The Copperbelt University

School of Mathematics And Natural Sciences

Department of Mathematics

MA110: Mathematical Methods

May 23, 2020

Group (E), Lecture 05 notes Lecturer: T. Sinyangwe.

Contents
1 Arrangements, Permutations and Combinations 2
1.1 Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 The Multiplication Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Factorial Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 The Binomial Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 The Formula for a Binomial Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.2 Pascal’s Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.7 The (k + 1)th Term of a Binomial Expansion . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.10 The Term Independent of x In The Binomial Expansion . . . 10
1.5.12 The Binomial for any Index or Power n . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1
1 Arrangements, Permutations and Combinations
1.1 Arrangements
1.1.1 The Multiplication Principle
Suppose that there are n1 ways of performing a certain task and n2 ways of performing
another task, then the multiplication principle implies that there are n1 × n2 ways of
performing a combined two tasks.

Example 1.1.2 The chairs of the exam room are to be labelled with an upper case
English letter followed by a positive integer not exceeding 100. What is the largest
number of chairs that can be labeled differently?

Solution
The procedure of labelling a chair consists of two tasks, namely, assigning to the seat
one of the 26 uppercase English letters, and then assigning to it one of the 100 possible
integers. Thus, by the multiplication principle, we have

26 × 100 = 2600

differently ways that a chair can be labelled. Therefore, the largest number of chairs
that can be labelled differently is 2600.

Example 1.1.3 A certain restaurant at CBU offers a choice of three cereals and four
relishes. How many different meals are available in the restaurant?

Solution
Since there are three choices of cereals and four different kinds of relish, then by the
multiplication principle, there are 3 × 3 = 12 different meals available in the restau-
rant.

1.1.4 Factorial Notation

Let n be any natural number; then we define a factorial of any number n to be;

n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (2)(1)

We also adopt the conversion that 0! = 1.

Example 1.1.5 Evaluate the following

(i) 1! (ii) 0! (iii) 6! (iv) n!

Solution

(i) 1! = 1 (ii) 0! = 1 (iii) 6! = (6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)

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(iv) n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)!

Example 1.1.6 For each problem below;

9!
(i) Simplify .
2!7!
(ii) Write 40 × 39 × 38 × 37 in the factorial notation.
Solution

(i) Writing in full

9! 9×8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
=
2!7! 2×1×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
9×8
=
2×1
= 36

(ii) Here 40 × 39 × 38 × 37 can be written as;

36 × 35 × · · · × 2 × 1
40 × 39 × 38 × 37 = 40 × 39 × 38 × 37 ×
36 × 35 × · · · × 2 × 1
40!
= .
36!

1.2 Permutations
Definition 1.2.1 Let n ∈ Z be the number of objects in a set. Then an arrangement
k ≤ n of these n objects in a given order is called a permutation of the object taking
k at a time.

Theorem 1.2.2 (Permutation) Suppose n, k ∈ Z such that 0 ≤ k ≤ n, then the

permutation is given by;
n n!
Pk =
(n − k)!

By Theorem 1.2.2, we see that if n ∈ Z+ , then

n n! n! n!
Pn = = = = n!
(n − n)! 0! 1
Thus, n Pn = n!
Note 1.2.3 (i) A permutation is just an ordered arrangement of distinct objects.

(ii) The number of objects to be permutated is denoted by n.

(iii) The number of positions to be occupied by the objects is denoted by k.

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Example 1.2.4 Find the permutation of letters A, B, C, D.

(i) Taking four at a time

(ii) Taking three at a time

(iii) Taking two at a time

Solution

(i) When k = 4, and since n = 4, then there are;

4
P4 = 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24

Permutations. That is

ABCD ABDC ACBD ACDB ADBC ADCB

BACD BADC BCAD BCDA BDAC BDCA
CABD CADB CBAD CBDA CDAB CDBA
DABC DACB DBAC DBCA DCAB DCBA

(ii) When k = 3, we have;

4 4!
P3 = = 24 Permutations
(4 − 3)!

(iii) When k = 2, we have;

4 4! 4! 4 × 3 × 2×
P2 = = = = 12
(4 − 2)! 2! 2×1

Example 1.2.5 How many permutations are possible for the letters A,B,C,D and F.

(i) Taking 6 at a time

(ii) Taking 3 at a time

Solution

(i) For n = 6 objects and k = 6, we have

6
P6 = 6! = 720 permutations

(ii) For n = 6 objects and k = 3, we have

6 6! 6! 6 × 5 × 4 × 3!
P3 = = = = 6 × 5 × 4 = 120 permutations
(6 − 3)! 3! 3!

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1.3 Combination
Definition 1.3.1 (Combinations) A combination is an arrangement of objects with-
out regards to order. That is in a combination, the order in which the objects are
arranged do not matter.

Theorem 1.3.2 (Combination) Suppose that n, k ∈ Z such that 0 ≤ k ≤ n, then

the combination of n objects in k ways is;

n n!
Ck =
k!(n − k)!

Note 1.3.3 In a combination order is NOT important where as in a permutation

order is important.

Example 1.3.4 Determine the number of combinations for the letters A,B,C and D,
taking 3 letters at a time.

Solution
For the letters A,B,C and D, we expect to have

4 4! 4 × 3!
C3 = = =4
3!(4 − 3)! 3! × 1!

Example 1.3.5 A committee of 3 representatives is to be selected from a class of 8

students. How many different composed committees can possibly be selected?

Solution
Here we have n = 8 and k = 3, thus

8 8!
C3 =
(8 − 3)!3!
8!
=
5! × 3!
8 × 7 × 6 × 5!
=
5! × 3!
8×7×6
=
3!
8×7×6
=
6
=8×7
= 56 committees.

Example 1.3.6 Five students have been selected to the student union.

(i) If a committee of 3 member is to be chosen from these 5 students, how many

differently composed committees are possible?

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 (ii) If the 3 members to be chosen are instead to become Chairperson, Secretary and
Treasurer, how many different line ups from the 5 students are possible?
Solution
(i) Here the 3 members chosen from these 5 students have no order. Therefore, we
can use combination ;

5 5! 5 × 4 × 3! 5 × 4 × 3! 5×4
C3 = = = = = 10.
(5 − 3)!3! (5 − 3)!3! 2! × 3! 2
Hence, we will have 10 different committees.
(ii) Since the 3 members to be chosen have occupy specific positions, that is Chair-
person, Secretary and Treasurer, then in this case order is important. Thus, we
use permutation i.e.

5 5! 5! 5 × 4 × 3 × 2!
p3 = = = = 60.
(5 − 3)! 2! 2!
Hence we will have 60 line ups.

1.4 The Binomial Expansion

1.4.1 Introduction
In certain situations in mathematics, it is necessary to write (x + y)n as the sum of
its terms. A binomial is just the sum or difference of two terms, and since (x + y) is a
binomial, then the process of writing (x+y)n as a sum of its terms is called expanding
the binomial. For small values of n, it is relatively easy to write the expansion by using
multiplication. For example for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 we have the following expansions of
(x + y)n as

(x + y)0 =1
(x + y)1 =x+y
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3
(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3 y + 6x2 y 2 + 4x3 + y 4
(x + y)5 = x5 + 5x4 y + 10x3 y 2 + 10x2 y 3 + 5xy 4 + y 5

We should continue to build on previous expansions and have a quite comprehensive

list of binomial expansions. Instead we will look at the Binomial Theorem that will
enables us to expand (x + y)n directly without multiplying.
Observation 1.4.2 From the previous expansions, we observe that for each
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 the following statements are true:
(i) The first term is always xn . The exponent on x decreases by 1 for each successive
term.

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 (ii) The exponent on y increases by 1 for each successive term. The last term is y n .

(iii) In each expansion, there are n+1 term. Each coefficient

 of
 a term of a Binomial
n
expansion is called a binomial coefficient denoted by or n Ck .
k

1.5 The Formula for a Binomial Coefficient

In the expansion of (x + y)n , for a positive integer n, the coefficient of the term whose
variable part is xn−k y k is  
n n!
=
k k!(n − k)!
For example, the first term of the expansion of (x + y)n can be thought of as xn b0 .
In this case, we can calculate the coefficient of this term as
 
n n! n!
= = =1
0 0!(n − 0)! 1 · n!

Example 1.5.1 Evaluate each binomial coefficient

   
9 10
(i) (ii)
6 10
Solution

 
9 9! 9! 9 × 8 × 7 × 6!
(i) = = = = 84
6 6!(9 − 6)! 6!3! 6! × 3 × 2×
 
10 10! 10!
(ii) = = =1
10 10!(10 − 10)! 10!0!

1.5.2 Pascal’s Triangle

Consider the expansion of (x + y)n for values of n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 a pattern for the
coefficients of the terms can be written in a triangular array called Pascal’s Triangle
as shown below.
n=0: 1
n=1: 1 1
n=2: 1 2 1
n=3: 1 3 3 1
n=4: 1 4 6 4 1
n=5: 1 5 10 10 5 1

Pascal’s Triangle can be used to expand a binomial for small values of n.

Example 1.5.3 Use Pascal’s Triangle to find the expansion of

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 (i) (x + 2y)3 (ii) (2x − 5)5

Solution

(i) Here for n = 3, the coefficients from the Pascals Triangle are

1 3 3 1

Thus,

(x + 2y)3 = 1(x)3 + 3(x)2 (2y) + 3(x)(2y)2 + 1(2y)3

= x3 + 6x2 y + 6xy 2 + 8y 3

(ii) For n = 5, the coefficients from the Pascal’s Triangle are

1 5 10 10 5 1

Thus,

(2x − 5)5 = 1(2x)5 + 5(2x)3 (−5) + 10(2x)3 (−5)2 + 10(2x)2 (−5)3 + 5(2x)(−5)4 + 1(−5)5
= 32x5 − 400x4 + 2000x3 − 5000x2 + 6250x − 3125

Exercise 1.5.4 Expand (2x − 3y 2 )6 using Pascal’s triangle.

Now for large number of n, (a + b)n can be difficult to expand using Pascal’s Triangle.
Hence, we introduce the Binomial Theorem for positive integers.

Theorem 1.5.5 (Binomial Theorem) If n is any positive integer, then

n          
n
X n n−k k n n n n−1 n n−2 2 n n
(a + b) = a b = a + a b+ a b + ··· + b .
k 0 1 2 n
k=0

Example 1.5.6 Use the Binomial Theorem to expand the following.

√
(i) (x + 4)5 (ii) (x − 2)4 (iii) (2x2 + 3)3 (iv) ( x − 2y)5

Solution

(i) Using the Binomial Theorem we expand (x + 4)5

           
5 5 5 5 4 5 3 2 5 2 3 5 4 5
(x + 4) = x + x (4) + x (4) + x (4) + x(4) + (4)5
0 1 2 3 4 5

= x5 + 20x4 + 160x3 + 640x2 + 1280x + 1024.

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 (i) Using the Binomial Theorem we expand (x − 2)4
         
4 4 4 4 3 4 2 2 4 3 4
(x − 2) = x + x (−2) + x (−2) + x(−2) + (−2)4
0 1 2 3 4

= x4 − 8x3 + 24x2 − 32x + 16.

(iii) Using the Binomial Theorem we expand (2x2 + 3)4

         
4 4 2 4 4 2 3 4 2 2 4 2 3 4
(2x + 3) = (2x ) + (2x ) (3) + (2x) (3) + (2x )(3) + (3)4
0 1 2 3 4

= 16x8 + 16x6 + 216x4 + 216x2 + 18.

√
(iv) Using the Binomial Theorem we expand ( x − 2y)5

√ 5 √ 5 5 √ 4 5 √ 3 5 √ 3
       
5 2
( x − 2y) = ( x) + ( x) (−2y) + ( x) (−2y) + ( x) (−2y)3
0 1 2 3
5 √
   
4 5
+ ( x)(−2y) + (−2y)5
4 5

5 3 1
= x 3 − 10x2 y + 40x 2 − 80xy 3 + 80x 2 y 4 − 32y 5 .

1.5.7 The (k + 1)th Term of a Binomial Expansion

The (x + y)th term of the Binomial expansion of (x + y)n is given by
 
n n−k k
Tk+1 = a b
k

Example 1.5.8 Find the third term of the expansion (2x − y)3

Solution
Since we want the third term, then k + 1 = 3 ⇒ k = 2. Thus
 
3
T2+1 = T3 = (2x)3−2 (−y)2
2
= 3(2x)(y 2 )
∴ T3 = 6xy 2

Example 1.5.9 Find the fourth term in the expansion of (2x2 − 3y 2 )5 .

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Solution
Here, n = 5 and k + 1 = 4 ⇒ k = 3. Thus
 
5
T3+1 = T4 = (2x3 )5−3 (−3y 2 )3
3
= 10(2x3 )2 (−3y 2 )3
∴ T4 = −1080x6 y 6

1.5.10 The Term Independent of x In The Binomial Expansion

Example 1.5.11 Find the term independent of x in the binomial expansion of the
following.
 8  18
1 2
(i) x − (ii) 3x − 2
x x
Solution

(i) For (a + b)n , the (k + 1)th term is

 
n n−k k
Tk+1 = a b (1)
k
 8
1 1
Now for x − , n = 8, k =?, a = x and b = − . Using Equation (1) we
x x
have;
   k
8 8−k 1
Tk+1 = x −
k x
Now the term independent of x is found by setting 8 − k = k and solve for k.
That is 8 − k = 4 ⇒ k = 4. Thus, the independent term is at
   4
8 8−4 1
T4+1 = x −
4 x
1
= 70x4 · 4
x
= 70

 18
2 2
(ii) 3x − 2 . Here n = 18, a = 3x, b = − 2 , k =?. Now for the term
x x
independent of x we use the formula for the (k + 1)th term.
   k
18 18−k 2
Tk+1 = (3x) − 2
k x

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 at a constant term, the degree of the variable a and that of the variable b are
suppose to be equal. That is

18 − k = 2k
⇒ 3k = 18
⇒ k = 6.

Thus, the term independent of x is

   6
18 18−6 2
T6+1 = T7 = (3x) − 2
6 x
 
18
= (3)12 (2)6 .
6

1.5.12 The Binomial for any Index or Power n

Theorem 1.5.13 For any rational number n

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + · · · + xn .
2! 3!
Provided |x| < 1.

Proof
From the Binomial theorem, we know that
       
n n n n n−1 1 n n−2 2 n n
(1 + x) = 1 + 1 x + 1 x + ··· + x .
1 1 2 n

But we know that    

n n
= = 1.
0 n
Thus, it follows that
n! n! n! n!
(1 + x)n = 1 + x+ x2 + x3 + · · · + xn
(n − 1)!1! (n − 2)!2! (n − 3)!3! (n − n)!n!

n(n − 1)! n(n − 1)(n − 2)! 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)! 3

=1+ x+ x + x + · · · + xn
(n − 1)! (n − 2)!2! (n − 3)!3!

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

= 1 + nx + x + x + · · · + xn .
2! 3!
Hence proved.

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Example 1.5.14 Use the Binomial Expansion of (1 + x)n to expand (1 − 2x)3

Solution
We know that
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + · · · + xn
2! 3!
1
Then since | − 2x| = 2|x| < 1 ⇒ |x| < < 1. Then
2
(1 − 2x)3 = [1 + (−2x)]3
(3)(2)(−2x)2 (3)(2)(1)(−2x)3
= 1 + 3(−2x) + +
2! 3!
= 1 − 6x + 12x2 − 8x3 .

Theorem 1.5.15 (The Binomial Theorem for any Rational Index (n)) Recall
by definition that
n n!
Ck = .
(n − k)!k!
But
n! n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1)(n − k)!
=
(n − k)!k! (n − k)!k!
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1)
=
  k!
n
= .
k

Note 1.5.16 The form of n Ck has no meaning when n is either negative or a fraction.
Thus we use the notation
 
n n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1)
=
k k!
 
n n
unlike the symbol Ck , the symbol may be used when n is a negative number or
k
a fraction.

Example 1.5.17 Evaluate

1
 
−5
(i) (ii) −5
C2 (iii)  2 
 
2
2
Solution

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−5 −5 × −6 30
(i) = = =5
2 2! 2
−5
(ii) Here C2 has no meaning.
1 1 1 1
×− −
2
(iii)   = 2 2 = 4 = −1
2! 2 8
2

Thus, for any rational number n, we have

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1)
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + ··· + + ···
2! k!
(i) When n is any natural number, the expansion is finite and exact. This is not
generally the case when n is negative or fraction. In the latter case it is an
infinite series.
(ii) This expansion is valid only when |x| < 1.

Example 1.5.18 Find the Binomial expansion of the following and state the valid
interval of expansion.
1 √ 1 1
(i) (ii) 1 − 3x (iii) (iv) (1 − x) 3
1+x (1 + 4x)2
Solution
Using the result
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + · · · + xn
2! 3!
we have
1
(i) = (1 + x)−1 . Here n = −1, it follows that
1+x
(−1)(−2) 2 (−1)(−2)(−3) 3
(1 + x)−1 = 1(−1)(x) + x + x + ···
2! 3!
= 1 − x + x2 − x3 + · · ·

Provided |x| < 1

√ 1
(ii) Here 1 − 3x = (1 − 3x) 2 , and so n = 12 . Thus, it follows that;
1 1
( − 1) ( 1 )( 1 − 1)( 12 − 2)
 
1 1
(1 − 3x) 2 = 1 + (−3x) + 2 2 (−3x)2 + 2 2 (−3x)3 + · · ·
2 2! 3!
3 9 81
= 1 − x − x2 − x3 + · · ·
2 8 6
1 1
Provided | − 3x| = 3|x| < 1 ⇒ |x| < 3
Thus, |x| < 3
is the interval in which the
expansion is valid.

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 1
(iii) Here (1 − x) 3 we have n = 13 . Thus from the result of (1 + x)n , we have
( 13 )( 31 − 1) ( 13 )( 31 − 1)( 13 − 2)
 
1 1 2
(1 − x) = 1 +
3 (−x) + (−x) + (−x)3 + · · ·
2 2! 3!
1 1 5
= 1 − x − x2 − x 3 + · · ·
3 9 81
Provided | − x| = |x| < 1 which is the interval in which the expansion is valid.
1
(iv) Here = (1 + 4x)−2 . Thus , n = −2, and so we have;
(1 + 4x)2
(−2)(−2 − 1) (−2)(−2 − 1)(−2 − 2)
(1 + 4x)−2 = 1(−2)(4x) + (4x)2 + (4x)3 + · · ·
2! 3!
= 1 − 8x + 48x2 − 256x3 + · · ·
And the expansion is valid for the interval
|4x| = 4|x| < 1
1
=⇒|x| < .
4
One can also use the result of Binomial expansion of (1 + x)n to expand (a + bx)n for
any constant a and b by simply taking out a as a factor.
Example 1.5.19 Find the four terms in the Binomial expansion of the following;
√ 1
(i) 4 + x (ii)
(2 + 3x)2
Solution
We know that
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + ···
2! 3!
Then
(i)
 1 1
√ x 2 √
  
1 x 2
4 + x = (4 + x) = 4 1 +
2 = 4 1+
4 4
and so here n = 21 . Thus,
1   2
( 12 )( 12 − 1)( 12 − 2) x 3
   
x 2 1 x
2 1+ = 1+ + + ···
4 2 4 3! 4
 1 1 2 1 3 
=2 1+ x− x + x + ···
8 128 1024
1 1 2 1 3
=2+ x− x + x + ···
4 64 512
1 1
Valid interval x < 1 ⇒ |x| < 1.
4 4

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 1
(ii) Here
(2 + 3x)2
  −2
1 −2 3
= (2 + 3x) = 2 1 + x
(2 + 3x)2 2
 −2
−2 3
=2 1+ x
2
 −2
1 3
= 1+ x
4 2

and so using n = −2 and b = 32 x it follows from the result of (1 + x)n that

 −2     2  3 
1 3 1 3 (−2)(−3) 3 (−2)(−3)(−4) 3
1+ x = 1 + (−2) x + 3 x + + ···
4 2 4 2 2! 2 3! 2
 
1 27 2 108 3
= 1 − 3x + x − x + ···
4 4 8
1 3 27 27
= − x + x2 − x3 + · · ·
4 4 16 8
and the valid interval is.
3 3
x < 1 ⇒ |x| < 1
2 2
2
⇒ |x| < .
3
1

1
The next lecture will be on matrices.

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