Module - 4

Process-to-process communication in computer networks refers to the

mechanisms and techniques that allow different programs (processes) to
exchange data and synchronize their activities, whether on the same computer or
across a network. This communication is crucial for enabling applications to
work together, share data, and coordinate their actions efficiently.
Key Concepts:
 Interprocess Communication (IPC):
The broader term for the process-to-process communication mechanisms
provided by an operating system.
 Message Passing:
A common IPC method where processes exchange data by sending and receiving
messages.
 Shared Memory:
Another IPC method where multiple processes can access and modify the same
memory space.
 Pipes:
Unidirectional communication channels between processes.
 Sockets:
Endpoints for network communication, enabling processes on different machines
to communicate.
 Client-Server Architecture:
A common pattern where one process (the client) requests services from another
(the server).
 Synchronization:
Ensuring that multiple processes access and modify shared resources in a
coordinated manner to avoid conflicts and maintain data integrity.
How it Works:
 1. Encoding and Decoding: The sender encodes information into a format
suitable for transmission, and the receiver decodes it.
2. Channel Selection: The sender chooses a communication channel (e.g.,
sockets, message queues) to transmit the data.
3. Message Transmission: The data is sent across the network or within the
same machine using the chosen channel.
4. Message Reception: The receiver receives the message.
5. Data Processing: The receiver decodes the message and uses the received
data.
6. Feedback: The receiver may send feedback to the sender, indicating
success or failure, or providing additional information.
Examples of Process-to-Process Communication:
 Web Browsers and Web Servers:
A web browser (client) sends requests to a web server, which responds with web
pages.
 Email Clients and Servers:
An email client (client) sends emails to an email server, which stores and forwards
them.
 Operating System Processes:
Different processes within an operating system can communicate with each other
to share data and coordinate activities.
 Distributed Systems:
Processes on different machines in a distributed system can communicate to
achieve a common goal.
UDP Protocol
In computer networking, the UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol. The David
P. Reed developed the UDP protocol in 1980. It is defined in RFC 768, and it is a
part of the TCP/IP protocol, so it is a standard protocol over the internet. The
UDP protocol allows the computer applications to send the messages in the form
of datagrams from one machine to another machine over the Internet Protocol
(IP) network. The UDP is an alternative communication protocol to the TCP
protocol (transmission control protocol). Like TCP, UDP provides a set of rules
that governs how the data should be exchanged over the internet. The UDP works
by encapsulating the data into the packet and providing its own header
information to the packet. Then, this UDP packet is encapsulated to the IP packet
and sent off to its destination. Both the TCP and UDP protocols send the data over
the internet protocol network, so it is also known as TCP/IP and UDP/IP. There
are many differences between these two protocols. UDP enables the process to
process communication, whereas the TCP provides host to host communication.
Since UDP sends the messages in the form of datagrams, it is considered the best-
effort mode of communication. TCP sends the individual packets, so it is a
reliable transport medium. Another difference is that the TCP is a connection-
oriented protocol whereas, the UDP is a connectionless protocol as it does not
require any virtual circuit to transfer the data.
UDP also provides a different port number to distinguish different user requests
and also provides the checksum capability to verify whether the complete data
has arrived or not; the IP layer does not provide these two services.
Features of UDP protocol
The following are the features of the UDP protocol:
o Transport layer protocol
UDP is the simplest transport layer communication protocol. It contains a
minimum amount of communication mechanisms. It is considered an unreliable
protocol, and it is based on best-effort delivery services. UDP provides no
acknowledgment mechanism, which means that the receiver does not send the
acknowledgment for the received packet, and the sender also does not wait for
the acknowledgment for the packet that it has sent.
o Connectionless
The UDP is a connectionless protocol as it does not create a virtual path to transfer
the data. It does not use the virtual path, so packets are sent in different paths
between the sender and the receiver, which leads to the loss of packets or received
out of order.
Ordered delivery of data is not guaranteed.
In the case of UDP, the datagrams are sent in some order will be received in the
same order is not guaranteed as the datagrams are not numbered.
o Ports
The UDP protocol uses different port numbers so that the data can be sent to the
correct destination. The port numbers are defined between 0 and 1023.
o Faster transmission
UDP enables faster transmission as it is a connectionless protocol, i.e., no virtual
path is required to transfer the data. But there is a chance that the individual packet
is lost, which affects the transmission quality. On the other hand, if the packet is
lost in TCP connection, that packet will be resent, so it guarantees the delivery of
the data packets.
o Acknowledgment mechanism
The UDP does have any acknowledgment mechanism, i.e., there is no
handshaking between the UDP sender and UDP receiver. If the message is sent in
TCP, then the receiver acknowledges that I am ready, then the sender sends the
data. In the case of TCP, the handshaking occurs between the sender and the
receiver, whereas in UDP, there is no handshaking between the sender and the
receiver.
o Segments are handled independently.
Each UDP segment is handled individually of others as each segment takes
different path to reach the destination. The UDP segments can be lost or delivered
out of order to reach the destination as there is no connection setup between the
sender and the receiver.
o Stateless
It is a stateless protocol that means that the sender does not get the
acknowledgement for the packet which has been sent.
Why do we require the UDP protocol?
As we know that the UDP is an unreliable protocol, but we still require a UDP
protocol in some cases. The UDP is deployed where the packets require a large
amount of bandwidth along with the actual data. For example, in video streaming,
acknowledging thousands of packets is troublesome and wastes a lot of
bandwidth. In the case of video streaming, the loss of some packets couldn't create
a problem, and it can also be ignored.
UDP Header Format
In UDP, the header size is 8 bytes, and the packet size is upto 65,535 bytes. But
this packet size is not possible as the data needs to be encapsulated in the IP
datagram, and an IP packet, the header size can be 20 bytes; therefore, the
maximum of UDP would be 65,535 minus 20. The size of the data that the UDP
packet can carry would be 65,535 minus 28 as 8 bytes for the header of the UDP
packet and 20 bytes for IP header.
The UDP header contains four fields:
o Source port number: It is 16-bit information that identifies which port is
going t send the packet.
o Destination port number: It identifies which port is going to accept the
information. It is 16-bit information which is used to identify application-
level service on the destination machine.
o Length: It is 16-bit field that specifies the entire length of the UDP packet
that includes the header also. The minimum value would be 8-byte as the
size of the header is 8 bytes.
o Checksum: It is a 16-bits field, and it is an optional field. This checksum
field checks whether the information is accurate or not as there is the
possibility that the information can be corrupted while transmission. It is
an optional field, which means that it depends upon the application,
whether it wants to write the checksum or not. If it does not want to write
the checksum, then all the 16 bits are zero; otherwise, it writes the
 checksum. In UDP, the checksum field is applied to the entire packet, i.e.,
header as well as data part whereas, in IP, the checksum field is applied to
only the header field.
Concept of Queuing in UDP protocol

In UDP protocol, numbers are used to distinguish the different processes on a

server and client. We know that UDP provides a process to process
communication. The client generates the processes that need services while the
server generates the processes that provide services. The queues are available for
both the processes, i.e., two queues for each process. The first queue is the
incoming queue that receives the messages, and the second one is the outgoing
queue that sends the messages. The queue functions when the process is running.
If the process is terminated then the queue will also get destroyed.
UDP handles the sending and receiving of the UDP packets with the help of the
following components:
o Input queue: The UDP packets uses a set of queues for each process.
o Input module: This module takes the user datagram from the IP, and then
it finds the information from the control block table of the same port. If it
finds the entry in the control block table with the same port as the user
datagram, it enqueues the data.
 o Control Block Module: It manages the control block table.
o Control Block Table: The control block table contains the entry of open
ports.
o Output module: The output module creates and sends the user datagram.
Several processes want to use the services of UDP. The UDP multiplexes and
demultiplexes the processes so that the multiple processes can run on a single
host.
Limitations
o It provides an unreliable connection delivery service. It does not provide
any services of IP except that it provides process-to-process
communication.
o The UDP message can be lost, delayed, duplicated, or can be out of order.
o It does not provide a reliable transport delivery service. It does not provide
any acknowledgment or flow control mechanism. However, it does provide
error control to some extent.
Advantages
o It produces a minimal number of overheads.
TCP
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It is a transport layer protocol
that facilitates the transmission of packets from source to destination. It is a
connection-oriented protocol that means it establishes the connection prior to the
communication that occurs between the computing devices in a network. This
protocol is used with an IP protocol, so together, they are referred to as a TCP/IP.
The main functionality of the TCP is to take the data from the application layer.
Then it divides the data into a several packets, provides numbering to these
packets, and finally transmits these packets to the destination. The TCP, on the
other side, will reassemble the packets and transmits them to the application layer.
As we know that TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, so the connection will
remain established until the communication is not completed between the sender
and the receiver.
The following are the features of a TCP protocol:
 o Transport Layer Protocol
TCP is a transport layer protocol as it is used in transmitting the data from the
sender to the receiver.
o Reliable
TCP is a reliable protocol as it follows the flow and error control mechanism. It
also supports the acknowledgment mechanism, which checks the state and sound
arrival of the data. In the acknowledgment mechanism, the receiver sends either
positive or negative acknowledgment to the sender so that the sender can get to
know whether the data packet has been received or needs to resend.
o Order of the data is maintained
This protocol ensures that the data reaches the intended receiver in the same order
in which it is sent. It orders and numbers each segment so that the TCP layer on
the destination side can reassemble them based on their ordering.
o Connection-oriented
It is a connection-oriented service that means the data exchange occurs only after
the connection establishment. When the data transfer is completed, then the
connection will get terminated.
o Full duplex
It is a full-duplex means that the data can transfer in both directions at the same
time.
o Stream-oriented
TCP is a stream-oriented protocol as it allows the sender to send the data in the
form of a stream of bytes and also allows the receiver to accept the data in the
form of a stream of bytes. TCP creates an environment in which both the sender
and receiver are connected by an imaginary tube known as a virtual circuit. This
virtual circuit carries the stream of bytes across the internet.
Need for Transport Control Protocol
In the layered architecture of a network model, the whole task is divided into
smaller tasks. Each task is assigned to a particular layer that processes the task.
In the TCP/IP model, five layers are application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer, and physical layer. The transport layer has a critical role in
providing end-to-end communication to the directly application processes. It
creates 65,000 ports so that the multiple applications can be accessed at the same
time. It takes the data from the upper layer, and it divides the data into smaller
packets and then transmits them to the network layer.

Working of TCP
In TCP, the connection is established by using three-way handshaking. The client
sends the segment with its sequence number. The server, in return, sends its
segment with its own sequence number as well as the acknowledgement
sequence, which is one more than the client sequence number. When the client
receives the acknowledgment of its segment, then it sends the acknowledgment
to the server. In this way, the connection is established between the client and the
server.
Advantages of TCP
o It provides a connection-oriented reliable service, which means that it
guarantees the delivery of data packets. If the data packet is lost across the
network, then the TCP will resend the lost packets.
o It provides a flow control mechanism using a sliding window protocol.
o It provides error detection by using checksum and error control by using
Go Back or ARP protocol.
o It eliminates the congestion by using a network congestion avoidance
algorithm that includes various schemes such as additive
increase/multiplicative decrease (AIMD), slow start, and congestion
window.
Disadvantage of TCP
It increases a large amount of overhead as each segment gets its own TCP header,
so fragmentation by the router increases the overhead.
TCP Header Format
o Source port: It defines the port of the application, which is sending the
data. So, this field contains the source port address, which is 16 bits.
o Destination port: It defines the port of the application on the receiving
side. So, this field contains the destination port address, which is 16 bits.
o Sequence number: This field contains the sequence number of data bytes
in a particular session.
o Acknowledgment number: When the ACK flag is set, then this contains
the next sequence number of the data byte and works as an
acknowledgment for the previous data received. For example, if the
receiver receives the segment number 'x', then it responds 'x+1' as an
acknowledgment number.
o HLEN: It specifies the length of the header indicated by the 4-byte words
in the header. The size of the header lies between 20 and 60 bytes.
Therefore, the value of this field would lie between 5 and 15.
o Reserved: It is a 4-bit field reserved for future use, and by default, all are
set to zero.
o Flags
There are six control bits or flags:
 o URG: It represents an urgent pointer. If it is set, then the data is
processed urgently.
o ACK: If the ACK is set to 0, then it means that the data packet does
not contain an acknowledgment.
o PSH: If this field is set, then it requests the receiving device to push
the data to the receiving application without buffering it.
o RST: If it is set, then it requests to restart a connection.
o SYN: It is used to establish a connection between the hosts.
o FIN: It is used to release a connection, and no further data exchange
will happen.
o Window size
It is a 16-bit field. It contains the size of data that the receiver can accept.
This field is used for the flow control between the sender and receiver and
also determines the amount of buffer allocated by the receiver for a
segment. The value of this field is determined by the receiver.
o Checksum
It is a 16-bit field. This field is optional in UDP, but in the case of TCP/IP,
this field is mandatory.
o Urgent pointer
It is a pointer that points to the urgent data byte if the URG flag is set to 1.
It defines a value that will be added to the sequence number to get the
sequence number of the last urgent byte.
o Options
It provides additional options. The optional field is represented in 32-bits.
If this field contains the data less than 32-bit, then padding is required to
obtain the remaining bits.

Quality of Service in Computer Networks (QoS)

Using methods or technologies that operate on a network, Quality of Service
(QoS) ensures the performance of crucial applications even when the network’s
capacity is constrained. Giving particular high-performance applications priority
enables companies to modify the volume of network traffic as a whole.
Networks that transmit traffic for resource-intensive systems frequently use QoS.
Internet protocol television (IPTV), online gaming, streaming media,
videoconferencing, video on demand (VOD), and voice over IP(VoIP) are
examples of services for which it is typically necessary.
What is the Quality of Service?
Quality of Service (QoS) is a group of technologies that operate on a network to
ensure that high-priority traffic and applications may be reliably carried out even
when the network’s capacity is constrained.
Additionally, the QoS specifies that supporting priority for one or more flows will
not fail other flows. A flow can consist of a packet from a particular application
or an incoming interface as well as source and destination addresses, source and
destination socket numbers, session identifiers, and packets.
The companies can avoid interruptions in real-time communications applications
such as VoIP (voice over IP), AoIP (audio over IP), and others by using quality
of service (QoS).
How Does QoS in Computer Networks Work?
 QoS facilitates the manipulation of packet loss, postponement, and jitter in
your community infrastructure. Since we are operating with a finite
quantity of bandwidth, our first order of enterprise is to become aware of
what packages could benefit from handling those three things.
 Once community and alertness directors become aware of the packages
that want to have precedence over bandwidth in a community, the
following step is to become aware of those visitors. There are numerous
approaches to become aware of or mark the visitors. Class of Service (CoS)
and Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) are examples.
 We may utilize this information to set policies on those groups in order to
give some data streams preferential treatment over others now that we can
group data streams into different groups. Queuing is the term for this. The
routing or switching device will advance these packets/frames to the front
of the queue and transmit them right away, for instance, if voice traffic is
tagged and a policy is developed to grant it access to the bulk of network
bandwidth on a channel.
  However, if a typical TCP data transfer stream is given a lower priority
designation, it will wait (be queued) until enough bandwidth is available to
send. These lower-priority packets/frames are the first to be dropped if the
queues get overcrowded.
 QoS networking generation works through marking packets to become
aware of provider types, then configuring routers to create separate digital
queues for every utility, primarily based totally on their precedence.
As a result, bandwidth is reserved for essential packages or websites that have
been assigned precedence to get entry.
 QoS technology offers the ability and manage allocation to particular flows
of community visitors. This allows the community administrator to assign
the order wherein packets are treated and offer an appropriate quantity of
bandwidth to every utility or visitor going with the drift.
Why is QoS Important?

 QoS is mainly essential to assure the excessive overall performance of

essential packages that require excessive bandwidth for real-time visitors.
 QoS facilitates agencies to save you the postponement of those touchy
packages, making sure they carry out to the extent that customers require.
 QoS is more essential as community overall performance necessities adapt
to the developing variety of human beings’ usage of them.
 QoS is likewise becoming more essential because the Internet of Things
(IoT) keeps returning to maturity.
 QoS allows the statistics to circulate to take precedence inside the
community and guarantees that the statistics flow as fast as possible.
Techniques Involved in QoS
Techniques that may be used for QoS are as follows–
Scheduling
Packets from one-of-a-kind flows arrive at a transfer or router for processing. An
exact scheduling approach treats the one-of-a-kind flows truthfully and suitably.
Several scheduling strategies are designed to enhance the exceptional of the
provider.
Three of them here–
 FIFO Queuing Packets wait in a buffer (queue) in first-in, first-out (FIFO)
queuing until the node (router or switch) is prepared to process them. The
queue will get full and new packets will be deleted if the average arrival
rate exceeds the average processing rate. Anyone who has had to wait at a
bus stop for a bus knows what a FIFO queue is like.
 Priority Queuing Packets are first given a priority class in priority
queuing. Each type of priority has its own queue. The first packets
processed are those in the queue with the highest priority. The final packets
processed are those in the lowest priority queue. The system continues to
serve a queue until it is empty, it should be noted.
 Weighted Fair Queuing The packets are still allowed to various queues
and assigned to various classes in this method. The queues are, however,
weighted according to their priority; a higher priority corresponds to a
higher weight. The quantity of packets processed from each queue is
determined by the associated weight, and the system processes packets in
each queue in a round-robin method.
Three packets are processed from the first queue, two from the second queue, and
one from the third queue, for instance, if the weights are 3, 2, and 1. All weights
can be equal if the system does not give the classes any sort of priority.
Traffic Shaping
Traffic shaping is a mechanism to manipulate the quantity and the price of the
visitors despatched to the network. Two strategies can form visitors: Leaky
Bucket and Token Bucket.
 Leaky Bucket:

The leaky bucket algorithm is a technique for creating a set-rate output of packets
by grouping a variable number of requests into temporary storage.
This fundamental idea is used in the Leaky Bucket Algorithm, which is nothing
more than a single server queueing system with constant service time.
Think of a bucket that has a hole in the bottom. No matter how quickly water
enters the bucket, it always seeps out through the hole at the same rate. If there is
no water in the bucket, the rate of flow is zero; if the bucket is full, any extra
water pours out and is lost.
 Token Bucket

It is possible to design a conventional token bucket shaper as a counter that

increments at a rate corresponding to the desired shaping bandwidth. The next
packet in the queue is transmitted, and the counter is decremented by the size of
the packet when the counter reaches a value equal to its size in bytes. In this
manner, a particular queue’s sent bytes per second will be proportionate to the
counter rate.
To reduce downstream congestion, this kind of traffic shaping is frequently
utilized in the outgoing switch ports of systems.
Types of QoS
There are varieties of QoS Solutions:
Stateless Solution
Routers don’t keep a fine-grained state of the traffic, but one advantage of this is
that it is scalable and reliable. However, its services are lacking because there is
no assurance regarding the level of delay or performance we would experience
with a given application.
Stateful Solution
The server and client are highly dependent on one another in the stateful protocol.
The Stateful protocol design makes the server design more heavy and complex.
Stateful Protocol is less effective in the event of a crash because stateful servers
must retain information about the status and session specifics of internal states.
Advantages of Quality of Service in Computer Networks
Major blessings of deploying QoS include:
 Unlimited software prioritization: QoS ensures that businesses’
maximum mission-essential packages will usually have precedence and the
essential assets to attain excessive overall performance.
  Better aid management: QoS allows directors to higher manipulate the
organization’s net assets. This additionally reduces fees and the want for
investments in hyperlink expansions.
 Enhanced consumer experience: The stop aim of QoS is to assure the
excessive overall performance of essential packages, which boils right
down to handing over the most excellent consumer experience. Employees
experience excessive overall performance on their excessive bandwidth
packages, which allows them to be greater powerful and get their tasks
carried out greater quickly.
 Point-to-factor site visitors management: Managing a community is
crucial, but site visitors are delivered, be it stop to stop, node to node, or
factor to factor. The latter allows businesses to supply client packets so as
from one factor to the following over the net without struggling with any
packet loss.
 Packet loss prevention: Packet loss can arise whilst packets of records are
dropped in transit among networks. This can frequently be because of a
failure or inefficiency, community congestion, a defective router, a free
connection, or a terrible signal. QoS avoids the capability of packet loss
with the aid of using prioritizing bandwidth of excessive-overall
performance packages.
 Latency reduction: Latency is the time it takes for a community request
to head from the sender to the receiver and for the receiver to method it.
This is generally stricken by routers taking longer to research data and
garage delays because of intermediate switches and bridges. QoS allows
businesses to lessen latency or accelerate the method of a community
request with the aid of prioritizing their essential software.
Disadvantages of Quality of Service in Computer Networks
 In maximum companies, the QoS idea isn’t carried out properly or is now
no longer even carried out, reflecting some commercial enterprise
problems.
 Frequent needs for enlargement of the net aid, generated with the aid of
using unsatisfactory consumer experiences, can frequently be
circumvented through the software of management mechanisms, which
cost protection and availability.
  QoS prioritization is tool-centric, and we want a few measures that can be
greater consumer-centric that make certain that the decision is walking
easily and the download isn’t taking greater than essential.
DNS
An application layer protocol defines how the application processes running on
different systems, pass the messages to each other.
o DNS stands for Domain Name System.
o DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a
host on the network and its numerical address.
o DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.
o Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a
sequence of symbols specified by dots.
o DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This
allows the users of networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking
for other hosts instead of remembering the IP addresses.
o For example, suppose the FTP site at EduSoft had an IP address of
132.147.165.50, most people would reach this site by specifying
ftp.EduSoft.com. Therefore, the domain name is more reliable than IP
address.
DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space
is divided into three different sections: generic domains, country domains, and
inverse domain.
Generic Domains
o It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior.
o Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS
database.
o It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization
type.

Label Description

aero Airlines and aerospace companies

biz Businesses or firms

com Commercial Organizations

coop Cooperative business Organizations

edu Educational institutions

Gov Government institutions

Info Information service providers

Int International Organizations

Mil Military groups

museum Museum & other nonprofit organizations

Name Personal names

Net Network Support centers

Org Nonprofit Organizations

Pro Professional individual Organizations

Country Domain
The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-
character country abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of three
character organizational abbreviations.
Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the server
has received a request from the client, and the server contains the files of only
authorized clients. To determine whether the client is on the authorized list or not,
it sends a query to the DNS server and ask for mapping an address to the name.
Working of DNS
o DNS is a client/server network communication protocol. DNS clients send
requests to the. server while DNS servers send responses to the client.
o Client requests contain a name which is converted into an IP address known
as a forward DNS lookups while requests containing an IP address which
is converted into a name known as reverse DNS lookups.
o DNS implements a distributed database to store the name of all the hosts
available on the internet.
o If a client like a web browser sends a request containing a hostname, then
a piece of software such as DNS resolver sends a request to the DNS
server to obtain the IP address of a hostname. If DNS server does not
contain the IP address associated with a hostname, then it forwards the
request to another DNS server. If IP address has arrived at the resolver,
which in turn completes the request over the internet protocol.
DDNS
o The Dynamic Domain Name System (DDNS) is a protocol that provides
DNS extensions that allow DNS servers to accept requests to dynamically
add, update, and delete entries in the DNS database.
o A DDNS server can serve both static and dynamic domains at the same
time, since DDNS is a functional superset of existing DNS servers.
o Rather than allowing any server to change its DNS records, the secure
version of DDNS authenticates update requests from DDNS hosts using
critical public security and digital signatures.
o Dynamic DNS was created to address the problem of frequent IP changes.
For example, when you search for a domain name, you'll get a dynamic IP
address mapped to that domain. The Internet Service Provider (ISP)
provides this dynamic IP address.
o When the same domain is searched again later, the ISP may be given a
different IP address from the IP address pool, resulting in a different IP
address being returned.
o When the IP address changes, the DDNS system refreshes the DNS
database, which is always up to date with the domain-IP mapping. The
outside world will be able to access the domain name at all times without
having to worry about IP changes.
o Applications of DDNS
o Since domain controllers register their network service types in DNS so
that other computers in the domain (or forest) can access them, dynamic
DNS is an essential aspect of Active Directory in Microsoft Windows
networks.
o DDNS for Internet Access Devices
o Dynamic DNS providers provide a software client programme that
automates discovering and registering public IP addresses for the client
system. On a computer or device in the private network, the client
programme is run. It uses a unique login name to connect to the DDNS
provider's systems.
o The provider uses the name to associate the found public IP address of the
home network with a domain name system hostname.
o For Security
o For IP-based security products like DVRs and IP cameras, dynamic DNS
is an expected feature, if not a requirement. The usage of current DDNS
services or new services hosted by the manufacturer are only two of the
alternatives available to manufacturers these days.
o A simple HTTP-based update API is nearly always utilised because it
enables straightforward integration of a DDNS client into a device's
firmware.
o MintDNS, cURL, and Inadyn are just a few examples of pre-made tools
to help with server and client development.
o Most web-based DDNS providers use a common username and password
security scheme. A user must first create an account on the DDNS server
website, after which they must set up their device to submit updates to the
DDNS server anytime an IP address change is detected.
Benefits of Using a DDNS
Following are some of the benefits of using a dynamic DNS
o You can visit your website or server from any location on the planet without
worrying about your IP address changing. A device on your network sends
your IP address to the DDNS service regularly.
o Your network administrators will save time by not having to update settings
with each IP address change, allowing them to focus on the health of your
network.
o You won't have to manually update all of your records whenever your IP
address changes. In the long term, DDNS is less expensive than static DNS.

TELNET
o The main task of the internet is to provide services to users. For example,
users want to run different application programs at the remote site and
transfers a result to the local site. This requires a client-server program such
as FTP, SMTP. But this would not allow us to create a specific program for
each demand.
o The better solution is to provide a general client-server program that lets
the user access any application program on a remote computer. Therefore,
a program that allows a user to log on to a remote computer. A popular
client-server program Telnet is used to meet such demands. Telnet is an
abbreviation for Terminal Network.
o Telnet provides a connection to the remote computer in such a way that a
local terminal appears to be at the remote side.
 o When a user logs into a local computer, then it is known as local
login.
o When the workstation running terminal emulator, the keystrokes
entered by the user are accepted by the terminal driver. The terminal
driver then passes these characters to the operating system which in
turn, invokes the desired application program.
o However, the operating system has special meaning to special
characters. For example, in UNIX some combination of characters
have special meanings such as control character with "z" means
suspend. Such situations do not create any problem as the terminal
driver knows the meaning of such characters. But, it can cause the
problems in remote login.
Remote login
 o When the user wants to access an application program on a remote
computer, then the user must perform remote login.
How remote login occurs
At the local site
The user sends the keystrokes to the terminal driver, the characters are then sent
to the TELNET client. The TELNET client which in turn, transforms the
characters to a universal character set known as network virtual terminal
characters and delivers them to the local TCP/IP stack
At the remote site
The commands in NVT forms are transmitted to the TCP/IP at the remote
machine. Here, the characters are delivered to the operating system and then pass
to the TELNET server. The TELNET server transforms the characters which can
be understandable by a remote computer. However, the characters cannot be
directly passed to the operating system as a remote operating system does not
receive the characters from the TELNET server. Therefore it requires some piece
of software that can accept the characters from the TELNET server. The operating
system then passes these characters to the appropriate application program.
Network Virtual Terminal (NVT)
 o The network virtual terminal is an interface that defines how data
and commands are sent across the network.
o In today's world, systems are heterogeneous. For example, the
operating system accepts a special combination of characters such
as end-of-file token running a DOS operating system ctrl+z while
the token running a UNIX operating system is ctrl+d.
o TELNET solves this issue by defining a universal interface known
as network virtual interface.
o The TELNET client translates the characters that come from the
local terminal into NVT form and then delivers them to the network.
The Telnet server then translates the data from NVT form into a form
which can be understandable by a remote computer.
FTP
o FTP stands for File transfer protocol.
o FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for
transmitting the files from one host to another.
o It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to
the computer that acts as a server for other computers on the internet.
o It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.
Objectives of FTP
It provides the sharing of files.
o It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
o It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.
Why FTP?
Although transferring files from one system to another is very simple and
straightforward, but sometimes it can cause problems. For example, two systems
may have different file conventions. Two systems may have different ways to
represent text and data. Two systems may have different directory structures. FTP
protocol overcomes these problems by establishing two connections between
hosts. One connection is used for data transfer, and another connection is used for
the control connection.
Mechanism of FTP

The above figure shows the basic model of the FTP. The FTP client has three
components: the user interface, control process, and data transfer process. The
server has two components: the server control process and the server data transfer
process.
There are two types of connections in FTP:
 o Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple rules for
communication. Through control connection, we can transfer a line of
command or line of response at a time. The control connection is made
between the control processes. The control connection remains connected
during the entire interactive FTP session.
o Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data
types may vary. The data connection is made between data transfer
processes. The data connection opens when a command comes for
transferring the files and closes when the file is transferred.
FTP Clients
o FTP client is a program that implements a file transfer protocol which
allows you to transfer files between two hosts on the internet.
o It allows a user to connect to a remote host and upload or download the
files.
o It has a set of commands that we can use to connect to a host, transfer the
files between you and your host and close the connection.
o The FTP program is also available as a built-in component in a Web
browser. This GUI based FTP client makes the file transfer very easy and
also does not require to remember the FTP commands.
Advantages of FTP:
o Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of
the fastest way to transfer the files from one computer to another computer.
o Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the
operations to get the entire file.
 o Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username
and password. Therefore, we can say that FTP is more secure.
o Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and
forth. Suppose you are a manager of the company, you send some
information to all the employees, and they all send information back on the
same server.
Disadvantages of FTP:
o The standard requirement of the industry is that all the FTP transmissions
should be encrypted. However, not all the FTP providers are equal and not
all the providers offer encryption. So, we will have to look out for the FTP
providers that provides encryption.
o FTP serves two operations, i.e., to send and receive large files on a network.
However, the size limit of the file is 2GB that can be sent. It also doesn't
allow you to run simultaneous transfers to multiple receivers.
o Passwords and file contents are sent in clear text that allows unwanted
eavesdropping. So, it is quite possible that attackers can carry out the brute
force attack by trying to guess the FTP password.
o It is not compatible with every system.

World Wide Web

World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or
web pages stored in web servers and connected to local computers through the
internet. These websites contain text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc.
Users can access the content of these sites from any part of the world over the
internet using their devices such as computers, laptops, cell phones, etc. The
WWW, along with internet, enables the retrieval and display of text and media to
your device.
The building blocks of the Web are web pages which are formatted in HTML and
connected by links called "hypertext" or hyperlinks and accessed by HTTP. These
links are electronic connections that link related pieces of information so that
users can access the desired information quickly. Hypertext offers the advantage
to select a word or phrase from text and thus to access other pages that provide
additional information related to that word or phrase.
A web page is given an online address called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
A particular collection of web pages that belong to a specific URL is called a
website, e.g., www.facebook.com, www.google.com, etc. So, the World Wide Web
is like a huge electronic book whose pages are stored on multiple servers across
the world.
Small websites store all of their WebPages on a single server, but big websites or
organizations place their WebPages on different servers in different countries so
that when users of a country search their site they could get the information
quickly from the nearest server.
So, the web provides a communication platform for users to retrieve and
exchange information over the internet. Unlike a book, where we move from one
page to another in a sequence, on World Wide Web we follow a web of hypertext
links to visit a web page and from that web page to move to other web pages. You
need a browser, which is installed on your computer, to access the Web.
Difference between World Wide Web and Internet:
Some people use the terms 'internet' and 'World Wide Web' interchangeably. They
think they are the same thing, but it is not so. Internet is entirely different from
WWW. It is a worldwide network of devices like computers, laptops, tablets, etc.
It enables users to send emails to other users and chat with them online. For
example, when you send an email or chatting with someone online, you are using
the internet.

But, when you have opened a website like google.com for information, you are
using the World Wide Web; a network of servers over the internet. You request a
webpage from your computer using a browser, and the server renders that page
to your browser. Your computer is called a client who runs a program (web
browser), and asks the other computer (server) for the information it needs.
History of the World Wide Web:

The World Wide Web was invented by a British scientist, Tim Berners-Lee in
1989. He was working at CERN at that time. Originally, it was developed by him
to fulfill the need of automated information sharing between scientists across the
world, so that they could easily share the data and results of their experiments and
studies with each other.
CERN, where Tim Berners worked, is a community of more than 1700 scientists
from more than 100 countries. These scientists spend some time on CERN site,
and rest of the time they work at their universities and national laboratories in
their home countries, so there was a need for reliable communication tools so that
they can exchange information.
Internet and Hypertext were available at this time, but no one thought how to use
the internet to link or share one document to another. Tim focused on three main
technologies that could make computers understand each other, HTML, URL,
and HTTP. So, the objective behind the invention of WWW was to combine
recent computer technologies, data networks, and hypertext into a user-friendly
and effective global information system.
How the Invention Started:
In March 1989, Tim Berners-Lee took the initiative towards the invention of
WWW and wrote the first proposal for the World Wide Web. Later, he wrote
another proposal in May 1990. After a few months, in November 1990, along
with Robert Cailliau, it was formalized as a management proposal. This proposal
had outlined the key concepts and defined terminology related to the Web. In this
document, there was a description of "hypertext project" called World Wide Web
in which a web of hypertext documents could be viewed by browsers. His
proposal included the three main technologies (HTML, URL, and HTTP).
In 1990, Tim Berners-Lee was able to run the first Web server and browser at
CERN to demonstrate his ideas. He used a NeXT computer to develop the code
for his Web server and put a note on the computer "The machine is a server. Do
Not Power It DOWN!!" So that it was not switched off accidentally by someone.
In 1991, Tim created the world's first website and Web Server. Its address was
info.cern.ch, and it was running at CERN on the NeXT computer. Furthermore,
the first web page address
was http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html. This page had links to
the information related to the WWW project, and also about the Web servers,
hypertext description, and information for creating a Web server.
The Web Grows:
NeXT computer platform was accessible by a few users. Later, the development
of 'line-mode' browser, which could run on any system, started. In 1991, Berners-
Lee introduced his WWW software with 'line-mode' browser, Web server
software and a library for developers.
In March 1991, it was available to colleagues who were using CERN computers.
After a few months, in August 1991, he introduced the WWW software on
internet newsgroups, and it generated interest in the project across the world.
Graphic interface for the internet, first introduced to the public on 6 August 1991
by Tim Berners-Lee. On 23 August 1991, it was available to everyone.
Becoming Global:
The first Web server came online in December 1991 in the United States. At this
time, there were only two types of browsers; the original development version
which was available only on NeXT machines and the 'line-mode' browser which
was easy to install and run on any platform but was less user-friendly and had
limited power.
For further improvement, Berners-Lee asked other developers via the internet to
contribute to its development. Many developers wrote browsers for the X-
Window System. The first web server, outside Europe, was introduced at
Standard University in the United States in 1991. In the same year, there were
only ten known web servers across the world.
Later at the beginning of 1993, the National Center for Supercomputing
Applications (NCSA) introduced the first version of its Mosaic browser. It ran in
the X Window System environment. Later, the NCSA released versions for the
PC and Macintosh environments. With the introduction of user-friendly browsers
on these computers, the WWW started spreading tremendously across the world.
Eventually, the European Commission approved its first web project in the same
year with CERN as one of its partners. In April 1993, CERN made the source
code of WWW available on a royalty-free basis and thus made it free software.
Royalty-free means one has the right to use copyright material or intellectual
property without paying any royalty or license fee. Thus, CERN allowed people
to use the code and web protocol for free. The technologies that were developed
to make the WWW became an open source to allow people to use them for free.
Eventually, people started creating websites for online businesses, to provide
information and other similar purposes.
At the end of 1993, there were more than 500 web servers, and the WWW has
1% of the total internet traffic. In May 1994, the First International World Wide
Web conference was held at CERN and was attended by around 400 users and
developers and popularly known as the "Woodstock of the Web." In the same
year, the telecommunication companies started providing internet access, and
people have access to WWW available at their homes.
In the same year, one more conference was held in the United States, which was
attended by over 1000 people. It was organized by the NCSA and the newly-
formed International WWW Conference Committee (IW3C2). At the end of this
year (1994), the World Wide Web had around 10000 servers and 10 million users.
The technology was continuously improved to fulfill growing needs and security,
and e-commerce tools were decided to be added soon.
Open standards:
The main objective was to keep the Web an open standard for all rather than a
proprietary system. Accordingly, CERN sent a proposal to the Commission of the
European Union under the ESPRIT program "WebCore." This project's objective
was to form an international consortium in collaboration with Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT), the US. In 1994, Berners-Lee left CERN and
joined MIT and established the International World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C) and a new European partner was needed for W3C.
The European Commission approached the French National Institute for
Research in Computer Science and Controls (INRIA), to substitute the CERN's
role. Eventually, in April 1995, INRIA became the first European W3C host and
in 1996 Keio University of Japan became another host in Asia.
In 2003, ERCIM (European Research Consortium in Informatics and
Mathematics) replaced INRIA for the role of European W3C Host. Beihang
University was announced as the fourth Host by W3C in 2013. In September
2018, there were over 400 member organizations around the world.
Since its inception, the Web has changed a lot and is still changing today. Search
engines have become more advanced at reading, understanding, and processing
information. They can easily find the information requested by users and can even
provide other relevant information that might interest users.
How the World Wide Web Works?
Now, we have understood that WWW is a collection of websites connected to the
internet so that people can search and share information. Now, let us understand
how it works!

The Web works as per the internet's basic client-server format as shown in the
following image. The servers store and transfer web pages or information to user's
computers on the network when requested by the users. A web server is a software
program which serves the web pages requested by web users using a browser. The
computer of a user who requests documents from a server is known as a client.
Browser, which is installed on the user' computer, allows users to view the
retrieved documents.
All the websites are stored in web servers. Just as someone lives on rent in a
house, a website occupies a space in a server and remains stored in it. The server
hosts the website whenever a user requests its WebPages, and the website owner
has to pay the hosting price for the same.
The moment you open the browser and type a URL in the address bar or search
something on Google, the WWW starts working. There are three main
technologies involved in transferring information (web pages) from servers to
clients (computers of users). These technologies include Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and Web browsers.
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML):
HTML is a standard markup language which is used for creating web pages. It
describes the structure of web pages through HTML elements or tags. These tags
are used to organize the pieces of content such as 'heading,' 'paragraph,' 'table,'
'Image,' and more. You don't see HTML tags when you open a webpage as
browsers don't display the tags and use them only to render the content of a web
page. In simple words, HTML is used to display text, images, and other resources
through a Web browser.
Web Browser:

A web browser, which is commonly known as a browser, is a program that

displays text, data, pictures, videos, animation, and more. It provides a software
interface that allows you to click hyperlinked resources on the World Wide Web.
When you double click the Browser icon installed on your computer to launch it,
you get connected to the World Wide Web and can search Google or type a URL
into the address bar.
In the beginning, browsers were used only for browsing due to their limited
potential. Today, they are more advanced; along with browsing you can use them
for e-mailing, transferring multimedia files, using social media sites, and
participating in online discussion groups and more. Some of the commonly used
browsers include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Safari, and
more.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP):
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application layer protocol which
enables WWW to work smoothly and effectively. It is based on a client-server
model. The client is a web browser which communicates with the web server
which hosts the website. This protocol defines how messages are formatted and
transmitted and what actions the Web Server and browser should take in response
to different commands. When you enter a URL in the browser, an HTTP
command is sent to the Web server, and it transmits the requested Web Page.
When we open a website using a browser, a connection to the web server is
opened, and the browser communicates with the server through HTTP and sends
a request. HTTP is carried over TCP/IP to communicate with the server. The
server processes the browser's request and sends a response, and then the
connection is closed. Thus, the browser retrieves content from the server for the
user.

HTTP
o HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.
o It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
o The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain
text, hypertext, audio, video, and so on.
o This protocol is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its
efficiency that allows us to use in a hypertext environment where there are
rapid jumps from one document to another document.
o HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to
another host. But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one
connection, i.e., no control connection to transfer the files.
o HTTP is used to carry the data in the form of MIME-like format.
o HTTP is similar to SMTP as the data is transferred between client and
server. The HTTP differs from the SMTP in the way the messages are sent
from the client to the server and from server to the client. SMTP messages
are stored and forwarded while HTTP messages are delivered immediately.
 o Connectionless protocol: HTTP is a connectionless protocol. HTTP client
initiates a request and waits for a response from the server. When the server
receives the request, the server processes the request and sends back the
response to the HTTP client after which the client disconnects the
connection. The connection between client and server exist only during the
current request and response time only.
o Media independent: HTTP protocol is a media independent as data can
be sent as long as both the client and server know how to handle the data
content. It is required for both the client and server to specify the content
type in MIME-type header.
o Stateless: HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and server know
each other only during the current request. Due to this nature of the
protocol, both the client and server do not retain the information between
various requests of the web pages.
HTTP Transactions

The above figure shows the HTTP transaction between client and server. The
client initiates a transaction by sending a request message to the server. The server
replies to the request message by sending a response message.
Messages
HTTP messages are of two types: request and response. Both the message types
follow the same message format.

Request Message: The request message is sent by the client that consists of a
request line, headers, and sometimes a body.

Response Message: The response message is sent by the server to the client that
consists of a status line, headers, and sometimes a body.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

 o A client that wants to access the document in an internet needs an address
and to facilitate the access of documents, the HTTP uses the concept of
Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
o The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a standard way of specifying any
kind of information on the internet.
o The URL defines four parts: method, host computer, port, and path.

o Method: The method is the protocol used to retrieve the document from a
server. For example, HTTP.
o Host: The host is the computer where the information is stored, and the
computer is given an alias name. Web pages are mainly stored in the
computers and the computers are given an alias name that begins with the
characters "www". This field is not mandatory.
o Port: The URL can also contain the port number of the server, but it's an
optional field. If the port number is included, then it must come between
the host and path and it should be separated from the host by a colon.
o Path: Path is the pathname of the file where the information is stored. The
path itself contain slashes that separate the directories from the
subdirectories and files.
SNMP
o SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol.
o SNMP is a framework used for managing devices on the internet.
o It provides a set of operations for monitoring and managing the internet.
SNMP Concept
 o SNMP has two components Manager and agent.
o The manager is a host that controls and monitors a set of agents such as
routers.
o It is an application layer protocol in which a few manager stations can
handle a set of agents.
o The protocol designed at the application level can monitor the devices
made by different manufacturers and installed on different physical
networks.
o It is used in a heterogeneous network made of different LANs and WANs
connected by routers or gateways.
Managers & Agents
o A manager is a host that runs the SNMP client program while the agent is
a router that runs the SNMP server program.
o Management of the internet is achieved through simple interaction between
a manager and agent.
o The agent is used to keep the information in a database while the manager
is used to access the values in the database. For example, a router can store
the appropriate variables such as a number of packets received and
forwarded while the manager can compare these variables to determine
whether the router is congested or not.
 o Agents can also contribute to the management process. A server program
on the agent checks the environment, if something goes wrong, the agent
sends a warning message to the manager.
Management with SNMP has three basic ideas:
o A manager checks the agent by requesting the information that reflects the
behavior of the agent.
o A manager also forces the agent to perform a certain function by resetting
values in the agent database.
o An agent also contributes to the management process by warning the
manager regarding an unusual condition.
Management Components
o Management is not achieved only through the SNMP protocol but also the
use of other protocols that can cooperate with the SNMP protocol.
Management is achieved through the use of the other two protocols: SMI
(Structure of management information) and MIB(management information
base).
o Management is a combination of SMI, MIB, and SNMP. All these three
protocols such as abstract syntax notation 1 (ASN.1) and basic encoding
rules (BER).

SMI
The SMI (Structure of management information) is a component used in network
management. Its main function is to define the type of data that can be stored in
an object and to show how to encode the data for the transmission over a network.
MIB
 o The MIB (Management information base) is a second component for the
network management.
o Each agent has its own MIB, which is a collection of all the objects that the
manager can manage. MIB is categorized into eight groups: system,
interface, address translation, ip, icmp, tcp, udp, and egp. These groups are
under the mib object.

SNMP
SNMP defines five types of messages: GetRequest, GetNextRequest, SetRequest,
GetResponse, and Trap.
GetRequest: The GetRequest message is sent from a manager (client) to the
agent (server) to retrieve the value of a variable.
GetNextRequest: The GetNextRequest message is sent from the manager to
agent to retrieve the value of a variable. This type of message is used to retrieve
the values of the entries in a table. If the manager does not know the indexes of
the entries, then it will not be able to retrieve the values. In such situations,
GetNextRequest message is used to define an object.
GetResponse: The GetResponse message is sent from an agent to the manager
in response to the GetRequest and GetNextRequest message. This message
contains the value of a variable requested by the manager.
SetRequest: The SetRequest message is sent from a manager to the agent to set
a value in a variable.
Trap: The Trap message is sent from an agent to the manager to report an event.
For example, if the agent is rebooted, then it informs the manager as well as sends
the time of rebooting.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology has become integral to our daily lives, connecting various
devices wirelessly and enabling seamless communication and data exchange. In
computer networks, Bluetooth plays a crucial role by providing short-range
wireless connectivity, enhancing the user experience, and facilitating the Internet
of Things (IoT).
Fundamentals of Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless communication protocol designed for short-range data
transmission. It operates within the 2.4 GHz ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and
Medical) band, an unlicensed spectrum used by numerous wireless technologies.
Ericsson initially developed the protocol in 1994, which has since become a
global wireless connectivity standard.
Bluetooth employs a master-slave architecture, where one device (the master)
controls the connection and communicates with one or more secondary devices.
This highly scalable architecture allows multiple secondary devices to connect to
a single master, forming a piconet. Piconets can further interconnect to create
more extensive networks known as scatternets, enabling more complex and
flexible communication scenarios.
Bluetooth Architecture
The Bluetooth architecture is organized into several layers, each with specific
responsibilities. These layers work in tandem to facilitate seamless
communication between devices. Its architecture plays a pivotal role in enabling
short-range wireless data exchange between devices, fostering the development
of various applications across industries.
1. Application Layer:
At the top of the Bluetooth stack is the Application Layer. This layer deals with
application-specific data exchange between devices. It defines the services and
profiles that applications can use to communicate over Bluetooth. Bluetooth
profiles include the Hands-Free Profile (HFP) for hands-free calling and the
Advanced Audio Distribution Profile (A2DP) for streaming audio.
2. Profile Layer:
Below the Application Layer is the Profile Layer. Profiles are predefined sets of
services and features that devices can use to communicate with each other.
Profiles ensure interoperability between devices from different manufacturers.
Examples of profiles include the Serial Port Profile (SPP) for connecting
peripherals like keyboards and mice and the Health Device Profile (HDP) for
health monitoring devices.
3. Host Controller Interface (HCI):
The HCI layer serves as an interface between the Bluetooth hardware and the
upper layers of the stack. It manages device discovery, establishes and terminates
connections, and transmits data between devices. HCI commands and events
allow the host to control the Bluetooth controller.
4. Link Manager Protocol (LMP):
LMP is a critical layer for setting up and managing links between Bluetooth
devices. It handles tasks like device discovery, pairing, and encryption key
management. LMP ensures secure and efficient communication between devices.
5. Baseband Layer:
The Baseband Layer is responsible for managing the physical aspects of the
Bluetooth connection. It controls frequency hopping, packet formatting, error
correction, and power control. This layer ensures reliable data transmission
between devices.
6. Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP):
L2CAP is situated between the Baseband Layer and the upper layers of the stack.
It provides logical channels for data transmission, segmentation and reassembly
of more extensive data packets, and protocol multiplexing, allowing different
protocols to share a single Bluetooth link.
7. RFCOMM:
RFCOMM is a protocol built on top of L2CAP that emulates the serial port of a
computer. It is commonly used to establish virtual serial connections between
Bluetooth devices, making it suitable for wireless file transfer and data
synchronization applications.
8. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP):
SDP is responsible for discovering the services and profiles supported by nearby
Bluetooth devices. It allows devices to find each other and determine their
capabilities, facilitating easy pairing and connection.
9. Radio Layer:
The Radio Layer represents the physical layer of Bluetooth communication. It
defines the hardware specifications for Bluetooth transmitters and receivers,
including modulation schemes, transmit power levels, and frequency bands.
10. Bluetooth Device Types:
Within the Bluetooth architecture, there are two primary types of devices:
o Bluetooth Master: A Bluetooth primary device initiates and controls
connections with one or more secondary devices. It acts as a central hub in
a piconet, including multiple secondary devices.
o Bluetooth Slave: A Bluetooth secondary device responds to connection
requests from a primary device and can only be connected to one master at
a time. Slaves communicate with their masters and can also communicate
indirectly with other slaves in the same piconet.
11. Piconets and Scatternets
Bluetooth networking relies on the concept of piconets and scatternets.
o Piconet: A piconet is a network formed by one master and one or more
secondary devices. The master controls the communication within the
piconet and may switch between active connections with different slaves.
o Scatternet: A scatternet is a network created by interconnecting multiple
piconets. In a scatternet, a device can belong to multiple piconets
simultaneously, playing the role of a master in one piconet and a slave in
another. Scatternets enable more complex and flexible communication
scenarios.
With its well-defined protocol stack and layered approach, the Bluetooth
architecture provides the foundation for seamless wireless communication
between devices across various industries. This technology has enabled the
development of countless applications, ranging from wireless audio streaming to
smart home automation and healthcare monitoring.
Security Concerns in Bluetooth
However, with its widespread adoption, Bluetooth faces numerous security
concerns that could compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
data exchanged between devices.
1. Pairing:
Pairing refers to establishing a trusted connection between two Bluetooth devices.
During pairing, devices exchange encryption. Create a link for data exchange.
Ensuring the security of this process is crucial to prevent access.
2. Encryption:
Bluetooth utilizes encryption to safeguard data during transmission. Encryption
algorithms such as E0 (used in versions) and AES (used in Bluetooth 2.1 and
later) ensure that eavesdroppers cannot decipher transmitted data.
3. Authentication:
When pairing Bluetooth devices, authenticate one another to ensure they connect
with the intended peer. Authentication methods may involve entering a PIN code
passkey or using out-of-band (OOB) authentication methods like NFC (Near
Field Communication).
4. Bluejacking:
Bluejacking is a relatively harmless attack where an attacker sends messages or
contacts to nearby Bluetooth-enabled devices. While this doesn't compromise
data security, it can disrupt the user experience.
Mitigation: To mitigate this risk, consider turning off device visibility, which
makes it harder for attackers to discover and target your device.
5. Bluesnarfing:
It refers to a concerning attack where an unauthorized individual gains access to
the data stored on a Bluetooth-enabled device, including contact lists, messages,
and files. This intrusion is usually accomplished by exploiting vulnerabilities in
the Bluetooth system of the targeted device.
Mitigation: Regularly update your device's firmware or software to patch known
vulnerabilities. Use strong PINs and passkeys during pairing, and turn off
unnecessary Bluetooth services.
6. Bluebugging:
Bluebugging is a sophisticated attack where an attacker takes control of a
Bluetooth device, allowing them to make calls, send messages, or access data on
the device without the user's knowledge or consent. This can have serious privacy
and security implications.
Mitigation: Ensure your device is not discoverable when not in use, use strong
authentication methods, and update your device's software regularly.
7. Blueborne:
The Blueborne attack was a set of vulnerabilities discovered in 2017 that affected
billions of Bluetooth devices. It allowed attackers to take control of devices,
spread malware, and steal data.
Mitigation: Immediately apply security patches and updates to your devices to
protect against known vulnerabilities. Keep your device's Bluetooth firmware up
to date.
8. Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attacks:
In an MITM attack, an attacker intercepts and possibly alters communication
between two Bluetooth devices without their knowledge. This can lead to data
theft or unauthorized control of devices.
Mitigation: Use secure pairing methods like Numeric Comparison to protect
against MITM attacks. Be cautious when connecting to unknown devices.
9. Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks:
Bluetooth devices can be vulnerable to DoS attacks, which disrupt their normal
functioning by overwhelming them with excessive connection requests or
malicious data.
Mitigation: Set your device to non-discoverable mode when not in use and only
connect to trusted devices. Use firewalls and intrusion detection systems to detect
and mitigate DoS attacks.
Bluetooth technology has revolutionized how we connect and interact with
devices, but its widespread adoption has also attracted the attention of
cybercriminals and hackers. Understanding and addressing the security concerns
associated with Bluetooth is essential to ensure the safety and privacy of our data.
Users and device manufacturers must take proactive steps to protect against
potential threats, including keeping devices updated, using strong authentication
methods, and following best practices for Bluetooth security. As Bluetooth
continues to evolve, it is crucial to stay vigilant and adapt to new security
challenges that may arise.
Advancements in Bluetooth Technology
With improvements in records transmission fees, range, battery financial system,
and overall abilities, the Bluetooth era has changed how we hook up with and
interact with gadgets. The principal improvements in Bluetooth technology in the
years might be covered in this thorough evaluation.
1. Bluetooth 1.0:
The first new Bluetooth release was designed for simple Wi-Fi conversation
between telephones and headsets and had a maximum information transfer fee of
721 kbps.
2. Bluetooth 2.0:
The information price changed into doubled to two.1 Mbps with the advent of
Bluetooth 2.0 and EDR (Enhanced Data Rate). It introduced the EDR technology,
improving facts speed for reporting sharing and wireless audio streaming.
3. Bluetooth 3.0 + HS (High-Speed):
Bluetooth 3.0 enabled significantly faster facts switch speeds, as much as 24
Mbps, with HS (High-Speed). With the aid of AMP (Alternate MAC/PHY),
Bluetooth could benefit from Wi-Fi's high-speed facts transfers-in particular, high
quality for moving big documents.
4. Bluetooth 4.0:
This model introduces Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), also called Bluetooth
Smart, as a huge development. BLE is ideal for several battery-operated devices,
including wearables, health trackers, and Internet of Things sensors, as it changed
into created for low-electricity, low-statistics-rate programs. It made it viable for
devices to run for weeks, months, or maybe years on a single coin-cellular battery.
5. Bluetooth 4.1 and 4.2:
Bluetooth 4.1 and 4.2's objectives were to grow BLE's effectiveness, safety, and
speed. New functions included IPv6 aid, more desirable privateness, and
expanded facts packet capability.
6. Bluetooth 5.0:
Bluetooth 5.0 was a significant development as it appreciably accelerated range,
speed, and record potential. Among the key functions were a fourfold
development in variety (as much as 2 hundred meters), a twofold increase in facts
transfer speed (2 Mbps), and an eightfold growth in points broadcasting abilities.
These improvements made Bluetooth 5.0 appropriate for using prolonged-range
song devices, smart home automation, and asset monitoring.
7. Bluetooth 5.1:
Bluetooth 5.1 protects the capacity to locate your manner, allowing for accurate
indoor positioning and place-primarily based offerings. Applications like
proximity advertising marketing and interior navigation can gain from their
potential to parent the direction and attitude of Bluetooth signals.
8. Bluetooth 5.2:
With the addition of the LC3 (Low Complexity Communication Codec) audio
codec, this model improved the audio quality for Wi-Fi audio gadgets.
Additionally, it stepped forward safety functions and the electricity financial
system.
9. Bluetooth 5.3:
The most recent model at the time of my latest replacement (September 2021) is
Bluetooth five. Three focused on audio performance, strength optimization, and
help for brand-spanking new use cases while maintaining and improving upon
preceding features.
10. Mesh Networking:
Mesh networking abilities are one of the recent breakthroughs in Bluetooth
generation. This makes it possible for Bluetooth gadgets to construct scalable,
self-recuperation networks because it allows objects to engage more efficaciously
and expand network insurance, mesh networking benefits packages in clever
lights, home automation, and industrial IoT.
11. Bluetooth LE Audio:
Bluetooth LE Audio's coming near development guarantees to transform wireless
audio stories. It may have abilities like multi-circulate audio, broadcast audio, and
enhanced audio, making it perfect for using hearing aids, headphones, and
domestic audio structures.
12. Integration with Other Technologies:
In addition to 5G, UWB, side computing, and AI, Bluetooth is becoming
increasingly incorporated with other modern-day technology. These integrations
enhance Bluetooth device capability by imparting faster and greater dependable
connections, correct area-primarily based services, low-latency data processing,
and thoughtful selection-making.
Its use has grown across several industries thanks to improvements in facts
speeds, range, battery economy, and new skills consisting of BLE, mesh
networking, and course-finding. Future Bluetooth use cases and connectivity will
be even more innovative because it keeps mixing with modern technology.
Integration of Bluetooth with Emerging Technologies
The interesting trend of integrating Bluetooth with new technologies has the
potential to significantly increase Bluetooth's capability and open up new use
cases in several sectors.
1. Integration with 5G Networks:
The mixture of Bluetooth generation with 5G networks, the cell conversation
standard of the future, may be highly advantageous. This is how:
o Improved Connectivity: 5G networks offer quicker and more reliable
connections while reducing latency. The brilliant bandwidth of 5G may be
used by Bluetooth gadgets to broadcast HD audio, HD video, and HD data
in actual time.
o Extended Range: Bluetooth's brief-variety verbal exchange can be
complemented with the aid of 5G's considerable insurance. Devices may
also switch between 5G for long-distance statistics transfer and Bluetooth
for close-by connectivity.
What is E-mail?
E-mail is defined as the transmission of messages on the Internet. It is one of the
most commonly used features over communications networks that may contain
text, files, images, or other attachments. Generally, it is information that is stored
on a computer sent through a network to a specified individual or group of
individuals.
Email messages are conveyed through email servers; it uses multiple protocols
within the TCP/IP suite. For example, SMTP is a protocol, stands for simple mail
transfer protocol and used to send messages whereas other protocols IMAP or
POP are used to retrieve messages from a mail server. If you want to login to your
mail account, you just need to enter a valid email address, password, and the mail
servers used to send and receive messages.
Although most of the webmail servers automatically configure your mail account,
therefore, you only required to enter your email address and password. However,
you may need to manually configure each account if you use an email client like
Microsoft Outlook or Apple Mail. In addition, to enter the email address and
password, you may also need to enter incoming and outgoing mail servers and
the correct port numbers for each one.
Email messages include three components, which are as follows:
o Message envelope: It depicts the email's electronic format.
o Message header: It contains email subject line and sender/recipient
information.
o Message body: It comprises images, text, and other file attachments.
The email was developed to support rich text with custom formatting, and the
original email standard is only capable of supporting plain text messages. In
modern times, email supports HTML (Hypertext markup language), which
makes it capable of emails to support the same formatting as websites. The email
that supports HTML can contain links, images, CSS layouts, and also can send
files or "email attachments" along with messages. Most of the mail servers enable
users to send several attachments with each message. The attachments were
typically limited to one megabyte in the early days of email. Still, nowadays,
many mail servers are able to support email attachments of 20 megabytes or more
in size.
In 1971, as a test e-mail message, Ray Tomlinson sent the first e-mail to himself.
This email was contained the text "something like QWERTYUIOP." However,
the e-mail message was still transmitted through ARPANET, despite sending the
e-mail to himself. Most of the electronic mail was being sent as compared to
postal mail till 1996.
Differences between email and webmail
The term email is commonly used to describe both browser-based electronic mail
and non-browser-based electronic mail today. The AOL and Gmail are browser-
based electronic mails, whereas Outlook for Office 365 is non-browser-based
electronic mail. However, to define email, a difference was earlier made as a non-
browser program that needed a dedicated client and email server. The non-
browser emails offered some advantages, which are enhanced security,
integration with corporate software platforms, and lack of advertisements.
Uses of email
Email can be used in different ways: it can be used to communicate either within
an organization or personally, including between two people or a large group of
people. Most people get benefit from communicating by email with colleagues or
friends or individuals or small groups. It allows you to communicate with others
around the world and send and receive images, documents, links, and other
attachments. Additionally, it offers benefit users to communicate with the
flexibility on their own schedule.
There is another benefit of using email; if you use it to communicate between two
people or small groups that will beneficial to remind participants of approaching
due dates and time-sensitive activities and send professional follow-up emails
after appointments. Users can also use the email to quickly remind all upcoming
events or inform the group of a time change. Furthermore, it can be used by
companies or organizations to convey information to large numbers of employees
or customers. Mainly, email is used for newsletters, where mailing list subscribers
are sent email marketing campaigns directly and promoted content from a
company.
Email can also be used to move a latent sale into a completed purchase or turn
leads into paying customers. For example, a company may create an email that is
used to send emails automatically to online customers who contain products in
their shopping cart. This email can help to remind consumers that they have items
in their cart and stimulate them to purchase those items before the items run out
of stock. Also, emails are used to get reviews by customers after making a
purchase. They can survey by including a question to review the quality of
service.
History of E-mail
As compared to ARPANet or the Internet, email is much older. The early email
was just a small advance, which is known as a file directory in nowadays. It was
used to just put a message in other user's directory in the place where they were
able to see the message by logging in. For example, the same as leaving a note on
someone's desk. Possibly MAILBOX was used at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, which was the first email system of this type from 1965. For sending
messages on the same computer, another early program was SNDMSG.
Users were only able to send messages to several users of the same computer
through email when the internetworking was not beginning. And, the problem
became a little more complex when computers began to talk to each other over
networks, we required to put a message in an envelope and address it for the
destination.
Later in 1972, Ray Tomlinson invented email to remove some difficulties.
Tomlinson worked (Like many of the Internet inventors) for Newman and Bolt
Beranek as an ARPANET contractor. To denote sending messages from one
computer to another, he picked up the @ symbol from the keyboard. Then, it
became easy to send a message to another with the help of Internet standards;
they were only required to propose name-of-the-user@name-of-the-computer.
One of the first users of the new system was Internet pioneer Jon Postel. Also,
describing as a "nice hack," credited goes to Jon Postel.
Although the World Wide Web offers many services, email is the most widely
used facility and remains the most important application of the Internet. On the
international level, over 600 million people use email. There were hundreds of
email users by 1974, as ARPANET ultimately encouraged it. Furthermore, email
caused a radical shift in Arpa's purpose, as it became the savior of Arpanet.
From there were rapid developments in the field of the email system. A big
enhancement was to sort emails; some email folders for his boss were invented
by Larry Roberts. To organize an email, John Vittal developed some software in
1976. By 1976 commercial packages began to appear, and email had really taken
off. The email had changed people and took them from Arpanet to the Internet.
Here was appeared some interesting features that ordinary people all over the
world wanted to use.
Some years later, Ray Tomlinson observed about email. As compared to the
previous one, any single development is stepping rapidly and nearly followed by
the next. I think that all the developments would take a big revolution.
When personal computers came on the scene, the offline reader was one of the
first new developments. Then, email users became able to store their email on
their own personal computers with the help of offline reader and read it. Also,
without actually being connected to the network, they were able to prepare replies
like Microsoft Outlook can do today. In parts of the world, this was specifically
useful for people where the telephone was expensive as compared to the email
system.
Without being connected to a telephone, it was able to prepare a reply with
connection charges of many dollars a minute and then get on the network to send
it. Also, it was useful as the offline mode allowed for more simple user interfaces.
In this modern time of very few standards being connected directly to the host
email system often resulted in no capacity for text to wrap around on the screen
of the user's computer, and backspace keys and delete keys may not work and
other such annoyances. Offline readers helped out more to overcome these kinds
of difficulties.
The SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol) was the first important email standard.
It was a fairly na�ve protocol that is still in use. And, it was made in terms of no
attempt to find the person who sent a message that was the right or not what they
claimed to be. In the email addresses, fraudulent was very easy and is still
available. Later, these basic flaws were used in the protocol by security frauds,
worms and viruses, and spammers forging identities. From 2004, some of these
problems are still being processed for a solution.
But as developed email system offered some important features that helped out
people to understand easily about email. In 1988, Steve Dorner developed Eudora
that was one of the first good commercial systems. But it did not appear for a long
time after Pegasus mail come. Servers began to appear as a standard when Internet
standards POP (Post office protocol) for email began to mature. Each server was
a little different before standard post office protocol (POP). POP was an important
standard that allowed users to work together.
Individual dialup users were required to charges for an email per-minute in those
days. Also, on the Internet, email and email discussion groups were the main uses
for most people. There were several issues on a wide variety of subjects; they
became USENET as a body of newsgroups.
With the World Wide Web (WWW), email became available with a simple user
interface that was offered by providers like Hotmail and Yahoo. And, users did
not require to pay any charges on these platforms. Now everyone wanted at least
one email address as it is much simple and affordable, and the medium was
adopted by millions of people.
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) started to connect people with each other all
over the world by the 1980s. Also, by 1993 the use of the Internet was becoming
widespread, and the word electronic mail was replaced by email.
Today, email has become a primary platform to communicate with people all over
the world. There are continuing updates to the system with so many people using
email for communication. Although email has some security issues, there have
been laws passed to prevent the spread of junk email over the years.
Advantages of Email
There are many advantages of email, which are as follows:
o Cost-effective: Email is a very cost-effective service to communicate with
others as there are several email services available to individuals and
organizations for free of cost. Once a user is online, it does not include any
additional charge for the services.
o Email offers users the benefit of accessing email from anywhere at any
time if they have an Internet connection.
 o Email offers you an incurable communication process, which enables you
to send a response at a convenient time. Also, it offers users a better option
to communicate easily regardless of different schedules users.
o Speed and simplicity: Email can be composed very easily with the correct
information and contacts. Also, minimum lag time, it can be exchanged
quickly.
o Mass sending: You can send a message easily to large numbers of people
through email.
o Email exchanges can be saved for future retrieval, which allows users to
keep important conversations or confirmations in their records and can be
searched and retrieved when they needed quickly.
o Email provides a simple user interface and enables users to categorize and
filter their messages. This can help you recognize unwanted emails like
junk and spam mail. Also, users can find specific messages easily when
they are needed.
o As compared to traditional posts, emails are delivered extremely fast.
o Email is beneficial for the planet, as it is paperless. It reduces the cost of
paper and helps to save the environment by reducing paper usage.
o It also offers a benefit to attaching the original message at the time you
reply to an email. This is beneficial when you get hundreds of emails a day,
and the recipient knows what you are talking about.
o Furthermore, emails are beneficial for advertising products. As email is a
form of communication, organizations or companies can interact with a lot
of people and inform them in a short time.
Disadvantages of Email
o Impersonal: As compared to other forms of communication, emails are
less personal. For example, when you talk to anyone over the phone or
meeting face to face is more appropriate for communicating than email.
o Misunderstandings: As email includes only text, and there is no tone of
voice or body language to provide context. Therefore, misunderstandings
can occur easily with email. If someone sends a joke on email, it can be
taken seriously. Also, well-meaning information can be quickly typed as
 rude or aggressive that can impact wrong. Additionally, if someone types
with short abbreviations and descriptions to send content on the email, it
can easily be misinterpreted.
o Malicious Use: As email can be sent by anyone if they have an only email
address. Sometimes, an unauthorized person can send you mail, which can
be harmful in terms of stealing your personal information. Thus, they can
also use email to spread gossip or false information.
o Accidents Will Happen: With email, you can make fatal mistakes by
clicking the wrong button in a hurry. For instance, instead of sending it to
a single person, you can accidentally send sensitive information to a large
group of people. Thus, the information can be disclosed, when you have
clicked the wrong name in an address list. Therefore, it can be harmful and
generate big trouble in the workplace.
o Spam: Although in recent days, the features of email have been improved,
there are still big issues with unsolicited advertising arriving and spam
through email. It can easily become overwhelming and takes time and
energy to control.
o Information Overload: As it is very easy to send email to many people at
a time, which can create information overload. In many modern
workplaces, it is a major problem where it is required to move a lot of
information and impossible to tell if an email is important. And, email
needs organization and upkeep. The bad feeling is one of the other
problems with email when you returned from vacation and found hundreds
of unopened emails in your inbox.
o Viruses: Although there are many ways to travel viruses in the devices,
email is one of the common ways to enter viruses and infect devices.
Sometimes when you get a mail, it might be the virus come with an
attached document. And, the virus can infect the system when you click on
the email and open the attached link. Furthermore, an anonymous person
or a trusted friend or contact can send infected emails.
o Pressure to Respond: If you get emails and you do not answer them, the
sender can get annoyed and think you are ignoring them. Thus, this can be
a reason to make pressure on your put to keep opening emails and then
respond in some way.
 o Time Consuming: When you get an email and read, write, and respond to
emails that can take up vast amounts of time and energy. Many modern
workers spend their most time with emails, which may be caused to take
more time to complete work.
o Overlong Messages: Generally, email is a source of communication with
the intention of brief messages. There are some people who write overlong
messages that can take much time than required.
o Insecure: There are many hackers available that want to gain your
important information, so email is a common source to seek sensitive data,
such as political, financial, documents, or personal messages. In recent
times, there have various high-profile cases occurred that shown how email
is insecure about information theft.
Different types of Email
There are many types of email; such are as follows:
Newsletters: It is studying by Clutch, the newsletter is the most common type of
email that are routinely sent to all mailing list subscribers, either daily, weekly, or
monthly. These emails often contain from the blog or website, links curated from
other sources, and selected content that the company has recently published.
Typically, Newsletter emails are sent on a consistent schedule, and they offer
businesses the option to convey important information to their client through a
single source. Newsletters might also incorporate upcoming events or new,
webinars from the company, or other updates.
Lead Nurturing: Lead-nurturing emails are a series of related emails that
marketers use to take users on a journey that may impact their buying behavior.
These emails are typically sent over a period of several days or weeks. Lead-
nurturing emails are also known as trigger campaigns, which are used for
solutions in an attempt to move any prospective sale into a completed purchase
and educate potential buyers on the services. These emails are not only helpful
for converting emails but also drive engagement. Furthermore, lead-nurturing
emails are initiated by a potential buyer taking initial action, such as clicking links
on a promotional email or downloading a free sample.
Promotional emails: It is the most common type of B2B (Business to Business)
email, which is used to inform the email list of your new or existing products or
services. These types of emails contain creating new or repeat customers,
speeding up the buying process, or encouraging contacts to take some type of
action. It provides some critical benefits to buyers, such as a free month of
service, reduced or omitted fees for managed services, or percentage off the
purchase price.
Standalone Emails: These emails are popular like newsletters emails, but they
contain a limitation. If you want to send an email with multiple links or blurbs,
your main call-to-action can weaken. Your subscriber may skip your email and
move on, as they may click on the first link or two in your email but may not
come back to the others.
Onboarding emails: An onboarding email is a message that is used to strengthen
customer loyalty, also known as post-sale emails. These emails receive users right
after subscription. The onboarding emails are sent to buyers to familiarize and
educate them about how to use a product effectively. Additionally, when clients
faced with large-scale service deployments, these emails help them facilitate user
adoption.
Transactional: These emails are related to account activity or a commercial
transaction and sent from one sender to one recipient. Some examples of
transactional email are purchase confirmations, password reminder emails, and
personalized product notifications. These emails are used when you have any kind
of e-commerce component to your business. As compared to any other type of
email, the transactional email messages have 8x the opens and clicks.
Plain-Text Emails: It is a simple email that does not include images or graphics
and no formatting; it only contains the text. These types of emails may worth it if
you try to only ever send fancy formatted emails, text-only messages. According
to HubSpot, although people prefer fully designed emails with various images,
plain text emails with less HTML won out in every A/B test. In
fact, HTML emails contain lower open and click-through rates, and plain text
emails can be great for blog content, event invitations, and survey or feedback
requests. Even if you do not send plainer emails, but you can boost your open and
click through rates by simplifying your emails and including fewer images.
Welcome emails: It is a type of B2B email and common parts of onboarding
emails that help users get acquainted with the brand. These emails can improve
subscriber constancy as they include additional information, which helps to the
new subscriber in terms of a business objective. Generally, welcome emails are
sent buyers who got a subscription to a business's opt-in activities, such as a blog,
mailing list, or webinar. Also, these emails can help businesses to build a better
relationship between customers.
Examples of email attacks
Although there are many ways to travel viruses in the devices, email is one of the
most common vectors for cyberattacks. The methods include spoofing,
spamming, spear-phishing, phishing, ransomware, and business email
compromise (BEC).
There are many organizations (around 7710) hit by a BEC attack every month, as
one out of every 412 emails contains a malware attack. According to the
Symantec Internet Threat Security Report, spear-phishing is the most widely used
infection vector. Below is given a complete description of these types of attacks:
o Phishing: A form of fraud in which the attacks are the practice of sending
fraudulent communications that appear to come from a reputable entity or
person in email or other communication channels. Usually, it is done
through the email; phishing emails are used by attackers to steal sensitive
data like credit card and login information or to install malware on the
victim's machine. Additionally, everyone should learn about a phishing
attack in order to protect themselves, as it is a common type of cyberattack.
The common features of phishing emails are Sense of urgency, Hyperlinks,
Too Good to Be True, Unusual sender, Attachments.
o Spamming: Spam email is unsolicited bulk messages sent without explicit
consent from the recipient, which is also known as junk email. Since the
1990s, spam is a problem faced by most email users and has been
increasing in popularity. Obtained by spambots, spam mail recipients have
had their email addresses (automated programs), which crawl the Internet
to find email addresses. This is the dark side of email marketing in which
spammers use spambots to create email distribution lists. Typically, an
email is sent by a spammer to millions of email addresses with the
expectation that only a few numbers of an email address will respond or
interact with the message.
o Spoofing: Email spoofing is an email message that could be obtained from
someone or somewhere other than the intended source. It is a popular
strategy that is used in spam and phishing campaigns as core email
protocols do not have a built-in method of authentication. And, when
 people think the email has been sent by a legitimate or familiar source, they
are more likely to open an email. Thus, it is a common tactic used for spam
and phishing emails. The email spoofing is used with the purpose of getting
mail recipients to open emails and possibly respond to a solicitation.
o Business email compromise (BEC): A BEC is an exploit in which an
authorized person or attacker hacks to a business email account and spoofs
the owner's identity to defraud the company, its customers, partners of
money. Often, an attacker simply creates an account with an email address
that is almost identical to one on the corporate network, which creates trust
between the victim and their email account. Sometimes, a BEC is also
known as a man-in-the-email attack. Some samples of BEC email
messages that contain the word in subject, such as urgent, transfer, request,
payment, and more. There are five types of BEC scams on the basis of the
FBI, which are False Invoice Scheme, CEO Fraud, Data Theft, Attorney
Impersonation, Account Compromise.
o Spear-phishing: Email spoofing is an attack where hackers target an
individual or specific organization to gain sensitive information through
unauthorized access. Spear phishing is not initiated by random hackers but
attempted by perpetrators to gain financial benefits or secrets information.
It is an attack in which attackers send emails to specific and well-
researched targets while purporting to be a trusted sender. The main
objective of spear phishing is to convince victims to hand over information
or money and infect devices with malware.
o Ransomware: It is a subset of malware that is used to encrypt a victim's
files. Typically, it locks data by encryption on the victim's system.
Typically, it locks data by encryption on the victim's system, and attackers
demand payments before the ransomed data is decrypted. Unlike other
types of attacks, the primary goal of ransomware attacks is just about
always monetary. Usually, when the exploit occurs, a victim is notified
about the attack and is given instructions for how to recover from the
attack.
Popular email sites
There are some free email website examples include the following:
o AOL
 o Zoho
o Gmail
o ProtonMail
o Com
o Microsoft Outlook
o Yahoo Mail
Email is a platform that allows users to communicate with people or groups of
people around the world. As email security is more important but consequent, it
is not inherently secure.
There are many techniques that can be used by individuals, organizations, and
service providers. These techniques provide how to protect sensitive information
with email communication and accounts from unauthorized access, loss, or
destruction.
Individuals can protect their account with the help of creating strong passwords
and changing them frequently. They can use alphabetical, numerical, special
symbols to make a strong password that helps to protect your account. Users can
also install and run an antivirus and antimalware software on their computer, as
well as create spam filters and folders to separate potentially malicious emails
and junk mail.
Also, there are some techniques the helps organizations to secure email include
implementing an email security gateway, training employees on deploying
automated email encryption solutions, and proper email usage. By processing and
scanning all received emails, email gateways check emails for threats, and
analyze that should be allowed into the system or not. A multilayered gateway is
a powerful technique since attacks are increasing rapidly and becoming
complicated and sophisticated. Some emails that cannot be caught by the
gateway, training employees on how to differentiate malicious messages, and
properly use email are the best approach, which helps users avoid threatening
mails.
For potentially sensitive information, the automated email encryption solutions
are used that scans all outgoing messages; it will encrypt the sensitive information
before it is sent to the intended recipient. This process helps to send email
securely and prevent hackers from gaining access to the secret information, even
if they stop it. The only intended recipient can view the original information with
permission.
Email service providers can also help to enhance security with the help of
accessing control standards and mechanisms and establishing a strong password.
Additionally, providers should also offer digital signatures and encryption
solutions to secure emails in transit and in users' inboxes. Finally, to protect users
from malicious, unrecognized, and untrustworthy messages, service providers
should implement firewalls and spam-filtering software applications.
E-mail address breakdown
Let's take an example of [email protected] to describe the breakdown of an email.
In the email address, before the part of the @ symbol, contains the department of
an organization, alias, user, or group. As shown in the above example, help is the
support department at our company javatpoint.
Next, the @ (at sign) is required for all SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
email address that is a divider in the email address, since the first message was
sent by Ray Tomlinson.
Finally, users belong to the domain name, javatpoint.com. For the domain, the
.com is the top-level domain (TLD).
What can be sent in an e-mail?
An email is a platform that enables users to communicate with each other. It
allows users to send text messages, including a file or other data on the e-mail all
over the world. It is also possible to attach a picture, word processor document,
PDF, program, movie, or any file stored on your computer in an e-mail. However,
due to some security issues, it may not be possible to send certain types of files
on the email; they need some additional steps. For example, the .exe file can be
blocked by many companies from being sent over the email, and you will need to
compress the file into a .zip file format. Additionally, you may be unable to send
any large files or programs from being sent over e-mail as most e-mail providers
have file size restrictions.
What should be write e-mail or email?
You can use any word email or e-mail according to the style guide you are
following as both are valid and have the same meaning. However, the e-mail word
has a hyphen and is a compound noun that describes "electronic" and "mail."
How to send and receive e-mail
E-mail program
You can use an email program to send and receive an email. An email program is
also known as an e-mail client. There are many email programs available to send
and receive an email, including Mozilla Thunderbird and Microsoft Outlook. A
server is used to store and deliver your messages while you use an email client.
Often, your ISP (Internet service provider) host this server but can be another
Internet company to host this server. To download the new emails, an email client
requires connecting a server, whereas online stored emails are always available
on Internet-connected devices.
Online e-mail
An online e-mail service or webmail is an alternative way and the popular
solution for most people in sending and receiving e-mail. Examples of online
emails are Yahoo Mail, Gmail, and Hotmail (now Outlook.com).
Some of the popular e-mail clients?
Today, there are different software-based e-mail clients available for users, but
these are not online. Below is given a list that contains the most popular clients.
o Microsoft Outlookv
o Mail for Windows 10
o DreamMail
o Mozilla Thunderbird
o eM Client
o Mailbird
What makes a valid e-mail address?
Users need to follow the various rule that is given below to make valid email
address:
o A username followed by @ (the at sign) is most important for an email
address, which is followed by the domain name with a domain suffix.
Hence, an e-mail must have a username.
 o The domain name cannot be longer than 254 characters, and the username
cannot be longer than 64 characters long.
o An email must have only one @ sign.
o An email should not have space and special characters like \ [ ] ( ) , : ; < >.
Sometimes, few symbols such as backslash, space, and quotation mark
work must be preceded with a forward slash. But these characters are not
allowed by some email providers.
o In the email, the email address and username cannot start or end with a
period.
o The two or more successive periods are not allowed in the email.

SCTP Congestion control

Congestion control tries avoiding overload situations in network components like
routers.
Congestion in network components can lead to packet loss which is handled by
the error control function of SCTP (see below). The goal of congestion control is
to avoid packet loss in the first place.
SCTP congestion control key facts
•SCTP congestion control is based on RFC2581 with some minor modifications.
•Congestion control is applied to the entire association, not individual streams.
•SCTP maintains a separate cwnd parameter for each peer destination address in
multihomed scenarios.
•As defined in RFC2581, the transmission rate starts slowly at the beginning
(slow start phase), based on feedback provided by received SACK chunks. After
the slow start phase, SCTP enters the congestion avoidance phase. In case of
congestion in the network, SCTP immediately reverts back to the slow start phase.

SCTP Slow Start and Congestion Avoidance Phases

SCTP congestion control window cwnd
cwnd and rwnd (or a_rwnd = advertised receiver window size) define 2 windows
where the smaller of the 2 determines the maximum amount of data that can be
sent.
After the slow start phase, cwnd is large so that rwnd becomes the dominant
window size.

Congestion Control Window

Slow start and congestion avoidance phases
The general mechanism applied in SCTP congestion control (as per RFC2581) is
to slowly increase the congestion window size cwnd, but to rapidly collapse the
window when there are signs of congestion.
Packet loss is deemed a sign of congestion. Note, however, that this is not always
true (e.g. on wireless links there may be packet loss due to radio signal
interferences).
Congestion control is applied to the entire association, not individual streams.
Nevertheless, cwnd is maintained per destination transport address (multihomed
scenarios).
Slow Start and Congestion Avoidance Phases