BBA-5

Computer Application
[BBA-N506]

Unit – 2

Dr. Aditya Kumar Gupta

Associate Professor
 Primary Storage Device

Primary Storage Device can store and retrieve data, as they are feed into it. The
memory of a computer is the most important component of CPU. Memory storage
units are of two types – primary and secondary storage unit. All data and programs
used unit is called internal storage, because it usually occupies the same physical
enclosures as the CPU.

The development of-semi-conductor silicon memory chips helped the computer to

retain data and programs’ instruction. The instruction retained in the chips can
initiate input/output operations and processing functions. Following clips are used as
primary storage device.

RAM (Random Access Memory)

1. SRAM(Static RAM)
2. DRAM(Dynamic RAM)

ROM (Read Only Memory)

1. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
1. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
2. EEPROM (Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

RAM(Random access Memory) RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal

memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and program result.

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Properties of RAM

 It is also known as Read and Write Memory.

 It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As
soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased. Therefore it is also known
as volatile memory.
 Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage
location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the
same amount of time.
 The location in this type of memory are organized in such a manner that the
access time required for accessing any location remaining the same.
 Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
 RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can
hold.

RAM is of two types –

1. Static RAM (SRAM) The word static indicates that the memory retains its
contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is lost when the
power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-
transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent
leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.

Characteristic of Static RAM

a) Long life
b) No need to refresh
c) Faster
d) Used as cache memory
e) Large size
f) Expensive
g) High power consumption

Computer Application [BBA-N-506]

 2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in
order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh
circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used
for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of
memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

a) Short data lifetime
b) Needs to be refreshed continuously
c) Slower as compared to SRAM
d) Used as RAM
e) Smaller in size
f) Less expensive
g) Less power consumptions

Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read data
but cannot write on it is known as ROM. This type of memory is non-volatile. The
information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. ROM
stores such instructions which are required to start a computer. This operation is
referred to as bootstrap. A manufacturer or someone else can write some
information to it, but the writing process is much more complicated as compare to
that of a RAM. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other
electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Computer Application [BBA-N-506]

The ROM can be classified as:

a) PROM
b) EPROM
c) EEPROM

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

 PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user.  The
content will become permanently fixed in the ROM.
 The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM
program.
 Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

 EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for duration of up to 40
minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming,
an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region.
 The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage
path.
 For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window
(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use,
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

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EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
 EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically.
 It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and
programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond).
 In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs
can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the
process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.
 These are very similar to EPROM and use the MOS circuitry.
 In EEPROM data is stored in the form of charge.
 The presence of charge represents one and its absence represents a zero.
 A Voltage as low as 20 to 25 Volts can be used for erasing or programming.

Advantages of ROM
1. Non-volatile in nature
2. Cannot be accidentally changed
3. Cheaper than RAMs
4. Easy to test
5. More reliable than RAMs
6. Static, and do not require refreshing
7. Contents are always known and can be verified

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 Secondary Storage Devices

As we know that the Main Memory Stores the data in a Temporary Manner means all
the data will be loss when the Power switched off. And all the data will be loss when
the power goes switched off. These are also known as auxiliary storage for the mass
storage of program and files, which are not currently being operated on, but can be
transferred to main storage when required. It is a permanent storage medium. So
that we uses the Secondary Storage devices those are used for Storing the data in a
Permanent Manner means all the Data will remain Stored whether the Power is
Switched on or Switched off means the Power Will never effect on the System. For
storing the data in a Permanent Manner we use the Magnetic Storage Devices. There
are also Some Advantages of Secondary Storage Devices.

1) Non-Volatile Storage Devices: The Non-Volatile Storage Devices are Non-Volatile

in the nature means them never loss their data when the Power goes switched off. So
that data which is Stored into the Non-Volatile Storage Devices will never be Loosed
When the Power Switched off.

2) Mass Storage: The Capacity of these Devices is very high means we can Store the
Huge Amount of data into the Secondary Storage Devices. We can Store data into the
Secondary Storage Devices in the form of Giga Bytes and Tera Bytes.

3) Cost Effective: The Cost of Secondary Storage Devices is very lower in compare to
the Main Memory So that they are also called as the more cost effective and they are
very small and couldn’t easily damage. And the data can’t be easily loss from these
Disks.

4) Reusability: As Memory Contains the Data in the Temporary as well as Permanent

Manner. But the Secondary Storage Devices are always Reusable means they can be
erased and stored any Time. Means we can add or Remove the Contents from these
Disks when we Requires.

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There are Many Types of Storage Devices those are based on the Sequential and
Random Access Means the data which is Stored into the Secondary Storage devices
can be Read either from the First Location which is also known as the Sequential
Access or Sequential Manner and the Data can be Read from these Disks and also
from any Locations. So if any Disk provides this Utility then this is called as the Direct
Access Mechanism. Various types of Secondary Storage Devices are as Followings:

1) Magnetic Tapes: The Magnetic Tapes is the Type of Secondary Storage Device and
this Device is used for taking back up of data and this Tape contains some magnetic
fields and the Magnetic Tapes are used for accessing the data into the Sequential
Form and the tape also Contains a Ribbon which is coated on the Single Side of the
Tape and also contains a head which reads the data which is Recorded on to the
Tape. When we are reading the information from the disk then we can also read
backward information means we can also back the Tape for Reading the Previous
information. And For inserting the Tape into the System we also Requires Some Tape
Drives Which Contains Tape and which is Responsible for Reading the contents from
the Tapes.

Huge amount of data can be stored into the Tape Drive. But the Main Limitation of
the Tape Drive is that we can’t Access the Data from the Disks directly means if we
want to access 100th Record from the Tape then we must have to move all the
Previous i.e. 99th Records first. And the Tapes are also easily damaged due to the
Human Errors.

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2) Magnetic Disks: - This is also called as the hard disk and this is made from the thin
metal platter which is coated on the both sides of the magnetic Disks. And there are
Many Plates or Platters into a single Hard Disk and all the Plates are made from the
Magnetic Materials and all the Disks are Rotate from the 700 to 3600 rpm means
Rotation per Minute and the Hard Disk also contains a head which is used for both
Reading and Writing the Data from the Hard Disks.

The Plate of Disk is divided into the Tracks and sectors and the collection of Tracks
makes a Cylinder means all the Tracks of the Disk which a Consecutive Areas makes a
Cylinder.

The Disk is first divided into the Number of Tracks and the Tracks are further divided
into the sectors and the Number of Tracks Makes a Cylinder. All the data is Stored
into the disk by using Some Sectors and each sectors belongs to a Tracks.
The Data is accessed from the Disk by using the heads, all the heads have Some Arm
those are used for Reading the Data from the Particular Tracks and sector. When the
Disk Rotates very high Speed then the Head also Moves, For Reading the data from
the Disk the ARM touches with the Particular Track and read the data from that
Location.

Computer Application [BBA-N-506]

For Locating a Particular data from the Disk the head Moves Around the Disk and
data which a user wants to Access must have an Address So that Arm of the head just
use that Address Means the Number of Cylinder, Number of Track and Number of
Sectors from which user wants to read the data. With the Help of these Read and
Write heads we can also Read the Data from the Disk and we can also Stores some
data onto the Disk. Some Time Considerations are also used when we are accessing
or storing the data onto the hard disk.

a) Seek Time: The Total Time which is Taken to Move on the Desired track is
known as the seek Time. And time is always measured by using the
Milliseconds.
b) Latency Time: The time required to bring the Particular Track to the Desired
Location Means the Total Time to bring the Correct the Sector for Reading or
for the read and Write head. This is also called as the Average Time.
c) Data Transfer Time: The Total Time which is required for Reading and Writing
the data into the Disk is known as the Data transfer Time.

The Magnetic Tapes are Sequential Access Device and the Hard Disk is the Direct
Access Device means the data of this Disk will be Read from Any Location and the
Data can be Read from the Disk by using the Read Write Heads. But hard Disks are
Costlier than the Simple Magnetic Tapes. But the capacity of the Hard Disk is very
high in compare to the Tapes.

3) Floppy Diskette: Floppy disk is a kind of storage device that can be used to carried
around? The Floppy Disk is also a Secondary Storage device which is used for storing
the data in a Permanent Manner. The floppy is made up of Rigid Mylar Plastic and
also contains a Magnetic black disk inside the Plastic Cover. The Floppy Disk also
Stores all the Data into the Form of Tracks and Sectors and the floppy Disk provides
both Reading and Writing the data into the Disk. The Floppy Disk is also called as
Reusable Disk means the Floppy Disk Provides us the Facility to Read and Writes the
Data into disk as and When Necessary and Also Many Times. We can Read and Write
the data from the Disk.
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The Main Advantage of the Floppy Disk is that the Data can be Stored many Times
but the Main Limitation of the floppy Disk is that floppy Disk have a Small capacity
and the Floppy Disk also doesn’t have Reliability means the Data Stored into the Disk
may not be used for Long Time because the floppy Disk is very Sensitive Thing when
we Move the Head of the Disk Again and Again then the floppy disk gets Damaged. So
that we can say that Floppy Disk is not a Reliable thing. And I the Other side the Cost
of floppy Disk is also high means with the Comparison of the Other Storage Media’s
Floppy Disk have some more cost.

4) Compact Disk: The Compact Disk Read Only Memory or CD-ROM’s is used for
Storing the data into the Disk and this is also called as Optical Disk because the CD-
ROM‘s are made up of the Golden or Aluminum Material and the data is Stored on
the Disk in the Form of the Tracks and Sectors.

Computer Application [BBA-N-506]

The Whole Disk is Divided into the Number of Tracks and the Single Track is Divided
into the Number of Sectors and the Data is Stored into the Sectors and the Disk is
Divided into the Sectors as the first Track Contains the Sectors in the huge Size and
the Other Tracks contains the Sectors in a Small Manner. So that as the Disk grows
the Disk is divided into the Small Number of Tracks and the Sectors.

CD-ROM Contains the data which is truly readable means we can’t edit the contents
of the CD-ROM Means once Data has been Written into the CD , we cannot be able to
Change the Contents of the Disk and the Data which is Stored on the Disk can be Any
Time Read by the user. The CD-ROM provides us the Large Capacity in compare to the
Floppy Disks and the CDROM can Store the Data from 650 MB to 800 MB means the
data can be Store up to this Space.

There are Many Disks that can’t be Erased once Written So they are also called as the
WORM Disks Means the Write Once and Read Many means that a user can just Write
the data only one Time and then after that he can use that Disk Many times for
reading but the user cannot Edit or Change those Contents after they are Written
into the File. So, these Disks are not Reusable. Hence, these types of Optical Disks are
also called as the CD-ROM and also Some Times they are known as the CD-R Means
the Read Only Disks because the data which is written into these Types of Disks is
never to be erased.

Now these Days there are also Some CDs Available those are also called as the CD-
RW or Read Writable Disks. As the Name Suggest these Disks Provides the feature to
the user to Read and Write the Contents from the Disk as they feel Necessary So that
the CD-RW are now Most Popular because a user can any Time Remove the Contents
from the Disk and also he can store the new Contents into the Disk. The CD-R and CD-
RW both have Same Capacity and both these can be used for Transferring the Files
from one System to another but the Main difference is that the cost. The CD-RW has
Some More Cost in compare to the Simple CD or in Compare to the CD-R.

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5) DVD : (Digital Video Disc or Digital Versatile Disc) is a digital optical disc data
storage format. It was invented and developed in 1995 and first released on
November 1, 1996, in Japan. The medium can store any kind of digital data and has
been widely used for video programs (watched using DVD players) or formerly for
storing software and other computer files as well. DVDs offer significantly higher
storage capacity than compact discs (CD) while having the same dimensions. A
standard DVD can store up to 4.7 GB of storage, while variants can store up to a
maximum of 17.08 GB.

Prerecorded DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines that physically stamp
data onto the DVD. Such discs are a form of DVD-ROM because data can only be read
and not written or erased. Blank recordable DVD discs (DVD-R and DVD+R) can be
recorded once using a DVD recorder and then function as a DVD-ROM. Rewritable
DVDs (DVD-RW, DVD+RW, and DVD-RAM) can be recorded and erased many times.

DVDs are used in DVD-Video consumer digital video format and less commonly
in DVD-Audio consumer digital audio format, as well as for authoring DVD discs
written in a special AVCHD format to hold high definition material (often in
conjunction with AVCHD format camcorders). DVDs containing other types of
information may be referred to as DVD data discs.

6) Magnetic Drum: A direct-access, or random-access, storage device. A magnetic

drum, also referred to as drum, is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide
material on which data and programs can be stored. Magnetic drums were once used
as a primary storage device but have since been implemented as auxiliary storage
devices.

As the drum rotates at a speed of up to 3,000 rpm, the device's read/write heads
deposit magnetized spots on the drum during the write operation and sense these
spots during a read operation. This action is similar to that of a magnetic tape or disk
drive. Unlike some disk packs, the magnetic drum cannot be physically removed. The
drum is permanently mounted in the device. Magnetic drums are able to retrieve
data at a quicker rate than tape or disk devices but are not able to store as much data
as either of them.

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7) Magnetic Tape: is a medium for magnetic storage made of a thin, magnetizable
coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was developed in Germany in 1928,
based on the earlier magnetic wire recording from Denmark. Devices that use
magnetic tape could with relative ease record and playback audio, visual and binary
computer data.

Magnetic tape is used for sound recording and production and broadcasting. It
allowed radio, which had always been broadcast live, to be recorded for later or
repeated airing. Since the early 1950s, magnetic tape has been used with computers
to store large quantities of data and is still used for backup purposes. Magnetic tape
begins to degrade after 10–20 years and therefore is not an ideal medium for long-
term archival storage.

Cartridge: A cartridge is encased within plastic case and typically contains reel of tape
or a disk platter. While cassettes are for tape only and have both a supply and take-
up reel. It is a removable storage module for magnetic disks, optical discs, magnetic
tape or memory chips.

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 Storage Concepts

Data can be stored in many formats in any computer hardware. This completely
depends on the application that is creating this data. Following are some of the well-
known data storage formats and access mechanisms.

Disk Storage: Many of the disk operations like “read” and “write” involve disk
storage. Disk storage is one of the most heavily used mechanisms as on today. In Disk
storage, also many types and methods have evolved over a period.

Block Storage: Data is stored in “logical blocks” these blocks are smallest units of
storage with addresses attached to them in any storage subsystem. Disk level
read/write operations can be used for block storage and block storage access.

File Storage: Any data file is nothing but collection of “block of blocks” of data. Any
file typically will contain two parts:

1. Meta data of a file which stores the directory structure and information about
the file.

2. File content which contains the actual file content part of the data. File storage
leads to File Systems, which will have directories, files, regular files and etc. file
related meta data inside them. These File Systems are logically arranged for
ease of access and data operation.

Database Storage: DB storage is data storage for faster access with or without data
relation. DB storage is at the software level of data storage and will involve SQL or
No-SQL based data storage with Primary key and secondary key mechanisms. These
data bases either will be relational and no-relational types. The scope in this article
will not cover these concepts.

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 Memory Access Methods
Sequential Access: In computing, sequential access memory (SAM) is a class of data
storage devices that read stored data in a sequence. This is in contrast to random
access memory (RAM) where data can be accessed in any order. Sequential access
devices are usually a form of magnetic storage or optical storage. While sequential
access memory is read in sequence, arbitrary locations can still be accessed by
"seeking" to the requested location. This operation, however, is often relatively
inefficient because it see seek time. Magnetic sequential access memory is typically
used for secondary storage in general-purpose computers due to their higher density
at lower cost compared to RAM, as well as resistance to wear and non-
volatility. Magnetic tape is a type of sequential access memory still in use;
historically, drum memory has also been used.

Direct Access: Direct memory access (DMA) is a feature of computer systems and
allows certain hardware subsystems to access main system memory independently of
the central processing unit (CPU). Without DMA, when the CPU is using programmed
input/output, it is typically fully occupied for the entire duration of the read or writes
operation, and is thus unavailable to perform other work. DMA is also used for intra-
chip data transfer in multi-core processors. Computers that have DMA channels can
transfer data to and from devices with much less CPU overhead than computers
without DMA channels. Similarly, a processing circuitry inside a multi-core processor
can transfer data to and from its local memory without occupying its processor time,
allowing computation and data transfer to proceed in parallel. DMA can also be used
for "memory to memory" copying or moving of data within memory. DMA can
offload expensive memory operations, such as large copies or scatter-
gather operations, from the CPU to a dedicated DMA engine. An implementation
example is the I/O Acceleration Technology. DMA is of interest in network-on-
chip and in-memory computing architectures.

End of the Unit-2

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