MCH 2016 - Manufacturing

Processes and Materials

Class 2 - Solidification Processes
Solidification processes (Ch. 5)
• Casting alloys
• Melting practices
• Furnaces
• Casting types
• Design considerations
Classification of solidification
Solidification of metals
 Solid solutions
• Solute & solvent
• Solvent crystal structure maintained —> solid solution
• Substitutional solid solutions
• Atom sizes are similar
• Properties can be altered mildly
• Brass (copper + zinc)
• Interstitial solid solutions
• Solute atoms much smaller
• Properties can be altered significantly
• Steel (iron + carbon)
 Phase diagrams
• Illustration of solidification relationships
based on temperature and composition
• Binary phase diagram —> two elements
• Instead of a T for solidification —> range
• Lever rule
• Weight fractions of solid & liquid
Nickel-copper phase diagram
 Iron-carbon system
• Ferrite
• Soft, ductile, magnetic, low C interstitially
• Alpha ferrite / ferrite (α-Fe)
• Solid solution of BCC Fe & low C & low T
• Delta ferrite (δ-Fe)
• Stable at high T only —> not practical
• Austenite
• Cementite (carbide)
 Iron-carbon system
• Ferrite
• Austenite (γ-Fe)
• High T (912-1394C for pure Fe)
• FCC crystal structure —> easier to get C atoms in
an interstitial substitution
• Up to 2.11% C (opposed to 0.022% C in ferrite)
• Denser than ferrite, ductile, good formability
• Heat treatment of steels
• Non-magnetic (stays non-M at room T for stainless)
• Cementite (carbide)
 Iron-carbon system
• Ferrite
• Austenite (γ-Fe)
• Cementite (carbide)
• Fe3C (iron carbide) at 6.67% C
• Very hard & brittle
• Significantly influences properties of
steels
Iron - iron carbide phase diagram
 Further alloying iron
• Adding different materials have different
effects
• FCC-favoring metals create austenitic
iron (Ni)
• BCC-favoring metals create ferritic iron
(Cr, Mo)
• Carbon creates cementitic iron
Cast structures
Cast structures
 Solidification time
• Chvorinov’s rule for solidification time
n
⎛V ⎞
TTS = Cm ⎜ ⎟
⎝ A⎠
• TTS: Total solidification time
• V: Volume of casting, A: surface area of casting, n:
exponent (~2)
• Cm: Mold constant
– Mold material, T properties of metal, pouring vs.
melting T
– Experimentally determined with same conditions
(except for mold / part shape)
 Shrinkage
• Three sources:
• Liquid contraction
• Solidification
• Internal freezing
• Causes dimensional changes & cracking
• Occurs in all materials due to higher solid phase density
– Exception: gray cast iron with high carbon
• Graphitization counteracts volumetric decrease
• Solution: oversizing the mold
– Pattern shrinkage allowance
Shrinkage
 Directional solidification
• Minimize the effects of shrinkage
• Would like to freeze regions distant from supply first
– Progress solidification toward the riser
• Use Chvorinov’s rule to design n
⎛V ⎞
– Casting shape and orientation TTS = Cm ⎜ ⎟
⎝ A⎠
– Riser system
• Sections with low V/A - place riser at a distance
– First to freeze, leave fluid flow open
• Use chills (heat sinks) - freeze some regions at the
desired time
Use of external chills
 Fundamentals of metal casting
• Molten metal flowing into a mold by any
force (e.g. gravity) and solidifying in the
shape of the mold cavity
• Melt the metal
• Pour into a mold
• Let freeze
 Capabilities & advantages
• Create complex part geometries
• External & internal shapes possible
• Net-shape or near-net shape process
• Can produce very large parts
• Engine blocks, pipes, stoves, statues
• Also dental crowns, jewelry, frying pans
• Some methods suited to mass production
 Disadvantages
• Limitations on mechanical properties
• Poor dimensional accuracy & surface
finish for some methods (e.g. sand
casting)
• Safety hazard (hot molten metal)
• Environmental issues
 Casting technology
• Make molds
• Melt & handle molten metal
• Perform casting process
• Clean finished casting
• Usually performed in a foundry
Mold types
 Categories of casting
• Expandable mold - destroyed to remove casting
• Sand, plaster, etc. (+binders)
• More intricate geometries possible
• Permanent mold - can produce multiple castings
• Metal, ceramic
• Need to open mold —> limitations on
geometry
• More economic —> suitable for high
production
 Expendable mold casting
• Sand casting
• Shell molding
• Vacuum molding
• Evaporative foam
• Investment casting
• Plaster mold casting
• Ceramic mold casting
 Sand casting
• Most widely used
• Nearly all alloys including high
melting point metals
– Steel, nickel, titanium
• Size & production quantity
vary
• Mold making
– Pack sand around a pattern
– Include core if needed
– Include gating & riser
Industial pump (holes & surfaces machined)
 Sand casting sequence
• Inputs: Sand, raw material, pattern material
• Designs: Pattern, mold, core
• Process: Melt, pour, freeze, cool
• Post-process: Remove / break, clean & inspect
Sand casting
Sand casting
Mould setup
 Pattern
• Full-size model of part (slightly enlarged)
– Shrinkage AND machining allowances
• Wood, metal, plastic
• Solid, split, match-plate, cope & drag patterns
 Core
• Full-size model of interior features
• Insert before pouring
• May require “chaplets” to support
 Riser
• Waste material
– Separated from casting
– Remelted for reuse
• To minimize waste, minimal volume
should be used
• Designed to maximize selective freezing
– Select minimum volume that works for
the purpose
 Example
• The best design for a riser is sought after.
Determine the best choice of following
casting geometries to minimize the total
solidification time: a sphere with a radius
of x, a cylinder with a radius x and height
x, and a cube with the side lengths of x.
n
⎛V ⎞
TTS = Cm ⎜ ⎟
⎝ A⎠
 Mold properties
• Maintain shape & resist erosion - strong
• Allow hot air and gases to pass through -
permeable
• Crack-resistant on contact - thermally
stable
• Allow casting to shrink - collapsible
• Allow multiple uses for efficiency -
reusable
 Sand
• Silica (SiO2) mixed with other minerals
– Typically water, clay, resins, sodium phosphate
– Mostly binding
– Sometimes also to increase strength &/ permeability
• High strength at elevated T
• Small grains allow better surface finish
• Large grains allow more permeability
• Irregular grain shapes and sizes strengthen mold
– Reduces permeability
 Types of sand mold
• Green sand mold
– Mixture of sand, clay, water
– Moisture at time of pouring
• Dry sand mold
– Organic binders instead of clay
– Mold is baked to improve strength
• Skin dried mold
– Green sand mold surface heated & dried to 10-25
mm depth
– Torches or heating lamps
 Shell molding
• Shell: a thin layer of sand held together by thermosetting resin
– Heated metal pattern placed over a box with sand & TS resin
– Box inverted to partially cure sand + resin & form hard shell
– Box is repositioned to drop loose uncured particles
• Sand shell is heated in oven to complete curing
• Shell mold is stripped from pattern
» Two halves of shell mold assembled
» Supported by sand or metal shot
Shell moulding
 Shell molding: + / -
• Smooth cavity - better surface finish &
permeability
• Dimensional accuracy
• Collapsible mold - minimal cracks
• Mass production possible
• Metal pattern expensive
• Small quantities - cost not easily justifiable
 Vacuum molding
• Sand mold held together by vacuum pressure
• No chemical binders (water, clay, resin, etc.)
– Sand recovered easily
– No mechanical reconditioning required
– Moisture-related defects are avoided
• Slow process
 Evaporative foam process
• Mold of sand around a polystyrene foam pattern
– Pattern vaporizes when molten metal is poured
– Pattern includes downsprue, riser(s), gating, cores
– AKA expanded polystyrene, lost foam, lost pattern
• Automobile engine castings
• No need to remove pattern
• Simple and quick molding
• A new pattern for each casting needed
• Cost of producing patterns drives financial justification
 Evaporative foam process
• Pattern coated with refractory compound
• Placed in mold box + covered with sand
• Molten metal poured
• Foam is vaporized
Evaporative foam process
 Investment casting
• Create wax pattern (instead of foam in evaporative foam)
– Pattern covered with refractory material
– “Invest”: cover completely (refractory material)
– Wax is melted away before pouring
• Precise casting, complex & detailed design
– Post-processing is not required
• Net shape or near-net shape
• Wax is reusable
• Many steps of process exist & relatively expensive
Investment casting process
Investment casting
Investment casting
 Plaster mold casting
• Similar to sand casting, but mold is made of plaster
– Plaster + water poured over plastic or metal pattern
• Wood pattern not used due to contact with water
– Allowed to set (dry plaster + water requires time to set)
• Good accuracy & surface finish
• Capable of doing thin cross sections
• Moisture-related issues - need to bake mold
– If over-baked, mold becomes weaker
• Cannot withstand high T - limited to low melting point alloys
Plaster mold casting
 Ceramic mold casting
• Similar to plaster mold casting
– Mold is made of refractory ceramic
material
• Able to withstand high temperature
• Can cast steel, iron, etc.
– Good accuracy & finish (similar to
plaster)
– More expensive than plaster mold casting
 Permanent mold casting
• Die casting
– Hot-chamber
– Cold-chamber
• Squeeze casting
• Centrifugal casting
– True centrifugal casting
– Semi-centrifugal casting
– Centrifuge casting
 Permanent mold basics
• Two-section metal molds, precision in opening and closing
– Lower melting point alloys -> Steel / cast iron mold
– Higher melting point alloys -> Refractory material
• Preheat & coat mold for lubrication & heat dissipation
• Good dimensional control & surface finish, stronger casting
• Simpler part geometries (compared to sand casting)
• High cost of mold
 Die casting
• High pressure injection of metal (piston)
– Maintained during solidification
• Machine: use force to close and hold mold halves
– Hot-chamber and cold-chamber (container)
• Hot: High production rate (500 parts/hr)
– Limited to low melting-point metals (Zn, Mg, Sn, Pb)
• Also chemical stability b/w metal & piston, machine, etc.
• Cold: Poured into unheated chamber & injected
– Not as fast (but still high p), suitable for Al, Mg-alloys, brass
Hot vs. cold chamber
 Die casting
• Mold Material: tool steel, mold steel, maraging steel
– W & Mo for die casting steel & iron (refractory
qualities)
• Lubricant use needed to prevent sticking
• Large production economical, good accuracy & finish
• Thin sections possible
• Rapid cooling -> small grain size & good strength
• Mostly limited to metals w/ low melting points
• Part geometry restrictions (must allow removal)
Die casting
 Squeeze casting
• Casting + forging
– Molten metal poured into preheated lower die
– Upper die closed to create mold cavity after
freezing starts
• Compared to conventional closed-mold casting
– Die halves are closed after solidification starts
• Compared to conventional forging
– Less pressure
– Finer surface details
 Centrifugal casting
• Rotated mold
– High speed
– Centrifugal force distributes molten
metal to outer regions
• Types of centrifugal casting
– True centrifugal casting
– Semicentrifugal casting
– Centrifuge casting
 True centrifugal casting
• Mold rotates, tubular part is created
– Sometimes mold rotation starts after pouring
• Pipes, tubes, rings
• Possible to create non-round outside shape (will freeze first)
– Inside shape is perfectly round due to radially symmetric forces
 Semicentrifugal casting
• Non-tubular parts
• Use centrifugal force to ensure quality in outer sections
– Density of metal is usually greater at outer parts
– Mostly for parts where the center of casting is
machined away
– Wheels, pulleys
 Centrifuge casting
• Use centrifugal force to create multiple small parts
• Radial symmetry not required for parts
• Locate part cavities away from axis of rotation
Centrifugal casting
Casting processes & + / -
 Furnaces for metal casting
• Cupolas - iron
• Direct fuel-fired furnaces - Cu-alloys & Al
– Burners on the side of the furnace, tap hole on the bottom
• Crucible (indirect fuel-fired) furnaces - bronze, brass, Al, Zn
alloys
– No direct contact with burning fuel
• Electric-arc furnaces - steel
– Use electricity to melt, high power consumption & melting
capacity
• Induction furnaces - steel, iron, Al
– Alternating current, rapid heating & melting
 Cupolas
• Only for casting iron
– Largest tonnage for Fe
• Vertical, cylindrical,
tapping spout to retrieve
molten Fe
• Charge loaded from
halfway
• Refractory lining
• Slag spout
• Wind box window
 Post-processing
• Trimming
• Core removal
• Surface cleaning, inspection & repair
• Heat treatment
 Post-processing
• Trimming
– Remove downsprue, runners, risers, chaplets, etc.
– If brittle casting, break off
– Otherwise saw, abrasive cut, hammer, shear, etc.
• Core removal
• Surface cleaning, inspection & repair
• Heat treatment
 Post-processing
• Trimming
• Core removal
– May fall off, or be removed by shaking
– Sometimes chemically removed
– Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out
• Surface cleaning, inspection & repair
• Heat treatment
 Post-processing
• Trimming
• Core removal
• Surface cleaning, inspection & repair
– Remove sand - tumbling, air-blasting, brushing
– Defects possible - inspection required
• Heat treatment
 Post-processing
• Trimming
• Core removal
• Surface cleaning, inspection & repair
• Heat treatment
– Enhance properties
– Prepare for subsequent processes (machining)
 Casting quality - defects
• Misrun - a casting that froze before
completely filling mold cavity
• Cold shots - solid globules of metal
forming and becoming entrapped
in casting
• Shrinkage cavity - Depression in
surface caused by solidification
shrinkage
• Penetration - Mixture of sand
grains and metal on the surface of
casting due to high fluidity of
liquid metal penetrating into sand
 Material selection
• Most commercial - alloys rather than pure metals
– Easier to cast, better properties
• Ferrous casting alloys
– Fe - big percentage, typically ~1400˚C
– Steel - Mechanical properties, complex geometries
• ~1650˚C - molten steel must be isolated from
air (oxidation)
• Poor fluidity
• Non-ferrous casting alloys
 Material selection
• Most commercial - alloys rather than pure
metals
– Easier to cast, better properties
• Ferrous casting alloys
• Non-ferrous casting alloys
– Al - very castable (660˚C), light weight, easy to machine
– Cu alloys - corrosion resistant, nice looking, expensive
– Zn alloys - very castable (419 ˚C), good fluidity
 Product design
• Complex geometries possible, but simpler geometries
cast better
– Simpler mold making, reduced cores, improved
strength
• Sharp corners should be avoided (stress concentrations)
• Draft - tapers to help remove parts from molds
• Keep in mind dimensional tolerances and surface finish
requirements
– Sand casting: poor, die & investment casting: good
• Machining allowances - usually 1-3 mm (1/16 - 1/8 in)
Suggested design modifications
Suggested design modifications
Economies of casting