴 = ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛
Then 𝑅𝑜𝑤𝐴 = 𝑐1 𝑎11 , 𝑎12 , . . . , 𝑎1𝑛 + 𝑐2 𝑎21 , 𝑎22 , . . . , 𝑎2𝑛 +. . . +𝑐𝑛 𝑎𝑚1 , 𝑎𝑚2 , . . . , 𝑎𝑚𝑛 /𝑐𝑖 ∈ 𝑅
Column Spaces
The column space of an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 is the set of all linear combinations of the columns of 𝐴. It is denoted by
𝐶𝑜𝑙𝐴(𝑜𝑟)𝐶(𝐴).
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝐴 = All linear combinations of columns of 𝐴
𝑏
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝐴 = = 𝐴𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑛
𝑏
Or
Column space = {𝑌1 / The column vectors corresponding to pivot column in rowreduced echelon form of matrix A}
Ex:

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
Let 𝐴 = ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎1𝑛
Then 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝐴 = 𝑐1 ⋮ + 𝑐2 ⋮ +. . . +𝑐𝑛 ⋮ /𝑐𝑖 ∈ 𝑅
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚𝑛
Null Spaces:
The null space of a 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 is the set of all solutions of the homogeneous equations𝐴𝑥 = 0. It is denoted
by𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙𝐴(𝑜𝑟)𝑁(𝐴).
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙𝐴 = 𝑥/𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐴𝑥 = 0
Or
Null space = {𝑋/ All the vector solution solving AX=0, Where A is row reduction matrix}

Ex:

0
1 −3−2
Let 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑥 = 3
−5 9 1
−2
0
1 −3−2 0
Then 𝐴𝑥 = 3 = ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙𝐴
−5 9 1 0
−2
Left Null space or Null space of 𝐀 𝑻
Left Null space or Null space of A 𝑇 = {𝑌/ All the solution vectors on solving of A 𝑇 Y=0, WhereA 𝑇 is row
reduction matrix}

Note:
i. The null space 𝑁(𝐴) and row space 𝐶(𝐴𝑇 ) are subspace of 𝑅𝑛 .
ii. The left null space 𝑁(𝐴𝑇 ) and column space C(A) are subspace of 𝑅𝑚 .

Fundamental Theorem of Linear Algebra

1. C(A) = column space of A; dimension r.
2. N(A) = null space of A; dimension n-r.
3. C(AT ) = row space of A; dimension r.
4. 𝑁(𝐴𝑇 )= left nullspace of A; dimension m-r.
Problems

𝟏 𝟑 𝟐
1. Find the fundamental subspaces for the matrix A, where 𝑨 = 𝟐 𝟔 𝟒
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
1 3 2
Solution: Let 𝐴 = 2 6 4
0 1 1
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1

1 3 2
= 0 0 0
0 1 1
𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅2

1 3 2
= 0 1 1
0 0 0
1 0 1 2 1 3
Row space = 3 , 1 𝑜𝑟 3 , 6 Column space = 2 , 6
2 1 2 4 0 1
Solve 𝐴𝑋 = 0

1 3 2 𝑥1 0
0 1 1 𝑥2 = 0
0 0 0 𝑥3 0
Since 2 equations and 3 unknowns, 3-2=1 arbitrary can be chosen to solve the system
Let 𝑥3 = 𝑘
Solving 𝑥2 = −𝑘 and 𝑥1 = 𝑘
𝑥1 𝑘 1
𝑥2 = −𝑘 = −1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑘 = 1
𝑥3 𝑘 1
1
Null space = −1
1
 1 2 0
𝑇 𝑇
Solve A 𝑌 = 0 A = 3 6 1
2 4 1
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1

1 2 0
𝑇
A = 0 0 1
0 0 1
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2
1 2 0
𝑇
A = 0 0 1
0 0 0
𝑇
A 𝑌 = 0
1 2 0 𝑦1 0
0 0 1 𝑦2 = 0
0 0 0 𝑦3 0
Since we have 2 equations and 3 unknowns, 3-2=1 arbitrary variables can be chosen, say 𝑦2 = 𝑙
Solving 𝑦3 = 0 and 𝑦1 = 2𝑙
𝑦1 −2𝑙 −2
𝑦2 = 𝑙 = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑙 = 1
𝑦3 0 0
−2
Left Null space = 1
0
 𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑 𝟐
1. Find the four fundamental subspace of the matrix A Where 𝑨 = 𝟐 −𝟐 −𝟑 𝟔 𝟏
−𝟏 −𝟒 𝟒 −𝟑 𝟕
1 −2 −1 3 2
Solution: Let 𝐴 = 2 −2 −3 6 1
−1 −4 4 −3 7
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅2
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅1
1 −2 −1 3 2
𝐴 = 0 2 −1 0 −3
0 −6 3 0 9
𝑅2 → (1/2)𝑅2
𝑅3 → (−1/6)𝑅3

1 −2 −1 3 2
𝐴 = 0 1 −1/2 0 −3/2
0 1 −1/2 0 −3/2
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2
1 −2 −1 3 2
𝐴 = 0 1 −1/2 0 −3/2
0 0 0 0 0
 1 0 1 2
−2 1 −2 −2
Row space = −1 , −1/2 𝑜𝑟 −1 , −3
3 0 3 6
2 −3/2 2 1
1 −2
Column space = 2 , −2
−1 −4

Solve 𝐴𝑋 = 0
𝑥1
1 −2 −1 3 2 𝑥2 0
0 1 −1/2 0 −3/2 𝑥3 = 0
0 0 0 0 0 𝑥4 0
𝑥5
Since 2 equations and 5 unknowns, 5-2=3 arbitrary can be chosen to solve the system

Let 𝑥5 = 𝑘1 , 𝑥4 = 𝑘2 and 𝑥3 = 𝑘3

Solving 𝑥2 = 1/2(3𝑘1 + 𝑘3 ) and 𝑥1 = 𝑘1 − 3𝑘2 + 2𝑘3

𝑥1 𝑘1 − 3𝑘2 + 2𝑘3 1 −3 2
𝑥2 1/2(3𝑘1 + 𝑘3 ) 3/2 0 1/2
𝑥3 = 𝑘3 = 𝑘1 0 + 𝑘2 0 + 𝑘3 1
𝑥4 𝑘2 0 1 0
𝑥5 𝑘1 1 0 0

1 −3 2
3/2 0 1/2
Null space= 0 , 0 , 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
Solve A 𝑇 𝑌 = 0
1 2 −1
−2 −2 −4
A𝑇 = −1 − −3 4
3 6 −3
2 1 7
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 + 2𝑅1
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅1
𝑅4 → 𝑅4 − 3𝑅1
𝑅5 → 𝑅5 − 2𝑅1
1 2 −1
0 2 −6
= 0 −1 −3
0 0 0
0 −3 9
𝑅2 → (1/2)𝑅2 , 𝑅3 → −𝑅3 , 𝑅5 ↔ 𝑅4

1 2 −1
0 1 −3
= 0 1 −3
0 −3 9
0 0 0
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2
𝑅4 → 𝑅4 + 3𝑅2

1 2 −1
0 1 −3
= 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
A𝑇𝑌 = 0

1 2 −1 0
0 1 −3 𝑦1 0
0 0 0 𝑦2 = 0
0 0 0 𝑦3 0
0 0 0 0
 Since we have 2 equations and 3 unknowns, 3-2=1 arbitrary can be chosen say Let 𝑦3 = 𝑘
Solving 𝑦2 = 3𝑘 and 𝑦1 = −5𝑘
𝑦1 −5𝑘 −5
𝑦2 = 3𝑘 = 3 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑘 = 1
𝑦3 𝑘 1
−5
Left Null space = 3
1
Summary

Outcomes:

➢ Discuss the fundamentals of vector spaces and subspaces.

➢ Discuss the concepts of linear dependence, independence, Linear span,
Dimension.
➢ Describe four fundamental subspaces.
Reference Links

1. Gilbert Strang,” Linear Algebra and its Applications”, Cengage Publishers, 4th Edition, 2014.

2. M. P. Deisenroth, A.A. Faisal, and C. S. Ong, “Mathematics for Machine Learning” Cambridge University
Press, 2019. (Book: https://mml-book.com)
Thank you