UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM

COLLEGE OF ICT

IS 143
Discrete Structure

Lecture 5
 Instructor
Dr. Joseph Cosmas

Kijitonyama Campus
Block A,
Room No. A023

[email protected]
 Content
 Introduction to Course

 Proposition, Sets, Relations and Functions

 Algorithm and Basic Logics

 Proof Techniques

 Basics Of Counting (Mathematical Reasoning)

 Graphs And Trees

 Discrete Probability
Functions
 Definition:

Let A and B be sets. A function (mapping, map) f from A

to B, denoted f :AB, is a subset of A * B such that

x [x  A  y [y  B  < x, y > f ]]
and
[< x, y1 > f  < x, y2 >  f ]  y1 = y2
Functions (cont.)
 Note: f associates with each x in A has one and only one y
in B.
A is called the domain and
B is called the codomain.
o If f(x) = y
y is called the image of x under f
x is called a pre-image of y

 Note: there may be more than one pre-image of y but

there is only one image of x.

 The range of f is the set of all images of points in A under f. We

denote it by f(A).
Functions (cont.)
o If S is a subset of A then
f(S) = {f(s) | s in S}.
 Example:

o f(a) = Z A B
o the image of d is Z a
o the domain of f is A = {a, b, c, d} X
o the codomain is B = {X,Y, Z} b
Y
o f(A) = {Y, Z} c
o the pre-image of Y is b Z
d
o the pre-images of Z are a, c and d
o f({c,d}) = {Z}
Functions (cont.)
 Injections, Surjections and Bijections
o Let f be a function from A to B.

o Definition: f is one-to-one (denoted 1-1) or injective if pre-images are

unique.
Note: this means that if a  b then f(a)  f(b).

o Definition: f is onto or surjective if every y in B has a pre-image.

Note: this means that for every y in B there must be an x in
A such that f(x) = y.

o Definition: f is bijective if it is surjective and injective (one-to-one

and onto).
Functions (cont.)
o Examples:

The previous example function is neither an injection nor a

surjection. Hence it is not a bijection.

A B
a
X
b
Y
c
Z
d
Surjection but not an injection
Functions (cont.)

A B A B
a a
V V
b b
W W
c c
X X
d d
Y Y
Injection & a surjection,
Z hence a bijection

Injection but not a surjection

Functions (cont.)
o Note: Whenever there is a bijection from A to B, the two
sets must have the same number of elements or the same
cardinality.

o That will become our definition, especially for infinite sets.

Functions (cont.)
o Examples:

Let A = B = R, the reals. Determine which are injections, surjections,

bijections:

 f(x) = x,
 f(x) = x2,
 f(x) = x3,
 f(x) = | x |
Functions (cont.)
o Let E be the set of even integers {0, 2, 4, 6, . . . .}.

Then there is a bijection f from N to E , the even nonnegative

integers, defined by
f(x) = 2x.

Hence, the set of even integers has the same cardinality as the set of
natural numbers.
Functions (cont.)
 Inverse Functions

 Definition:

Let f be a bijection from A to B. Then the inverse of f,

denoted f-1, is the function from B to A defined as

f-1(y) = x iff f(x) = y

Functions (cont.)
 Example: Let f be defined by the diagram:

A f B A f -1 B
a a
V V
b b
W W
c c
X X
d d
Y Y
Note: No inverse exists
unless f is a bijection
Functions (cont.)
 Alternatively, inverse can exist on subset relation
 Definition: Let S be a subset of B. Then
f -1(S) = {x | f(x)  S}

Note: f need not be a bijection for this definition to hold.

 Example: Let f be the following function, what is f -1(X),
f -1(Y), f -1(Z):
A B
a
X f-1({Z}) = {c, d}
b f-1({X, Y}) = {a, b}
Y
c
Z
d
Functions (cont.)
 Composition

 Definition:

Let f: B C, g: A B. The composition of f with g, denoted fg,

is the function from A to C defined by

f  g(x) = f(g(x))
  Examples: A g B f C
a V h
b W i
c
X j
d
f g Y
A C
a
h
b
i
c
j
d
Functions (cont.)
 If f(x) = x2 and g(x) = 2x + 1, then
o f(g(x)) = (2x+1)2
o g(f(x)) = 2x2 + 1

 Definition:

o The floor function, denoted f ( x) = x or

f(x) = floor(x), is the largest integer less than or equal to x.

o The ceiling function, denoted f ( x) = x or f(x) = ceiling(x), is

the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.
Functions (cont.)
 Examples: 3.5 = 3, 3.5 = 4.
Note: the floor function is equivalent to truncation for positive numbers.

 Example:
Suppose f: B  C, g: A  B and f  g is injective.
What can we say about f and g?

o If the composition is injective then a  b thus f(g(a))  f(g(b)).

o Since f is a function, it cannot be the case that g(a) = g(b) since then f
would have two different images for the same point.
o Hence, g(a)  g(b)

 It follows that g must be an injection; however, f need not be an injection

(you show).
Sequences and Summations
 Definition: A sequence is a function from a subset of the
natural numbers (usually of the form {0, 1, 2, . . . } to a set S.
Note: the sets
{0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , k} and {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , k}
are called initial segments of N.

Notation: if f is a function from {0, 1, 2, . . .} to S we usually

denote f(i) by ai and we write a0 , a1 , a 2 ,...  ai ki 0  ai 0k
where k is the upper limit (usually ).
Sequences and Summations (cont.)
Examples:

Using zero-origin indexing, if f(i) = 1/(i + 1). then the

Sequence

f = {1, 1/'2,1/3,1/4, . . . } = {a0, a1, a2, a3, . . }

Using one-origin indexing the sequence f becomes

{1/2, 1/3, . . .} = {a1, a2, a3, . . .}

Sequences and Summations (cont.)
 Summation Notation

Given a sequence a i 0k we can add together a subset of the

sequence by using the summation and function notation

n
a g ( m )  a g ( m  1 )  ...  a g ( n )   a g( j )
j m

or more generally

aj
jS
Sequences and Summations (cont.)
n
Examples: r  r  r  ...  r  r j
0 1 2
 n

0

1 1 1 1
1     ...  
2 3 4 1 i
n
a 2 m  a 2 ( m  1 )  ...  a 2 ( n )   a2 j
j m

if S  {2,5,7,10} then  a j  a 2  a5  a7  a10

jS

Similarity for the product notation:

n
 a j  a m a m  1 ...a n
j m
Sequences and Summations (cont.)
 Cardinality

 Definition:

The cardinality of a set A is equal to the cardinality of a set B,

denoted
| A | = | B |,

if there exists a bijection from A to B.

Sequences and Summations
 Definition:

If a set has the same cardinality as a subset of the natural

numbers N, then the set is called countable.

If |A| = |N|, the set A is countably infinite.

The (transfinite) cardinal number of the set N is

aleph null = 0.

If a set is not countable we say it is uncountable.

Sequences and Summations
 Examples:

The following sets are uncountable (we show later)

 The real numbers in [0, 1]

 P(N), the power set of N

 Note: With infinite sets proper subsets can have the same
cardinality. This cannot happen with finite sets.

Countability carries with it the implication that there is a listing

of the elements of the set.
Sequences and Summations
 Definition: | A |  | B | if there is an injection from A to B.

Note: as you would hope,

 Theorem:
If | A |  | B | and | B |  | A | then | A | = | B |.
This implies
 if there is an injection from A to B
 if there is an injection from B to A
then
 there must be a bijection from A to B

 This is difficult to prove but is an example of demonstrating existence without

construction.
 It is often easier to build the injections and then conclude the bijection exists.
Sequences and Summations
 Example:

Theorem: If A is a subset of B then | A |  | B |.

Proof: the function f(x) = x is an injection from A to B.

 Example: {0, 2, 5}|  0

The injection f: {0, 2, 5}  N defined by f(x) = x is shown
below:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6…

0 2 5
Sequences and Summations
 Some Countably Infinite Sets

 The set of even integers E ( 0 is considered even) is countably

infinite. Note that E is a proper subset of N,

Proof: Let f(x) = 2x. Then f is a bijection from N to E

0 1 2 3 4 5 6…

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 …
 Z+, the set of positive integers is countably infinite.
Sequences and Summations
 The set of positive rational numbers Q+ is countably infinite.

Proof: Z+ is a subset of Q+ so |Z+| = 0  |Q+|.

Now we have to show that |Q+|  0.

To do this we show that the positive rational numbers with

repetitions, QR, is countably infinite.

Then, since Q+ is a subset of QR, it follows that

|Q+|  0 and hence |Q+| = 0.
Sequences and Summations
Sequences and Summations

 The position on the path (listing) indicates the image of the

bijective function f from N to QR:

f(0) = 1/1, f(1) = 1/2, f(2) = 2/1, f(3) = 3/1, and so forth.

Every rational number appears on the list at least once, some many times
(repetitions).

Hence, |N| = |QR| = 0. Q. E. D

 The set of all rational numbers Q, positive and negative, is

countably infinite.
Sequences and Summations
 The set of (finite length) strings S over a finite alphabet A is countably
infinite.

To show this we assume that

 A is nonvoid
 There is an “alphabetical” ordering of the symbols in A

Proof: List the strings in lexicographic order:

 all the strings of zero length,
 then all the strings of length 1 in alphabetical order,
 then all the strings of length 2 in alphabetical order,
etc.

This implies a bijection from N to the list of strings and hence it is a

countably infinite set.
Sequences and Summations
 For example:
Let A = {a, b, c}.

Then the lexicographic ordering of A is

{ , a, b, c, aa, ab, ac, ba, bb, bc, ca, cb, cc, aaa, aab,
aac, aba, ....} = {f(0), f(1), f(2), f(3), f(4), . . . .}
Sequences and Summations
 The set of all C programs is countable.

Proof: Let S be the set of legitimate characters which can appear in a C

program.

 A C compiler will determine if an input program is a syntactically correct C

program (the program doesn't have to do anything useful).
 Use the lexicographic ordering of S and feed the strings into the compiler.

 If the compiler says YES, this is a syntactically correct C program, we add the
program to the list.
 Else we move on to the next string.

 In this way we construct a list or an implied bijection from N to the set

of C programs.

 Hence, the set of C programs is countable.

Sequences and Summations
 Cantor Diagonalization

 An important technique used to construct an object which is not a

member of a countable set of objects with (possibly) infinite descriptions

Theorem: The set of real numbers between 0 and 1 is uncountable.

Proof:We assume that it is countable and derive a contradiction.

If it is countable we can list them (i.e., there is a bijection from a subset

of N to the set).

We show that no matter what list you produce we can construct a real
number between 0 and 1 which is not in the list.

Hence, there cannot exist a list and therefore the set is not countable
Sequences and Summations
o It's actually much bigger than countable. It is said to have the
cardinality of the continuum, c.

o Represent each real number in the list using its decimal

expansion.

e.g., 1/3 = .3333333........

1/2 = .5000000........
= .4999999........

o If there is more than one expansion for a number, it doesn't

matter as long as our construction takes this into account.
Sequences and Summations
o THE LIST....
r1 = .d11d12d13d14d15d16. . . . .
r2 = .d21d22d23d24d25d26 . . . .
r3 = .d31d32d33d34d35d36 . . . .
...

o Now construct the number x = .x1x2x3x4x5x6x7. . . .

xi = 3 if dii  3
xi = 4 if dii = 3

(Note: choosing 0 and 9 is not a good idea because of the non uniqueness of
decimal expansions.)

o Then x is not equal to any number in the list.

Hence, no such list can exist and hence the interval (0,1) is uncountable.
Sequences and Summations
 An extra goody:

Definition: a number x between 0 and 1 is computable if there

is a C program which when given the input i, will produce the
ith digit in the decimal expansion of x.

 Example:

The number 1/3 is computable.

The C program which always outputs the digit 3, regardless if

the input, computes the number.
Sequences and Summations
Theorem: There is exists a number x between 0 and 1 which
is not computable.

There does not exist a C program (or a program in any other

language) which will compute it!

Why? Because there are more numbers between 0 and 1 than

there are C programs to compute them.

(in fact there are c such numbers!)

Our second example of the nonexistence of programs to

compute things!