Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Review

Mapping the interplay of technical, economic, social, and environmental

dimensions in food-sector wastewater reclamation: A systematic
literature review
Nabiilah Mat Yusoff a , Norhidayah Suleiman b,c , Asma-Qamaliah Abdul-Hamid a ,
Mohd Helmi Ali a,d,*
a
UKM-Graduate School of Business, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM-Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
b
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM-Serdang, Malaysia
c
Laboratory of Halal Science Research, Halal Products Research Institute, Putra Infoport, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
d
Global Entrepreneurship Research and Innovation Centre, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, 16100, Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Water is an indispensable resource in the food sector, playing a critical role in production processes. However,
Wastewater reclamation wastewater generation presents significant challenges, including the opportunity to recover valuable resources.
Sustainability Wastewater reclamation within the food sector has emerged as a crucial practice, offering potential benefits such
Food-sector
as economic efficiency, societal well-being, technological advancement, and environmental preservation. This
Resource
Water management
study conducts a systematic literature review (SLR) to consolidate fragmented research and provide a compre­
hensive overview of the current state of wastewater reclamation in the food sector. This review analyses 51
articles published between 2013 and 2025, sourced from the Scopus and Web of Science database. The review
synthesizes existing research and organizes it into two primary dimensions: (1) the factors influencing the
implementation of wastewater reclamation in the food industry and (2) the benefits and barriers associated with
these practices. The study classifies these factors into five key domains: water consumption, water generation,
technological innovation, wastewater utilization, and reuse practices. It further highlights the crucial role of
technical considerations in addressing barriers and maximizing the benefits of wastewater reclamation. The
paper contributes to the scientific understanding of wastewater reclamation by proposing five key propositions
that form a novel interconnected theoretical framework. This framework offers new insights into the complex
dynamics of wastewater management in the food sector and identifies emerging trends. The study underscores
the importance of aligning wastewater reclamation technologies with business objectives and encourages poli­
cymakers to implement robust environmental standards that facilitate sustainable practices.

1. Introduction sanitation, and sample preparation, all of which strongly imply that
sustainable water management should be a key concern in accordance
Water consumption and wastewater production in the food-sector with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)., Goal 6: clean water
are substantial, and they have drawn criticism for their link to adverse and sanitation (Shrivastava et al., 2022). Ineffective wastewater treat­
consequences on the environment, the economy, and public health and ment is a significant cause of water pollution, emphasizing the need for
safety. Literature has argued that this sector has come under fire for its technological progress to improve treatment processes and mitigate
heavy water consumption, which has been linked to sharp increases in environmental degradation (Khan et al., 2022). A collective endeavour
water use and depletion of water supplies (Neumann et al., 2024; Sta­ must embrace sustainable water management practices to address these
churski et al., 2024). One explanation might be that this sector works consequences. Such an endeavour involves incorporating technologies
with a range of activities, including production, packing, preservation, such as wastewater reclamation to reduce the food-sector’s

* Corresponding author. UKM-Graduate School of Business, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM-Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (N.M. Yusoff), [email protected] (N. Suleiman), [email protected] (A.-Q. Abdul-Hamid),
[email protected] (M.H. Ali).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.124552
Received 14 August 2024; Received in revised form 28 January 2025; Accepted 11 February 2025
Available online 22 February 2025
0301-4797/© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
N.M. Yusoff et al. Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

environmental footprint and encourage the responsible use of resources. discharging such wastewater into water bodies, there is a growing need
Effective management of natural resources is crucial for supporting for investigations into two strategies: (i) the development of new water
sustainable development and addressing socio-economic inequalities and (ii) the re-design of plants for water networks, including water
(Ponce et al., 2023). Water reclamation is one of the main initiatives the reclamation initiatives, which have been explored due to the significant
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization efforts to reduce water consumption. Reclaiming and treating waste­
(UNESCO) established to reduce 20% of the water used in industries by water mitigates environmental harm and offers the opportunity to
2030 to ensure sustainable water management. Guidelines for water conserve a valuable resource, address water scarcity concerns and
reuse in the food-sector are also available, and the sector needs to enhance the food industry’s sustainability (Lima et al., 2021; Shriv­
become more sustainable if it wants to endure. In this regard, the sector astava et al., 2022). However, Pulluru and Akkerman (2023) argue that
is forced to use wastewater reclamation techniques to maintain its the quality of regenerated water depends on several operational and
competitiveness and rebuild its reputation for long-term benefit. technological factors and is frequently difficult to control, making it a
Several studies have systematically examined various topics related danger to many businesses, including the food production sector. The
to wastewater reclamation, such as the drivers and barriers to urban complexity of food wastewater, with its various pollutants and fluctu­
water reuse (Lee and Jepson, 2020), the barriers to the implementation ating quality, presents challenges for treatment but also offers signifi­
of wastewater reuse (Morris et al., 2021), on-site carwash wastewater cant opportunities for resource recovery and reuse due to its valuable
treatment (Torkashvand et al., 2020) and life cycle cost analysis of nutrients and relatively low levels of harmful substances (He et al.,
wastewater treatment (Ilyas et al., 2021). While these studies have 2023). From this perspective, this situation has been attributed to
provided valuable insights into wastewater reclamation in various increasing legislative pressure and sustainability concerns, which are
contexts, there is a notable gap in systematic reviews focusing specif­ currently fragmented and limited to the knowledge.
ically on wastewater reclamation within the food sector. A substantial Several food industries have successfully implemented water reuse
body of research has explored multiple dimensions of wastewater practices, realizing various benefits. For example, Coca-Cola has reused
reclamation in the food sector, addressing technical solutions, economic approximately 173 billion litres of water out of 804 billion litres of
feasibility, and environmental sustainability (Arias et al., 2024; Kumari wastewater produced and has set a benchmark for other industrial gi­
et al., 2024; Najar-Almanzor et al., 2024). However, these studies often ants, such as P&G and Heineken (Shrivastava et al., 2022). Food com­
concentrate on one or two dimensions of the issue, with limited explo­ panies such as Coca-Cola, Nestlé and PepsiCo are major corporations
ration of the complex interconnections between the technical, eco­ actively engaged in practices related to water reuse as part of their water
nomic, social, and environmental factors that influence the conservation efforts. Coca-Cola emphasizes sustainable water steward­
implementation and success of wastewater reclamation strategies in this ship through its Water Stewardship and Replenish programmes,
sector. investing in community-based water projects and rainwater harvesting
Recent studies in other sectors, such as agriculture (Penserini et al., to offset water used in beverage production (The Coca-Cola Company,
2024), have explored barriers like the impacts of salinity and the eco­ 2024). Nestlé integrates advanced water recycling systems in its pro­
nomic feasibility of treatment plants. Additionally, technical barriers, duction facilities to treat and reuse water, reducing its reliance on
such as variations in wastewater flow and effluent quality, and social freshwater sources (Nestlé, 2024). PepsiCo adopts water-efficient
barriers, particularly concerns about the safety of reclaimed water, have manufacturing technologies, including water recovery systems, to cap­
been identified as challenges hindering the widespread adoption of ture and treat water from different stages of the manufacturing process,
wastewater reuse technologies (Neumann et al., 2024). However, the enabling significant water recycling and a reduction in overall water
specific interconnections between these challenges in the food sector consumption (PepsiCo, 2024). Water recycling and reduced consump­
remain underexplored, making it difficult to develop a comprehensive tion can lead to positive interactive competition, encouraging other
strategy for implementation. Given these gaps, there is a clear need for a companies to follow suit and contribute to sustainable water manage­
systematic review investigating the specific benefits and barriers to ment. However, integrating reclaimed water into manufacturing water
wastewater reuse in the food industry—an area that remains systems faces several challenges and has not reached its full potential in
under-researched. Furthermore, water consumption patterns in food many regions. The public’s concern about health risks and the "yuck"
production sectors exhibit substantial variation across countries due to factor associated with wastewater reuse, especially its proximity to
differences in process automation levels, the availability and utilization human contact, can hinder its acceptance (Morris et al., 2021). In
of production factors, and equipment specifications. For example, water addition, concerns regarding biosecurity associated with water reuse
consumption for milk powder or cheese production demonstrates (Pulluru and Akkerman, 2023), along with the main challenges for water
considerable variation: in Denmark, it ranges from 0.69 to 1.90 L reuse involving controlling ammonia and nitrate levels, with strict limits
water/L processed milk, while in Norway, it varies from 4.60 to 6.30 L and protocols in place to ensure safe water recovery and avoid
water/L processed milk (Garnier et al., 2023). These variations contamination (Stachurski et al., 2024) remain significant obstacles.
contribute to significant differences in the quantity and quality of Unfortunately, there is a lack of transparency, fragmentation, and
wastewater, which may contain a wide range of ingredients and prod­ bias towards particular viewpoints in discussing these practices and
ucts (He et al., 2023). The “water reuse guidelines for business in NSW strategies. Hence, the current study aims to overcome these limits by
considering reusing water” in Australia emphasize feasible recycling building on earlier wastewater reclamation and sustainability research.
solutions and maintaining product quality by determining a reliable In this direction, this study aims to synthesize existing research on
methodology to ensure that the solutions are not harmful wastewater reclamation in the food sector, focusing on factors influ­
(NSW-Food-Authority, 2008). According to Pulluru and Akkerman encing its implementation and the associated benefits and barriers.
(2023), increased reuse and recycling of wastewater in food processing Based on the findings, this review will identify key themes, benefits and
represent a proactive and responsible approach to addressing the sig­ barriers to and propose directions for future research and practice.
nificant water footprint of the food-sector. Following this, the research questions are twofold: 1) What key factors
In essence, the increased reuse and recycling of wastewater in food influence the implementation of wastewater reclamation in the food
processing not only address the immediate water footprint but also sector based on the water reuse theme? and (2) How do the technical,
contribute to broader environmental (Balbinoti et al., 2023; Bortolini economic, social, and environmental benefits and barriers interrelate in
et al., 2017; Shroti et al., 2023), economic (Kiran and Mohan, 2021; the context of wastewater reclamation within this sector? A structured
Meng et al., 2022; Usmani et al., 2022), and social (Josa and Garfí, 2023) literature review (SLR) method from Snyder (2019) is employed to
benefits, thus characterizing wastewater reuse and recycling as a holistic systematically identify, assess, and analyse all relevant studies on
and responsible paradigm. Recognizing the environmental impact of research issues, subjects, or phenomena related to wastewater

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N.M. Yusoff et al. Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

reclamation in the food sector. A total of 51 peer-reviewed journal ar­ such as domestic, industrial, agricultural, medical, or nuclear, each
ticles published between 2013 and 2025 are included in the current requiring different treatment approaches (Yadav et al., 2021). As
study. The main reason such research questions are developed is that wastewater reuse becomes increasingly crucial for addressing water
past literature on wastewater reclamation is fragmented, limiting the scarcity, sustainability considerations are key in selecting appropriate
knowledge understanding, especially from the food-sector perspective; treatment options. Torre et al. (2024) examined wastewater treatment
hence, the current insight could offer better solutions and strategies. methods from environmental, economic, social, and operational per­
Following this, the factors of wastewater reclamation implementa­ spectives. The research underscores the importance of considering these
tion are analysed based on the flow or chain in the food-sector. Mean­ factors to ensure effective wastewater reclamation. Integrating various
while, the benefits and barriers are identified based on a multi-criteria treatment technologies can help mitigate environmental impacts, pro­
methodology based on economic, social, technical and environmental mote water resilience, and enable safe water reuse, which is crucial for
aspects (Lizot et al., 2021). Finally, this holistic analysis yields five sustainable water management.
valuable propositions and contributes to the theoretical framework in Addressing systemic barriers and promoting integrated water man­
the field of study. For each pair of aspects (technical-social, agement strategies is essential to achieve sustainability in wastewater
technical-economic, economic-environmental, etc.), the study explores reclamation. According to Morris et al. (2021), successful adoption of
how changes or considerations in one aspect affect each other and how wastewater reclamation hinges on aligning economic, regulatory, and
these interconnections contribute to the overall dynamics of the system. political factors within broader urban water systems. Evidence shows
The originality of this study lies in its conceptual framework, which il­ that external environmental shocks, like drought, maybe a catalyst, but a
lustrates the interconnections between technical, economic, social, and nexus of place-based factors combined with economic, regulatory, and
environmental benefits and barriers of wastewater reclamation in the political alignment is more likely to foster systemic change in water
food sector. This framework offers a foundation for future research. systems (Lee and Jepson, 2020). Challenges such as policy and regula­
Additionally, the study identifies key factors, benefits, and barriers that tory fragmentation, stakeholder conflicts, and competition with other
make wastewater reclamation viable in the food sector, providing a water sources like desalination can hinder progress (Morris et al., 2021).
more comprehensive understanding of previous mechanisms. The study The integration of Life Cycle Costing (LCC), Life Cycle Assessment
also establishes the need to explore further the intricate relationships (LCA), and Societal Life Cycle Assessment (Societal LCA) provides a
between sustainability practices and wastewater reclamation. The comprehensive framework for Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment
remainder of this study is organized as follows. Section 2 discussed the (LCSA), which facilitates the evaluation of environmental, economic,
past literature on wastewater reclamation and food-sector. Next, Section and social impacts across the life cycle of a product or process (Ilyas
3 summarizes the research methodology adopted in this study. The re­ et al., 2021). Environmental LCC focuses explicitly on integrating
sults and discussion of descriptive and content analysis are provided in environmental impacts into the cost analysis, extending the scope of
Section 4. In this section, the study also argues five factors influencing traditional LCC. This approach evaluates environmental impacts by
the implementation, their benefits and barriers, and the development of incorporating environmental costs, assesses societal benefits such as
the conceptual framework through five propositions. Followed by the health improvements from better water quality, and supports sustain­
future research suggestion in Section 5. Finally, Section 6 presents the able decision-making by combining financial, environmental, and soci­
conclusion of the present study. etal analyses to ensure that wastewater treatment decisions align with
sustainability goals (Ilyas et al., 2021).
2. Literature review
2.2. Food sector wastewater for sustainable development
2.1. Sustainability in wastewater reclamation
Industrial wastewater management is crucial to sustainable devel­
Wastewater reclamation, also known as water recycling, involves opment, addressing environmental concerns and resource conservation.
treating and purifying wastewater to make it suitable for reuse in various The growing interest in industrial wastewater treatment is driven by the
applications, such as agricultural irrigation, industrial processes, or even need to prevent environmental issues and ensure safer wastewater
potable water. It is an effective strategy for conserving water resources, disposal. Industrial processes often generate wastewater containing
mitigating environmental impacts, and optimizing the costs and energy organic substances, suspended solids, and potentially harmful pollut­
associated with water resource management (Takeuchi and Tanaka, ants; thus, it is necessary to implement advanced treatments such as
2020). The primary objective of the traditional wastewater treatment deammonification. The automatic dosing of coagulants serves as a
approach is to clean water before it is discharged into natural water control strategy to optimize the treatment process, ensuring stable water
streams. However, transitioning to a circular economy mindset entails reclamation in food-sector plants by managing nitrogen levels and pre­
rethinking this approach by incorporating water resource recovery venting flocculant interference in ultrafiltration units (Stachurski et al.,
technologies. This transition recognizes that wastewater is not merely a 2024). Effective treatment strategies mitigate environmental impacts
waste product to be disposed of but also a valuable resource and water and contribute to sustainable water usage (Pulluru and Akkerman,
reuse is a fundamental component of this approach (Shrivastava et al., 2023). Nevertheless, the strategies for water recycling are different at
2022). By recovering valuable resources from wastewater, such as nu­ each level. For instance, treated water may be collected from water
trients or energy, and by treating water so that it is of a quality suitable treatment plants to provide water to power stations and industrial users
for reuse, this approach minimizes waste, reduces the need for virgin at the regional level. It is even used as supply storage for drinking water,
raw materials, and optimizes the utilization of water resources (He et al., launched by the Brisbane region (Australia) in 2009 through the West­
2023). In essence, it encapsulates the core tenets of the circular econ­ ern Corridor Recycled Water Project (Apostolidis et al., 2011). This
omy. It underscores the importance of water reuse, which serves as a differs from the factory level, where the collected effluent is mixed
transformative approach to resource management, offering a solution to before global treatment and possible recycling for non-food uses and
the need for long-term sustainability for natural resources (Morris et al., agricultural irrigation (Apostolidis et al., 2011).
2021). The integration of wastewater reclamation into water resource In addition, reclaimed water is a viable alternative to conventional
management thus emerges as a comprehensive and transformative tap water, particularly for the food-sector, where water is utilized for
strategy that embodies sustainability principles and significantly con­ various purposes, such as cooling, boiling, and cleaning (Takeuchi and
tributes to achieving the broader global agenda for sustainable Tanaka, 2020). conducted survey research on the acceptance of
development. reclaimed water among industrial and tap water users based on cost
Wastewater can be classified into various types based on its origin, considerations. According to the survey, 69% of industrial water users

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find reclaimed water acceptable if its cost is lower than that of industrial Table 1
water (priced at 35 yen/m3). In comparison, 45% of tap water users Keywords for the search string.
accept reclaimed water if its cost is below that of tap water (priced at No Keywords Search string Sources
200 yen/m3). These results imply that tap water users are more open to
1 Food industry “food compan*” OR “food Adams et al. (2021)
reclaimed water than industrial water users. The investigation also industry” OR “food business*”
investigated the water consumption patterns of tap water users who OR “food manufact*"
expressed a willingness to use reclaimed water at a lower cost. Among 2 Wastewater “wastewater” OR “effluent” OR Torkashvand et al.
the companies investigated, 7 food companies indicated they consumed “sewage” OR “sewerage” OR (2020)
“sullage” OR “water”
a significant portion (68%) of tap water. In conclusion, the study sug­ 3 Reclamation “treatment” OR “reclamation” Quispe et al. (2022)
gested that reclaimed water should be supplied to food companies OR “recycling”
because they currently use substantial amounts of tap water. Offering 4 Sustainability “sustainability” OR “sustainable” (Abdul-Hamid et al.,
reclaimed water to these companies provides an opportunity to reduce OR “green” OR “environmental 2022; Seuring and
performance” OR “social Müller, 2008)
their environmental impact and promote responsible water consump­
performance”
tion in food production.
In recent studies, the sustainable treatment of wastewater in the food
sector has gained increasing attention due to its potential for environ­ information. A comprehensive set of inclusion and exclusion criteria was
mental and economic benefits. Najar-Almanzor et al. (2024) highlight established to refine the literature search and identify the most pertinent
the challenges of implementing microalgae biorefineries for wastewater articles, as presented in Table 2, providing transparency in the selection
treatment, focusing on issues such as the high costs of wastewater process. Following the guidelines of Snyder (2019), criteria such as
dilution, environmental concerns associated with conventional extrac­ publication year, article language, publication type, and journal quality
tion methods, and the limited adaptability of microalgae to concentrated were prioritized. The review considered articles published in English
effluents. To improve efficiency and scalability, the study calls for the from 2013 to 2025 in reputable, peer-reviewed journals. Conference
development of sustainable technologies, including green extraction proceedings, editorials, and book chapters were excluded to ensure
techniques and synergistic mixed cultures. Arias et al. (2024) exemplify methodological rigour. Aligned with (Ghobakhloo et al., 2021), only
a shift from traditional "end-of-pipe" solutions to integrated waste peer-reviewed publications were selected as these represent the highest
valorization strategies, positioning wastewater as a resource rather than standard of quality in academic research. Articles must be published in
a waste that addresses environmental and economic sustainability journals indexed in Clarivate Analytics’ Social Sciences Citation Index®,
concerns by creating value-added products. Kumari et al. (2024) ensuring consistency with recognized scholarly benchmarks.
investigate using coconut coir dust (CCD) as a biosorbent for removing The selection of an appropriate database was another critical step in
Sunset Yellow dye from wastewater, demonstrating high dye uptake and the literature review process, as it directly impacts the quality and
confirming chemisorption as the primary adsorption mechanism. The comprehensiveness of the results. While several databases such as Sco­
techno-economic feasibility of CCD demonstrates its cost-effectiveness pus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and EBSCO have been highlighted
and commercial viability, offering a promising solution for wastewater in prior research (e.g., Jia et al., 2020; Kamble et al., 2018), this study
treatment in the food industry. Thus, this systematic literature review exclusively utilized the Web of Science and Scopus database. The
(SLR) will explore various aspects of the benefits and barriers in exclusive use of the Web of Science and Scopus databases for systematic
wastewater reclamation’s technical, economic, social, and environ­ literature reviews is based on their comprehensive coverage and high
mental dimensions, shedding light on the multifaceted challenges and sensitivity, which ensures a broad and relevant selection of scholarly
opportunities for sustainable development in the food sector. articles (Kumpulainen and Seppänen, 2022). These databases are widely
recognized for their extensive citation indexes, improving the quality
3. Methodology and relevance of retrieved articles (Alfandari and Taylor, 2021). In
particular, Scopus has been noted for its high sensitivity in retrieving
The SLR framework proposed by Snyder (2019) has been adopted, articles that may not be found in other databases, while Web of Science
incorporating four phases: design, conduct, analysis, and structure. The demonstrates a slight edge in retrieval quality (Singh et al., 2023). Thus,
current study began with phase 1: design, which involves research the choice was based on its extensive coverage of peer-reviewed journals
questions development, search terms, inclusion/exclusion criteria, across disciplines—science, technology, economic, and social scien­
additional limitations and choosing appropriate databases. This study ces—along with publications from leading publishers like Elsevier,
also employed a guided protocol by collecting past published articles, as Springer, Emerald, Taylor & Francis, and IEEE, ensuring a thorough
Mohamed Shaffril et al. (2021) suggested, to identify search terms used review while minimizing sampling bias (Abdul-Hamid et al., 2022).
in the database. In line with this design, the research questions of this Then, in phase two, conduct involves the practical plan, search
study are as follows. process, article selection and quality of processes and articles. The data

1. What key factors influence the implementation of wastewater Table 2

reclamation in the food sector based on the water reuse theme? Inclusion and exclusion criteria used for screening.
2. How do the technical, economic, social, and environmental benefits
Criteria Inclusion Justification
and barriers interrelate in the context of wastewater reclamation
within this sector? and Language English To enhance the efficiency and
effectiveness of the literature review
process
To answer these research questions, four sets of related keyword Year 2013–2025 To capture a decade of key
searches from the previous literature were used as guidelines (see published advancements in wastewater
Table 1). reclamation while incorporating the
latest insights to reflect current trends
In conducting this review, it is vital to establish clear rules for
and innovations
including and excluding studies. Following the advice of (Kitchenham Publication Peer-review journal To focus on high-quality articles
and Charters, 2007), researchers should select criteria that directly articles
address their research questions. For this review, the set of criteria was Theme The article focuses on the To enhance the review’s precision,
carefully determined based on the research questions, ensuring that the food industry and efficiency, and coherence
wastewater
chosen studies aligned with the main focus and contributed relevant

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N.M. Yusoff et al. Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

was collected on January 15th, 2025, through the Scopus and Web of Table 3
Science (WoS) databases in this phase. Initially, the searches resulted in Descriptive statistic.
530 from WoS and 911 from Scopus. 422 articles remained after the 5 recent years of publication Number of articles
studies were qualitatively evaluated based on the inclusion and exclu­
2020 3
sion criteria, and duplicates were removed. Then, during the screening 2021 5
process, 422 articles were based on the title, keywords, and abstract, and 2022 5
only 199 articles remained that were eligible for full-text assessment. 2023 6
Finally, 51 articles were included that fit well within the scope of this 2024 10

study for final analysis (as shown in Appendix 1). In detail, Fig. 1 Top 5 journal publisher Number of articles
summarizes the selection steps in this study. Journal of Environmental Management 7
Environmental Science and Pollution 4
4. Results and discussion Bioresource Technology 4
Sustainability 4
Water Science and Technology 3
In the third phase, the analysis is employed to scrutinize the related
Research Methodology Number of articles
information and the primary outcomes of this SLR are discussed through
descriptive and content analysis. Experimental research 32
Review 10
Survey 2
4.1. Descriptive analysis Case study 4
Life cycle assessment 3

This research detected the trends in the number of papers on

wastewater reclamation in the food sector included in this SLR gradually 4.2. Factors influencing the implementation of wastewater reclamation
increasing from year to year, as shown in Table 3. In addition, it also
identifies the top contributing journals, with the Journal of Environ­ This section discusses the answer to the first research question in
mental Management leading at 7 articles, and provides an overview of detail. Wastewater reclamation is closely linked to broader wastewater
research methodologies, with experimental research being the most management practices, and its identification is based on the water reuse
common at 32 articles. theme outlined by Cisneros (2014). Based on this framework, five key
In addition, Table 4 provides a comprehensive overview of various factors influencing wastewater reclamation were identified: (i) econo­
sectors within the food-sector, from beverage manufacturing to dairy mizing on water consumption, (ii) combating wastewater generation,
processing, cheese manufacturing, and agricultural sectors like grape, (iii) embracing wastewater reclamation, (iv) optimizing wastewater
maize, and vegetable production. These sectors represent diverse facets utilization, and (v) practising wastewater reuse as shown in Fig. 2. For
of the food-sector, from primary agricultural production to secondary further details, please refer to Appendix 2.
processing and manufacturing, each contributing uniquely to the global
food supply chain. Notably, wastewater reclamation studies within the
brewery industry are the highest among those analysed.

Fig. 1. Selection process.

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N.M. Yusoff et al. Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

Table 4 pressing need for the sector to adopt sustainable water management
Types of food-sectors. practices, with a primary focus on reducing raw water consumption. As
Type of food sector Source water becomes increasingly scarce, the food industry must focus on
efficient water management. Wastewater reclamation is essential to
Beer Valili et al. (2013)
Beverage industry Shroti et al., (2023); Alkaya and Demirer (2015) mitigate water scarcity while maintaining production efficiency
Brewery Wang et al., (2022); Lu et al., (2017); O’Rourke et al. (López-Cabarcos et al., 2024). Implementing wastewater reclamation
(2016); Sant’Ana et al. (2024); Anagnostopoulou et al. and reuse has emerged as a critical strategy for achieving this goal. By
(2024) treating and reusing water that would otherwise be discharged, the
Cheese manufacturing Guerreiro et al. (2020); Anagnostopoulou et al. (2024)
Chilled chicken meat Menussi et al. (2023)
food-sector can effectively reduce its reliance on raw water sources
processing (Bortolini et al., 2017; Lima et al., 2021; Menussi et al., 2023). Doing so
Corn España-Gamboa et al. (2017); Najar-Almanzor et al. addresses the environmental concerns associated with non-returnable
(2024); Arias et al. (2024) water and is pivotal in overall water conservation efforts.
Dairy Kiran and Mohan (2021); Usmani et al. (2022); Karadag
In addition, Lima et al. (2021) conducted a water pinch analysis to
et al. (2014)
Distillery Kumari et al. (2019) address the problems of reducing raw water consumption and allowing
Fish canning Monteiro et al. (2018) wastewater reuse in the food processing industry. They reported a 55%
Food and Beverage Bortolini et al. (2017) reduction in raw water consumption and a 45% reduction in the volume
Food processing Meng et al. (2022); Amit et al. (2021) of treated wastewater discharged. These findings indicate enhanced
Grape Nayak et al. (2018)
Guava Mateus et al. (2021)
environmental sustainability and the potential for significant cost sav­
Maize Paz-Samaniego et al. (2016) ings in resource management. However, a study by Meng et al. (2022)
Olive Ochando-Pulido and Martinez-Ferez (2018); Ahmed et al. showed that the managerial perception of water costs is low (which may
(2024) hinder the adaptation of water treatment practices) and that managers
Palm oil Hasanudin et al. (2015)
are less likely to adopt water treatment practices in the food processing
Potato Food processing Lima et al. (2021)
Rice mill Mukherjee et al. (2015) industry. Hence, the inconsistency between these findings highlights the
Seafood processing Jain et al. (2019) need for further research or investigation.
industry
Snack food Boguniewicz-Zablocka et al. (2020) 4.2.2. Combating wastewater generation
Sugarcane Fito et al. (2019)
Wastewater generated from the food-sector is acknowledged to be
Tomato Vidyarthi and Simmons (2020)
Vegetable Wang et al. (2021) complex, containing various constituents. There is concern about the
Winery Welz et al. (2014) environmental impact of discharging food processing wastewater, which
carries heavy loads of salinity, nutrients, organic matter, solids, oils and
fats (Guerreiro et al., 2020). Effluent from food-sector discharges must
4.2.1. Economizing on water consumption
meet increasingly stringent quality requirements to minimize their
Water scarcity has catalysed a shift in the food-sector towards sus­
impact on the environment. Compliance with regulatory standards and
tainable water management practices, with wastewater reclamation and
requirements is a crucial factor influencing wastewater reuse in the
reuse being a viable and responsible solution for mitigating the impact of
food-sector. Adhering to established regulations ensures that treated
water scarcity (Lima et al., 2021; Shrivastava et al., 2022). The
wastewater meets quality and safety standards, making it suitable for
food-sector is known for its substantial water consumption, which is
reuse or disposal in the environment (Guerreiro et al., 2020; Mukherjee
used throughout various production stages. Most water is raw from
et al., 2015; Ochando-Pulido and Martinez-Ferez, 2018; Shrivastava
natural sources or municipal supplies to meet these demands. Menussi
et al., 2022). The average concentrations and specific loads of waste­
et al. (2023) highlighted the significance of water consumption in the
water have been determined by European food industries based on
food-sector, with 55.8% of water being utilized and not returned to the
global parameters such as BOD, COD, TSS, total organic carbon (TOC),
same water body from which it originated. This finding highlights the

Fig. 2. Factors of wastewater system implementation in the food-sector.

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N.M. Yusoff et al. Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) (European Commission, phenanthrene. Sant’Ana et al. (2024) evaluated the potential of bio­
2019). surfactants produced from brewery wastewater to treat effluents from
In addition, the discharge of wastewater without proper processing the beer processing industry and showed significant improvements in
can pose a threat to the environment. For instance, wastewater produced effluent quality, with reductions of 55.9% in BOD, 23.8% in COD, and
from dyes in the snack-food-sector can harm treatment facilities and the 50.6% in TS at an optimal biosurfactant concentration (0.5 CMD).
environment, especially for aquatic life (Boguniewicz-Zablocka et al., Patange et al. (2018) demonstrated that atmospheric cold plasma (ACP)
2020). Vegetables frequently utilized in the food-sector have the po­ treatment effectively reduces microbial populations in food-sector ef­
tential to contaminate both underground and surface water via the fluents and mitigates their eco-toxicological impact. Guerreiro et al.
leachate generated from vegetable waste, thereby posing an indirect (2020) identified potential treatment options for effluents from cheese
threat to the health of both cattle and humans due to the presence of manufacturing. Finally (Mateus et al., 2021), worked on a combination
microorganisms and mycotoxins (Wang et al., 2021). In addition, the of magnetic bentonite treatment techniques to treat wastewater from the
organic acids that contaminate the wastewater of the fruit and vegetable food-sector, especially in guava wastewater.
industries or the ethanol in the wastewater from the production of The dairy industry is one of the most extensively investigated sectors
breweries and wineries (Garnier et al., 2023) are even more challenging in terms of water recycling and application at the industrial scale (Kiran
to treat using membrane technology due to the low molecular weight. and Mohan, 2021; Usmani et al., 2022; Karadag et al., 2014). For
There is also the case of the insignificant contribution of organic example, in the production of concentrated milk, a condensate produced
micro-pollutant and their degradation outputs to global parameters; during the evaporation process could be recycled as high-quality water
however, these pollutants are still present in effluent (Garnier et al., steam after RO filtration (Mavrov and Bélières, 2000). A simulation and
2023). This reality underscores the importance of implementing a experimental results were reported for the largest plant in India (Tiwari
wastewater reuse system in food industries. By doing so, factories can et al., 2016). Water can be recycled in ghee production for its
effectively mitigate pollution from specific components such as dyes and pre-washing step after coagulation and the adsorption process from CIP
mycotoxins, thereby preventing environmental contamination and vessels for butter clarification (Tiwari et al., 2016). In other food sectors,
promoting more efficient and strategic wastewater management. such as the fruit and vegetable industry, a substantial amount of water
Vidyarthi and Simmons (2020) argue that the characteristics of can be reused after the blanching process for the preliminary cleaning of
by-product or discharge streams (solid streams and process water equipment (European Commission, 2019; Klemes et al., 2008). Research
streams) generated at different stages of tomato processing in Cal­ has shown that this food sector can reduce its water use by approxi­
ifornia’s tomato processing plants highlighted the need for wastewater mately 90% if all the wastewater produced from the cleaning and rinsing
reclamation. The findings underscore the necessity of improving process is recycled for device cleaning (Lehto et al., 2014; Manzocco
wastewater management strategies in the tomato processing industry. et al., 2015). Nevertheless, in some instances, disinfection is required
The current management strategies, relevant policies, and recommen­ before recycling processes, such as ozone/ultraviolet (UV) treatments
dations for sustainable management strategies emphasized in the study for the fresh-cut vegetable industry and neutral electrolyzed oxidizing
point to the importance of implementing wastewater reclamation water (NEOW) for salad disinfection (European Commission, 2019).
practices to enhance overall wastewater management in the food-sector. The energy crisis poses a significant challenge, particularly in
Welz et al. (2014) highlighted the critical need to reduce the environ­ emerging economies, where energy demand is rising with economic
mental impact of the wine industry by developing more effective development, serving as a compelling factor for studying wastewater
treatment methods for winery effluent. Doing so can help decrease the reclamation (Selvasembian et al., 2022). To treat wastewater, some
industry’s contribution to the global environmental wastewater burden. studies have aimed to harness the microbial processes involved in
Understanding the composition and variability of winery effluent can treatment to generate bioelectricity. For instance, researchers such as
lead to more efficient treatment processes, ensuring that organic com­ (Selvasembian et al., 2022) found that the integration of microbial fuel
pounds are effectively degraded and reducing the potential for water cells (MFCs) enhanced treatment efficiency and the production of elec­
pollution. Ahmed et al. (2024) offer a sustainable alternative to con­ trical energy, demonstrating the potential for dual benefits in
ventional wastewater treatment methods, reducing the harmful effects bioelectricity production. This method is one of the technological ap­
of food industry waste on human health, aquatic life, and the proaches that efficiently reduces wastewater and recovers energy
environment. (Ramanaiah et al., 2023). In addition, emphasizing environmentally
friendly treatment approaches (Balbinoti et al., 2023), reported on
4.2.3. Embracing technological innovation in wastewater reclamation plant-based coagulants to treat food-sector wastewater. Similarly,
Advancements in treatment technologies have contributed to Ahmed et al. (2024) investigated using bio-based cationic flocculants
increased efficiency in removing contaminants from wastewater. In derived from crude olive pomace oil (COPO) for treating food industry
addition, the estimation of the amount and type of composition in the wastewater, offering a sustainable and cost-effective alternative to
wastewater to be treated, as well as the requirements that need to be conventional methods. This approach enhances removal efficiency with
fulfilled for treated water, is another consideration that should be taken lower chemical dosages and reduced treatment time, addressing the
into account when choosing reliable treatments and optimizing the challenges of wastewater generation and pollution. By identifying
water network (Garnier et al., 2023). Instead of analysing global pa­ eco-friendly treatment options, these studies contribute to sustainable
rameters such as colour, conductivity, odour, oxidability, and turbidity, effluent treatment, which is essential for reducing the environmental
additional specific analyses, especially of organic micro-pollutants impact of industrial activities.
(pesticides, disinfectants, oils and polychlorinated biphenyls) and
heavy metals, should be considered for the evaluation of treated water 4.2.4. Optimizing food-sector wastewater utilization
quality (Garnier et al., 2023). Most of the studied papers on wastewater Wastewater utilization is crucial in implementing wastewater
reclamation have focused on increasing the technology efficiency of reclamation efforts in the food-sector. The effective and responsible use
wastewater treatment. Continuous research and development in this of reclaimed wastewater adds value to the reclamation process. Treating
area have led to more effective and reliable treatment methods, ensuring and reusing wastewater can offer several benefits over simply disposing
a higher quality of reclaimed water in the study period of this SLR (from of wastewater. For example, Shroti et al. (2023) leveraged the capacity
2013 to the present). Some examples of specific studies on enhancing of alkaliphilic organisms to reduce the pH of wastewater and utilized
treatment efficiency include the following (Valili et al., 2013). explored residual sugars from beverage industrial wastewater to produce
the use of malt spent rootlets (MSRs), by-products of the beer industry, commercially applicable biodegradable polymers. Previous studies have
as sorbents for removing organic hydrophobic pollutants such as illuminated the potential of utilizing wastewater to mitigate

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N.M. Yusoff et al. Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

alkalinity-related environmental impacts effectively (España-Gamboa environmental, economic, technical and social aspects (for more details,
et al., 2017; Fito et al., 2019; Paz-Samaniego et al., 2016). Hence, please refer to Appendix 3).
applying wastewater reclamation is imperative for sustainable and
responsible environmental management. 4.3.1. Environmental and economic integration
Research on wastewater utilization is driven by a diverse range of The symbiosis between environmental and economic considerations
opportunities to repurpose food-sector wastewater, leading to the pro­ in wastewater reclamation within the food-sector yields several advan­
duction of valuable products. Numerous studies have highlighted the tages. Resource recovery, energy recovery, and enhanced resource ef­
potential to transform wastewater into various beneficial resources, ficiency are key benefits. In the food-sector, wastewater components and
including biodiesel (Amit et al., 2021; Jain et al., 2019), bio-H2 (Wang their characteristics can be transformed into valuable resources, as
et al., 2022), hydrogen (Karadag et al., 2014), phosphate (Kumari et al., shown in previous studies (Anagnostopoulou et al., 2024; Arias et al.,
2019), biomass (Wang et al., 2024; Kiran and Mohan, 2021; Lu et al., 2024; Shroti et al., 2023). This transformative process not only results in
2017), liquid fertilizer (Hasanudin et al., 2015), biodegradable polymers resource recovery but also contributes to generating green energy (Amit
(Shroti et al., 2023), ω-lipids (Monteiro et al., 2018), bioactive material et al., 2021; Kiran and Mohan, 2021; Wang et al., 2022). Additionally, it
(Arias et al., 2024) and probiotics (Paz-Samaniego et al., 2016). Most of promotes resource efficiency by facilitating more efficient water
the value-added products from wastewater are for energy generation. resource use and reducing dependence on external inputs (Shrivastava
The gases produced, such as methane, are captured and utilized as et al., 2022; Hasanudin et al., 2015). In the study by Bortolini et al.
renewable energy sources through some processes. This process can (2017), an economic assessment revealed that the system has a rela­
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and replace traditional energy (Amit tively short payback time of approximately two years to reduce the
et al., 2021; España-Gamboa et al., 2017). For instance, in a study by water footprint of the food and beverage industry. The recovery and
Wang et al. (2022), the energy revolution has emerged, with wastewater reuse of wastewater help to minimize the reliance on freshwater sources,
from the brewery industry being utilized to recover energy from the which is particularly critical in regions facing water scarcity and ad­
production of bio-H2 as green and clean energy. vantageous in terms of cost savings in the long term by reducing water
consumption and related expenses. In addition, microalgae can serve as
4.2.5. Practising water reuse from food-sector wastewater a renewable feedstock for clean fuel or biofuel production, reducing the
Practising water reuse from food sector wastewater is a key factor dependence on fossil fuels and promoting sustainability
influencing the implementation of wastewater reclamation because it (Anagnostopoulou et al., 2024; Kiran and Mohan, 2021; Zkeri et al.,
directly contributes to the goal of treating and repurposing wastewater 2024) which in turn contributes to cost savings and increased economic
for sustainable applications (Chen et al., 2024). Wastewater reclamation efficiency. In addition to ensuring waste management and sustainable
is a comprehensive process that aims to treat and purify wastewater development, using microalgae promotes the concept of a circular
from the food-sector to a quality that makes it suitable for reuse. economy.
Reclaimed water serves several vital purposes, including irrigation for Summary of findings – Most of the studies in this paper address the
agricultural activities (Fito et al., 2019; Guerreiro et al., 2020; Mateus environmental benefits to the economy brought by the recovery of re­
et al., 2021; Ochando-Pulido and Martinez-Ferez, 2018). Utilizing sources and the efficient use of resources. However, the barriers should
treated wastewater for irrigation reduces the demand for freshwater be considered. According to Yadav et al. (2021), large-scale wastewater
resources and enhances plant growth (Shroti et al., 2023). Furthermore, reclamation should be a win-win situation in terms of environmental
reclaimed water is purposefully being reused for industrial production and economic aspects, making it a good strategy for beginning waste­
(Alkaya and Demirer, 2015; Hernández et al., 2016; Lima et al., 2021). water reclamation implementation. They also stated that the major
Wastewater reclamation supports industrial output by providing a reli­ barrier to commercializing resource recovery is technology due to its
able and cost-effective alternative water source. Such reuse contributes excessive operating and capital costs, which impact the profitability of
to the conservation of freshwater reserves and minimizes the environ­ the overall process. High resource consumption and substantial invest­
mental impact of industrial water consumption. Finally, wastewater ment and operational costs present significant hurdles to technology
reclamation aims to produce treated water suitable for indirect human adoption (Torre et al., 2024). Studies have identified major contributors
contact applications. A study by Hernández et al. (2016) revealed that to operational costs, encompassing energy, chemicals, sludge disposal,
an electrocoagulation (EC)-electro-oxidation (EO) coupled system effi­ and maintenance (Ilyas et al., 2021). Strategically integrating environ­
ciently treats soft drink wastewater, meeting Mexican standards by mental stewardship with economic prosperity in the food-sector, espe­
reducing nitrogenous matter by 84% and total phosphorus by 89% and cially through wastewater reclamation systems, is pivotal for businesses
achieving 100% colour removal, thus enabling the sustainable reuse of to contribute to sustainable water management and secure long-lasting
treated wastewater for indirect human contact and directly contributing financial success, emphasizing the critical role of return on investment
to the sustainable reuse of industrial effluent. Furthermore, Kanarek (ROI) analysis in assessing economic returns and ensuring long-term
et al. (2024) evaluate the effectiveness of a modular water treatment financial sustainability. Wastewater reclamation initiatives can yield
system for purifying wash water from fruit and vegetable processing positive ROI by enabling significant cost savings through proper
plants. The system improves the microbiological and physicochemical capacitation of treatment equipment and reduction in freshwater intake
properties of the rinse water, making it suitable for recycling and reuse and wastewater discharge (Pulluru and Akkerman, 2023). The emphasis
in production instead of being discarded as wastewater. on ROI analysis as a pivotal factor in wastewater reclamation systems
underscores the critical role of economic considerations in promoting
4.3. Benefits of and barriers to wastewater reclamation in the food-sector sustainable water management, demonstrating that a positive ROI cat­
alyzes businesses to invest in environmentally friendly practices, such as
Next, this study also tries to address the benefits of and barriers to resource recovery and the efficient use of resources.
implementing wastewater reclamation in the food-sector based on four
Proposition 1. Environmental considerations positively contribute to
aspects (technical, environmental, economic and social), with proposi­
economic benefits in the food-sector.
tions on how all these aspects are interrelated, resulting in a conceptual
model. Wastewater reclamation in the food-sector offers a multitude of
4.3.2. Technical and environmental integration
benefits and presents various challenges across environmental, eco­
In the realm of wastewater reclamation in the food-sector, inte­
nomic, technical, and social dimensions. The interconnectedness of
grating environmental considerations with technological advancements
these aspects underscores the significance of understanding their re­
in wastewater treatment not only offers significant benefits but also
lationships. Fig. 3 shows the proposed interrelationships among

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N.M. Yusoff et al. Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

Fig. 3. Integration of the interrelationship framework.

presents challenges that require careful management and innovative bioremediation (the process of using biological microorganisms)
solutions to ensure both environmental protection and economic approach not only helps mitigate environmental hazards associated with
viability. Wastewater reclamation involving biodegradable and non- insufficient treatment but also supports nutrient recovery and biomass
toxic plant-based coagulants offers an environmentally friendly alter­ generation, aligning with the principles of a circular economy (Wang
native to synthetic coagulants in wastewater treatment, reducing et al., 2024; Zkeri et al., 2024). Recognizing and managing nutrient
ecosystem harm and promoting sustainable practices (Balbinoti et al., variability is paramount for ensuring the effectiveness of the cultivation
2023). Sant’Ana et al. (2024) explored using Corynebacterium aqua­ process. Jain et al. (2019) emphasized the potential risk of algal blooms
ticum and 10% brewery wastewater as a carbon source for effluent if the cultivation process is not carefully managed. Uncontrolled algae
treatment, offering a cost-effective, sustainable solution that reduces growth can have detrimental effects on the ecosystem, underscoring the
pollution and improves wastewater treatment efficiency. Wastewater imperative for careful nutrient control and monitoring in microalgal
generation in the food sector has certain characteristics that can harm cultivation. Furthermore, Paz-Samaniego et al. (2016) noted a signifi­
the environment; thus, technological advancement can decrease the cant water consumption issue during the nixtamalization process,
pollution load. Pervez et al. (2021) reported that electrospun nanofiber particularly problematic in regions experiencing water scarcity or water
membranes can eliminate organic pollutants such as methylene blue resource mismanagement. Efficient water use and management have
dyes from food wastewater. Ochando-Pulido and Martinez-Ferez (2018) emerged as imperative components for ensuring the sustainability of
revealed that selecting the appropriate membrane technology can be wastewater reclamation efforts in the food-sector.
beneficial by reducing COD by 60% and lowering electrical conductiv­ Summary of findings – In wastewater reclamation in the food
ity, thus making effluent suitable for irrigation reuse. Their study also sector, integrating environmental considerations with technological
demonstrated that purified effluent meets the salinity standards rec­ advancements poses both benefits and challenges from technical and
ommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) for irriga­ environmental perspectives. The adoption of biodegradable plant-based
tion purposes. Shroti et al. (2023) demonstrated that utilizing industrial coagulants stands out as a technically innovative and environmentally
beverage wastewater for polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) production re­ friendly solution for mitigating harm to ecosystems. Advancements such
duces the burden on wastewater management because of the high sugar as electrospun nanofiber membranes and specialized membrane tech­
content and alkalinity of wastewater, which can harm the environment. nologies have contributed to efficient wastewater treatment, reducing
Prazeres et al. (2016) showed that traditional wastewater treatment COD and making effluent suitable for irrigation reuse. However, the
methods, which can negatively impact the soil structure, are being challenges identified in studies, such as the potential toxicity to aquatic
implemented through technological advancements. Conventional species, the effect of nutrient variability on microalgal cultivation, and
treatments aim to reduce organic contamination, leading to improved water consumption issues, emphasize the importance of addressing both
soil health. technical and environmental aspects in wastewater reclamation efforts.
Nevertheless, studies have identified challenges in wastewater Thus, LCA is needed to aid in improving the technical efficiency of a
reclamation in the food sector from technical and environmental per­ system and to ensure that improvements contribute to environmental
spectives. These challenges pose significant barriers that need careful sustainability by minimizing negative impacts across the entire life
consideration and management. Patange et al. (2018) noted that pro­ cycle. Monteiro et al. (2018) exemplified the crucial role of LCA in
longed contact (up to 48 h) with ACP-treated effluents can be toxic to identifying the most sustainable and cost-effective methods for valo­
certain aquatic species, such as Daphnia, raising concerns about po­ rizing process wastewater, ensuring that environmental benefits are
tential ecological impacts. Regarding treatment used in microalgae maximized throughout the process.
cultivation, O’Rourke et al. (2016) reported that the quality and nutrient
Proposition 2. The technical efficiency of food-sector wastewater recla­
content of brewery wastewater can vary, which may lead to inconsistent
mation contributes to environmental sustainability.
microalgal growth and biomass production. In addition, the

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N.M. Yusoff et al. Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

4.3.3. Technical and economic integration real wastewater, as it may require adjustments or pH control for effec­
This integration has numerous advantages. For example, Patange tive treatment (Nayak et al., 2018). The effectiveness of membrane
et al. (2018) reported that assessing the performance of ACP in con­ processes can be limited by concentration polarization, cake layer
trolling microbial indicators in food-sector effluent has the potential for growth, and fouling, which can reduce the efficiency of such processes
scale-up to larger industrial installations, indicating its suitability for over time (Castro-Muñoz et al., 2017; Pervez et al., 2021). The mem­
practical applications in the food-sector. In terms of the economy, the branes’ cost can be a limiting factor, especially when membranes need
ability to scale up ACP indicates the potential for increased production replacement or maintenance.
capacity in the food-sector. Similarly, scaling up nutrient recovery from Summary of finding – Exploring wastewater treatment strategies’
wastewater demonstrates significant potential, with effluent and bio­ integrated technical and economic aspects reveals notable advantages,
solids providing up to 5 kg N and 0.76 kg P per person per year, suffi­ such as the potential for scale-up, economic gains and economic bene­
cient to meet 6.7–29.2% of urban vegetable needs in cities like Seattle fits. However, challenges persist, such as the initial investment cost,
and Tacoma, while supporting sustainable, cost-effective nutrient sup­ technical complexity, maintenance costs and scale-up challenges.
ply chains and advancing circular economy goals (Brown et al., 2023). Hence, a thorough LCC assessment is needed to address the economic
This expanded capacity can lead to higher output and potentially viability of wastewater treatment strategies.
contribute to economic growth within the sector. Microalgae cultivation
Proposition 3. The technical aspects of wastewater reclamation substan­
is an economically favourable strategy because it does not require
tially influence the economic benefits.
additional nutrients and uses wastewater from the seafood processing
industry as a resource (Jain et al., 2019). This can reduce the costs
4.3.4. Environmental and social integration
associated with both wastewater treatment and biofuel production. In
The environmental aspect of wastewater reclamation can signifi­
addition, a study by Monteiro et al. (2018) on liquid by-products from
cantly influence social factors, particularly the public’s acceptance of
fish canning conducted an LCA and revealed that extraction with hy­
wastewater reclamation and the regulatory compliance of companies
drostatic pressure offers economic advantages by providing a
involved in wastewater management. A study by Josa and Garfí (2023)
cost-effective extraction method. The adoption of such a method can
found that water reclamation in the food sector commonly uses a stan­
result in cost savings for the fish canning industry, making the industry’s
dard growth medium (an essential nutrient solution widely used to grow
operations more economically viable. Moreover, Arias et al. (2024)
microalgae) to meet the stakeholders’ expectations. This result is due to
explored the valorizing ferulic acid from wastewater from a corn tortilla
the medium’s simplicity, reduced health and safety risks, and greater
plant and using it to create a functional bioactive material. Thus, it leads
acceptability, making it more socially acceptable. In addition,
to economic benefits through cost reduction in waste management and
well-established frameworks provide a clear set of guidelines and stan­
the potential for generating revenue from bioactive material applica­
dards for various practices, ensuring consistency and accountability. The
tions. Technological innovations in the food industry, i.e., reducing
presence of well-established legislation and regulatory frameworks for
water withdrawal and waste production, can lead to significant cost
standard growth medium scenarios benefits value chain actors and so­
efficiencies and long-term savings, enhancing the sector’s economic
ciety (Josa and Garfí, 2023). The system’s ability to produce water that
viability (López-Cabarcos et al., 2024). Similarly, Ahmed et al. (2024)
meets or exceeds the standards for advanced industrial use helps food
introduced a new bio-based flocculant that is more affordable than
and beverage companies comply with regulatory requirements for water
existing commercial flocculants, which could further reduce operational
quality (Bortolini et al., 2017). Companies need to adhere to regulatory
costs for food industry wastewater treatment, supporting cost-effective
requirements related to wastewater quality and treatment. Simulta­
and sustainable wastewater management in the sector.
neously, the public’s willingness to accept and adopt wastewater
Despite the evident benefits, challenges persist in this integration.
reclamation practices can be influenced by how well these practices
Technically, some treatment plants need a high initial investment,
align with environmental standards and regulations.
where implanting membrane technology and integrated membrane
Regulatory approval and validation are necessary to ensure the
processes (IMPs) can be associated with high upfront costs, particularly
safety and effectiveness of wastewater reclamation systems. However,
in acquiring the necessary membrane equipment (Castro-Muñoz et al.,
the process may pose challenges in terms of lengthy, time-consuming
2017). Additionally, the economic costs and technical challenges of
and bureaucratic processes (Valili et al., 2013). Compliance with regu­
adopting sustainable practices in the food sector are considerable, given
lations and sustainability standards is not always straightforward. It may
its heavy reliance on natural resources such as water, energy, and raw
demand extra effort and resources, possibly due to the complexity of the
materials (López-Cabarcos et al., 2024). Although research indicates a
regulations, changing standards, or the need for ongoing monitoring and
relatively short payback time for small food and beverage companies,
reporting (Hasanudin et al., 2015). Depending on local laws and
their barriers are the significant initial capital costs associated with
permitting requirements, implementing a wastewater recovery and pu­
system implementation (Bortolini et al., 2017). Small private firms with
rification system may face legal and regulatory hurdles, which could
part-time employees are less likely to treat water before discharge due to
impede system adoption (Bortolini et al., 2017).
limited resources and financial constraints (Meng et al., 2022). The
Summary of finding – The environmental dimension of wastewater
setup and equipment require an initial investment for treatments that
reclamation significantly influences social aspects, impacting public
use EC and EO, especially when using advanced materials such as
acceptance and regulatory compliance. Compliance with standards is
boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes (Hernández et al., 2016). Bio­
crucial for companies and contributes to public trust. However,
electrochemical systems (BESs) may face technical challenges, such as
obtaining regulatory approval may face challenges, and compliance ef­
membrane fouling, electrode stability, and microbial management,
forts demand resources. Legal hurdles may impede wastewater system
affecting long-term performance (Ramanaiah et al., 2023). Transition­
adoption. Thus, it is suggested that companies engaging in corporate
ing from a research setting to industrial-scale production can be chal­
social responsibility (CSR) initiatives related to wastewater manage­
lenging, especially in the scalability, cost-effectiveness, and consistent
ment demonstrate commitment to environmental stewardship and
quality control (Ahmed et al., 2024; Brown et al., 2023; Paz-Samaniego
enhance public trust, showing a strong motivation to reuse wastewater.
et al., 2016). Implementing reuse strategies involves technical
Reusing wastewater is gaining momentum among commercial enter­
complexity and financial costs (Shrivastava et al., 2022). For instance,
prises, as it facilitates regulatory compliance and enhances their CSR
implementing microbial processing for dairy wastewater can be tech­
standing (Shrivastava et al., 2022). Comprehensive education and
nically complex and requires expertise in microbiology, biotechnology,
awareness campaigns about the environmental benefits of wastewater
and engineering (Usmani et al., 2022). For wastewater treatment, pH
reclamation are essential, as they emphasize the positive impacts on
dependency can be a barrier when dealing with variations in the pH of

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water conservation and ecological sustainability. A responsible Table 5

approach to wastewater reclamation contributes to fostering positive Future research directions.
social attitudes. Literature gaps Possible future Possible research questions
directions
Proposition 4. Environmental responsibility in food-sector wastewater
reclamation has the potential to impact social attitudes positively. Most studies involve Analysing the transition ● How can wastewater
experimental from laboratory-scale management techniques
research designs experiments to larger- be effectively integrated
4.3.5. Technical and social integration scale applications in into existing industrial
Technical-social integration represents a holistic approach that wastewater processes within the food-
combines technological advancements with social considerations, management sector at a larger scale?
What modifications or
intending to optimize technical processes and community well-being.
adaptations are required
For example, simpler microalgal-based systems that have fewer con­ for seamless integration?
taminants improve health and safety for workers, consumers, and the ● What are the key
local community (Josa and Garfí, 2023). Ensuring the safety and parameters that need to be
well-being of stakeholders is a crucial component of sustainability. optimized when scaling
up wastewater
Therefore, the implementation of wastewater treatment not only con­
management techniques
tributes to environmental sustainability but also yields valuable from laboratory settings
health-promoting ingredients. Utilizing arabinoxylans (AXs) extracted to larger industrial scales,
through this process as a probiotic encapsulation material has significant and how do these
potential to revolutionize the food-sector. The resulting food products parameters impact the
overall effectiveness of
can enhance public health by improving gut health, providing antioxi­ the process?
dant properties, and supporting the immune system (Paz-Samaniego Lack of an economic- Developing thorough ● What are the
et al., 2016). This breakthrough not only addresses environmental social frameworks to interdependencies
concerns through wastewater treatment but also introduces innovative interrelationship systematically study between economic and
and understand the social indicators, and how
approaches to creating functional foods that can positively impact the
simultaneous economic can they be integrated
well-being of society. and social impacts of into a unified impact
However, wastewater treatment can still pose microbiological wastewater reclamation assessment model for
contamination risks if not properly managed. This may lead to health practices in the food wastewater reclamation
threats, especially if the untreated water is reused in food processing, sector initiatives?
Lack of examination of Analysing the factors ● How do consumers
particularly in minimally processed products (Kanarek et al., 2024). This consumer influencing consumers’ perceive and evaluate the
risk can undermine public confidence in water reuse practices, affecting perceptions acceptance of food adoption of food products
the acceptance of such systems. In addition, some countries limit products derived from derived from wastewater
wastewater reuse due to legal constraints and restrictions due to public wastewater reclamation reclamation practices in
practices in the food- the food-sector, and what
health and safety concerns, which suggests that ensuring water quality is
sector factors influence their
a significant challenge (Shrivastava et al., 2022). The use of microalgae willingness to incorporate
in wastewater treatment and food production may be subject to regu­ these products into their
latory and safety considerations that need to be addressed (Kiran and consumption patterns?
Mohan, 2021). Overcoming the negative social perception and gener­ Lack of research on Exploring the ● What are the primary
managerial multifaceted aspects determinants influencing
ating trust and acceptance of products recovered from wastewater perceptions influencing food the willingness of food
treatment processes can be challenging and a barrier to widespread companies’ willingness companies to adopt
adoption (Josa and Garfí, 2023). to adopt wastewater wastewater reclamation
Summary of finding – Regarding the holistic integration of tech­ reclamation practices practices, considering
factors such as economic
nical and social aspects in wastewater reclamation, the simplicity of
considerations, regulatory
treatment improves the health and safety of employees and presents an compliance, and
innovative opportunity for health-promoting benefits. In terms of safety, sustainability goals?
acceptance among the public may be challenging. For instance, He et al. ● What is the level of
(2023) stated that the public’s acceptance and support are crucial to acceptance or willingness
of food companies to
ensure that wastewater reuse projects are implemented safely and adopt wastewater
effectively. Strict regulations and public feedback help prevent com­ reclamation practices?
panies from prioritizing profits over safety standards (J. He et al., 2023). Lack of examinations of Investigating and ● How does adopting
Addressing concerns related to health, safety, and environmental impact different company comparing the wastewater reclamation
scales experiences, challenges, practices contribute to the
is essential for fostering positive social attitudes. Therefore, successful
and strategies of small-, overall CSR initiatives of
wastewater reclamation projects require cutting-edge technical solu­ medium-, and large- small-, medium-, and
tions and effective communication, education, and engagement strate­ scale food companies in large-scale food com­
gies to garner support and acceptance from the community. implementing panies, and are there var­
wastewater reclamation iations in CSR priorities
Proposition 5. The technical success of wastewater reclamation initiatives across different scales?
in the food-sector directly shapes public perceptions and acceptance. ● How does the scale of food
companies (small,
medium, large) influence
5. Future research directions their adoption and
implementation of
The SLR reveals a research taxonomy, discusses findings and iden­ wastewater reclamation
tifies propositions. In this light, the current study suggests six limitations practices, and what are
the unique challenges
that must be highlighted to guide future research on wastewater recla­ companies face at each
mation in the food sector, as shown in Table 5. First, most of the scale?
methodologies in this SLR are experimental research designs that have (continued on next page)
provided insights into the characteristics and recovery of compounds

11
N.M. Yusoff et al. Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

Table 5 (continued ) in the food-sector is insufficiently understood. Future research should

Literature gaps Possible future Possible research questions focus on how government policies and laws impact these practices. Such
directions research should examine how different levels of government work
Lack of research Investigating how ● How effective are existing
together and how well existing laws work.
studying political political and legal legal frameworks in
and legal factors at different addressing the challenges 6. Conclusion
perspectives and the levels of governance and promoting the
regulatory scale influence the adoption of sustainable
The food-sector is under fire for using a lot of water as a result of its
implementation and wastewater management
regulation of practices in the food- unsustainable practices. This is why it is suggested that wastewater
wastewater reclamation sector? reclamation be executed to align with the SDGs and prioritize sanitation
in the food-sector ● What is the role of and clean water. However, the literature on this is fragmented, which
intergovernmental
limits the knowledge. Therefore, the present study explores the rela­
relations in influencing
the development and
tionship between wastewater reclamation and sustainability by struc­
implementation of turing the existing literature. In total, 40 peer-reviewed articles were
regulations related to used to answer the three aforementioned research questions by
wastewater reclamation employing Snyder (2019) four-phase methodology (design, conduct,
in the food-sector?
analysis and structure). Exploring wastewater reclamation in the
food-sector through this SLR has provided several crucial findings.
from wastewater, revealing significant benefits and the potential for
reuse. These findings emphasize the need for future research to transi­ ● The answer to the first research questions:
tion from laboratory experiments to pilot studies and larger-scale dem­
onstrations. This transition will address the disparity between controlled The present study has identified five factors that influence the
experiments and practical implementation by substantiating the feasi­ implementation of wastewater reclamation: economizing water con­
bility and effectiveness of wastewater management techniques in real- sumption, combating wastewater generation, embracing wastewater
world industrial contexts. This shift should aim to advance insights reclamation, optimizing wastewater utilization, and practising waste­
into scalability, operational challenges, and integration within existing water reuse.
processes in the food-sector, fostering the evolution of sustainable
practices that harmonize scientific knowledge with actionable solutions ● The answer to the second research question:
for environmental management.
No economic-social interrelationships were found in this SLR. This An in-depth exploration of the benefits of and barriers to, covering
absence underscores a critical gap in the current understanding of how the technical, environmental, economic, and social dimensions, has
economic considerations, such as cost-benefit analyses or market dy­ been undertaken where, in total, 15 benefits and 19 barriers have been
namics, may influence or interact with social elements, including com­ identified. The benefits of wastewater reclamation led to its imple­
munity perceptions, employment dynamics, and overall societal well- mentation. Most studies cover technology use in wastewater reclama­
being within the context of wastewater reclamation in the food-sector. tion, and the findings reveal that technical aspects are the most
Thus, it is necessary to develop comprehensive frameworks for assess­ significant players in terms of benefits and barriers. Technical aspects
ing the simultaneous economic and social impacts of wastewater are independent factors that influence social, economic, and environ­
reclamation practices in the food-sector. Furthermore, the papers in the mental aspects (dependent factors).
SLR lacked a specific focus on social aspects, particularly concerning Additionally, this research significantly advances the understanding
consumers’ perceptions of purchasing or accepting food products of wastewater reclamation in the food sector, particularly in its theo­
derived from wastewater reclamation practices in the food-sector. retical and conceptual frameworks. The paper fills existing gaps in the
Therefore, a critical direction for future research involves conducting literature by synthesizing diverse findings and providing a more holistic
a thorough analysis of how various social factors, such as public view of wastewater reclamation’s role in sustainability. It also contrib­
awareness, trust, and attitudes, influence consumers’ willingness to utes to the growing field of sustainable water management by offering a
purchase and embrace food products resulting from wastewater recla­ more precise, evidence-based conceptual framework specific to the food
mation initiatives in the context of food production. industry. The insights provided here are essential for scholars aiming to
Furthermore, there is a notable gap in the literature regarding case expand on the theoretical foundations of wastewater reclamation.
studies on the willingness of food companies to adopt wastewater Moreover, the study identifies key areas where future research is
reclamation practices. To address this deficiency and advance our un­ needed, contributing to the academic discourse by proposing future
derstanding of industry practices, it is strongly recommended that future research directions focused on untapped gaps within the field. This
research focus on conducting in-depth case studies within the context of study is a reference point for future studies and theoretical advance­
food companies. This research should explore the specific factors ments in sustainable water management practices.
influencing companies’ decisions to adopt or reject wastewater recla­ Moreover, from a practical standpoint, this paper holds significant
mation initiatives, taking into account aspects such as economic con­ value for industry practitioners and policymakers. It emphasizes the
siderations, regulatory compliance, corporate sustainability goals, and economic advantages of wastewater reclamation and recommends
the potential impact on consumer perceptions. Moreover, there is a lack strategies for investment in reclamation technologies that align with
of research examining how companies of varying sizes within the food- business objectives. The study calls for increased research and devel­
sector engage in or are affected by wastewater reclamation practices. opment to address the technical barriers identified, encouraging
Future research can perform a comparative analysis to systematically collaboration with technology providers to enhance feasibility.
investigate the distinct experiences, challenges, and outcomes associ­ Furthermore, industry players are urged to integrate environmental
ated with wastewater reclamation practices among small-, medium-, responsibilities into their corporate social responsibility (CSR) goals and
and large-scale companies in the food-sector, providing valuable in­ educate and engage local communities to ensure a positive social
sights for tailored and scalable sustainable solutions. Finally, there is a impact. For policymakers, the research recommends implementing and
lack of research on regulations’ political and legal aspects at different enforcing stringent environmental standards to ensure that wastewater
levels. How politics and laws influence the rules for reusing wastewater reclamation practices comply with regulatory requirements while being
easy to monitor, regulate and safe to reuse.

12
N.M. Yusoff et al. Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

Finally, this study acknowledges certain limitations, which offers Conceptualization. Norhidayah Suleiman: Writing – review & editing,
opportunities for future research on the topic. First, while the Scopus Visualization, Validation, Investigation. Asma-Qamaliah Abdul-
and WoS databases are comprehensive, there is a possibility that some Hamid: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration,
relevant publications on wastewater reclamation in the food-sector were Methodology, Formal analysis. Mohd Helmi Ali: Writing – review &
not captured. One might be the reason for the restriction on getting free editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition,
articles from the websites. Second, the exclusion of book chapters and Conceptualization.
conference papers might have led to the omission of valuable insights
which might be left out unintentionally. Lastly, this study might not Declaration of competing interest
have captured all relevant articles due to the use of different search-
related keywords, even though these keywords were based on previ­ There is no conflict of interest between the authors.
ous research. This limitation highlights the importance of a thorough
and careful literature review process. To this end, future studies should Acknowledgement/Funding
improve the keyword search string and broaden the situation of the
food-sector. The author acknowledges the Transdisciplinary Research Grant
Scheme (TRGS), grant number TRGS/1/2022/UKM/02/3/3 funded by
CRediT authorship contribution statement the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia.

Nabiilah Mat Yusoff: Writing – original draft, Investigation,

Appendix 1. Summary of the reviewed studies

No Authors Research Objective

Methodology

1 Ahmed et al. (2024) Experimental To find an affordable and effective method for managing this waste using a new flocculant made from sustainable
research sources, specifically crude olive pomace oil, and combining it with alum for better coagulation and flocculation.
2 Alkaya and Demirer (2015) Case study To investigate water conservation and reuse opportunities in a soft drink/beverage manufacturing company.
3 Amit et al. (2021) Review To discover the information of the use of different food processing wastewater for microalgae biomass cultivation
4 Anagnostopoulou et al. (2024) Experimental To optimize bioremediation using microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris, Nannochloropsis oculata, and Scenedesmus sp.)
research for treating food industry wastewater, enhancing growth and removing phosphate, nitrogen, COD, and TOC to
support wastewater management and circular bioeconomy.
5 Arias et al. (2024). Life Cycle To design and assess an enzymatic process to valorize ferulic acid from corn tortilla plant effluent, immobilizing it
Assessment on chitosan to create a bioactive film with enhanced antioxidant properties, while evaluating the process’s
environmental and economic performance through Techno-Economic Analysis (TEA) and Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) for potential biotech applications.
6 Balbinoti et al. (2023) Review To explore the benefits and feasibility of replacing synthetic coagulants with plant-based coagulants for effluent
treatment.
7 Boguniewicz-Zablocka et al. Experimental To assess the impact of adding new ingredients, annatto and yeast extract, in snack production on the nature of
(2020) research process wastewater and to explore solutions for efficient wastewater treatment
8 Bortolini et al. (2017) Life-cycle To address the issue of high-water consumption in the EU F&B industry; 2) to develop and assess a wastewater
assessment closed-loop recovery and purification system tailored for a standard mid-size F&B company, with the goal of
reducing water consumption, environmental impact, and costs.
9 Brown and Butman (2023) Experimental To quantify nutrient recovery from urban residuals, like food scraps and wastewater, and assess their potential to
research enhance urban agriculture and sustainability through a circular nutrient economy.
10 Castro-Muñoz et al. (2017) Review To address waste disposal challenges in agro-food industries.
11 España-Gamboa et al. (2017) Experimental To explore the potential for methane production from nejayote, 2) to optimize its treatment using a two-phase
research anaerobic digestion system for the methanogenic phase.
12 Fito et al. (2019) Experimental 1) To assess the physicochemical properties of sugar industry and ethanol distillery wastewater 2) to treat the
research combined wastewater from both industries.
13 Guerreiro et al. (2020) Experimental To design a cost-effective treatment method for cheese manufacturing effluents, utilizing various precipitation
research processes.
14 Hasanudin et al. (2015) Survey To assess the current treatment and utilization of palm oil mill effluent (POME) in Indonesia and propose
alternative scenarios to improve the sustainability of the palm oil industry
15 Hernández et al. (2016) Experimental To implement a coupled system involving monopolar Electrocoagulation (EC) and Electrooxidation (EO)
research processes for treating soft drink wastewater.
16 Jain et al. (2019) Experimental To assess the efficiency of CO2 utilization by the microalgae Chlorella vulgaris NIOCCV when cultivated in
research seafood processing industry wastewater.
17 Josa and Garfí (2023) Life-cycle To evaluate how the use of microalgae in treating wastewater and producing bioproducts affects various social
assessment aspects and stakeholders involved in these systems.
18 Kanarek et al. (2024) Experimental To assess the properties of rinse water from a post-harvest processing plant before and after treatment with an
research innovative modular system, evaluating its effectiveness for reuse in agri-food production
19 Karadag et al. (2014) Review To investigate the potential for sustainable hydrogen production from dairy wastewater, focusing on dark
fermentation as a biological method.
20 Kiran and Mohan (2021) Experimental To investigate how different light intensities affect the photosynthetic performance and behavior of Chlorella
research sorokiniana SVMBIOEN2 during the treatment of dairy wastewater.
21 Kumari et al. (2019) Experimental To find out if it’s possible to recover phosphorus from distillery spent wash by using a process called struvite
research precipitation.
21 Kumari et al. (2024) Experimental To explore coconut coir dust (CCD) as a biosorbent for removing Sunset Yellow dye from wastewater, assessing its
research effectiveness in batch and column modes, adsorption characteristics, and economic feasibility.
22 Lima et al. (2021) Case study Exploring the possibilities of reusing treated water in the production cycle, contributing to the sustainable use of
water resources and presenting solution.
(continued on next page)

13
N.M. Yusoff et al. Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

(continued )
No Authors Research Objective
Methodology

23 López-Cabarcos et al. (2024) Case study To identify water and waste management practices that drive overvaluation of food companies (Tobin’s Q > 1)
and explore how sustainable practices enhance financial performance.
24 Lu et al. (2017) Experimental To investigate factors limiting algae growth in brewery effluent, with specific objectives focused on cultivating
research Spirulina sp. in raw brewery effluent.
25 Mateus et al. (2021) Experimental To assess the treatment and potential reuse of wastewater produced during guava paste production in agricultural
research irrigation.
26 Meng et al. (2022) Survey This paper examines pre- and post-production water treatment practices among food processors and investigates
factors, especially managerial perceptions of environmental pressure that encourage or preclude either process
27 Paz-Samaniego et al. (2016) Experimental To evaluate the ability of maize wastewater arabinoxylans (MWAX) to encapsulate probiotics.
research
28 Menussi et al. (2023) Case study To determine the water footprint of chilled chicken meat processing, analyse the allocation of water use (blue,
green, and grey) in the production process, and assess how the water footprint aligns with and contributes to
specific Sustainable Development Goals.
29 Monteiro et al. (2018) Experimental To develop a sustainable and economically viable method for extracting valuable ω3 lipids from fish canning
research liquid waste by-products.
30 Mukherjee et al. (2015) Experimental To investigate the potential of utilizing the free-floating aquatic plant water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) for
research phytoremediation of parboiled rice mill wastewater.
31 Najar-Almanzor et al. (2024) Experimental To assess the potential of Chlorella vulgaris in bioremediating complex wastewater effluents from the food and
research beverage industries while producing valuable compounds such as pigments, proteins, and phenolic compounds.
32 Nayak et al. (2018) Experimental To develop a sustainable and eco-efficient process for removing total polyphenols from wine wastewater as a
research pretreatment step for anaerobic digestion.
33 O’Rourke et al. (2016) Experimental To assess the effectiveness of Parachlorella kessleri, a type of microorganism, in utilizing brewery wastewater (Br
research WW) for growth and metabolite production.
34 Ochando-Pulido and Experimental To assess the concentration and recovery of high-added value compounds, specifically the polyphenolic fraction,
Martinez-Ferez (2018) research from two-phase olive mill wastewater (OMW).
35 Patange et al. (2018) Experimental To assess the effectiveness of using dielectric barrier discharge atmospheric cold plasma (ACP) for controlling
research microbial indicators in food industry effluent.
36 Paz-Samaniego et al. (2016) Experimental To evaluate the ability of maize wastewater arabinoxylans (MWAX) to encapsulate probiotics.
research
37 Pervez et al. (2021) Review To summarizes the role of available membrane technologies that have been employed for food wastewater
treatment and analyse their performance.
38 Prazeres et al. (2016) Experimental To investigate the treatment of raw cheese whey wastewater (CWW) using a multi-step process
research
39 Ramanaiah et al. (2023) Review To tackle challenges in food production related to the environmental and climate impacts of organic waste and
wastewater generation.
40 Sant’Ana et al. (2024) Experimental To evaluate the potential of treating beer industry effluents with biosurfactants from brewery wastewater,
research assessing their effectiveness in reducing BOD, COD, and TS.
41 Selvasembian et al. (2022) Review To discusses the recent implementation and advancement of MFCs to treat various wastewater for power
generation with a special focus on industrial effluents.
42 Shrivastava et al. (2022) Review To address key issues pertaining to water consumption, wastewater generation, treatment, and successful
implementation cases of water reuse in the food and beverage industry.
43 Shroti et al. (2023) Experimental To address the environmental issues caused by the beverage industry’s wastewater by using a specific bacterium.
research
44 Usmani et al. (2022) Review To investigate how aerobic and anaerobic microbial treatments can be employed to convert dairy waste into
valuable products.
45 Valili et al. (2013) Experimental To discover a sustainable solution for handling malt spent rootlets (MSR), abundant by-products of the beer
research industry.
46 Vidyarthi and Simmons (2020) Review To reviews the characteristics of byproduct/discharge streams (solid stream and process water stream) generated
at different stages of tomato processing from the California tomato processing plants.
47 Wang et al. (2021) Experimental To evaluate the feasibility of reducing energy consumption by using forward osmotic membrane technology to
research concentrate vegetable liquor.
48 Wang et al. (2022) Experimental To examine the potential and performance of bio-H2 production from brewery wastewater using Clostridium
research butyricum NH-02.
49 Wang et al. (2024) Experimental To explore bioremediation using an indigenous microbial community, including Halamphora coffeaeformis
research monoculture and synthetic bacteria, to recover nutrients and generate biomass from FIPW, aiming for high
nutrient recovery and biomass use in biochemicals and fertilizer production.
50 Welz et al. (2014) Experimental To compare the biodegradation of two distinct formulations of winery effluent in sand bioreactors.
research
51 Zkeri et al. (2024) Experimental To investigate Chlorella sorokiniana for treating winery wastewater, examining the effects of biomass
research acclimatization, wastewater dilution, and ammonium nitrogen on microalgae growth and pollutant removal,
while exploring the potential for producing valuable products like proteins, lipids, and pigments.

Appendix 2. Factors influencing implementation of wastewater reclamation in food-sector

1) Economizing food industry 2) Combating on wastewater 3) Embracing technology innovation 4) Optimization of food 5) Practicing water reuse from
on water consumption generation in food industry in food wastewater reclamation wastewater utilization food industry wastewater

i) Solve water scarcity i) Regulatory requirement i) Improve of technology of i) Production of Value-Added i) Irrigation
Shrivastava et al. (2022); Patange et al. (2018); treatment efficiency Product Ochando-Pulido and
Lima et al. (2021) Shrivastava et al. (2022); Valili et al. (2013); Castro-Muñoz et al. (2017); Martinez-Ferez (2018);
López-Cabarcos et al. (2024) Guerreiro et al. (2020); Castro-Muñoz et al. (2017); Hasanudin et al. (2015); Mateus et al. (2021);
Ochando-Pulido and Patange et al. (2018); Jain et al. (2019); Guerreiro et al. (2020);
(continued on next page)

14
N.M. Yusoff et al. Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

(continued )
1) Economizing food industry 2) Combating on wastewater 3) Embracing technology innovation 4) Optimization of food 5) Practicing water reuse from
on water consumption generation in food industry in food wastewater reclamation wastewater utilization food industry wastewater

Martinez-Ferez (2018); Hernández et al. (2016); Karadag et al. (2014); Fito et al. (2019)
Mukherjee et al. (2015) Welz et al. (2014); Kumari et al. (2019); Kanarek et al. (2024)
Mateus et al. (2021); Amit et al. (2021);
Guerreiro et al. (2020); Paz-Samaniego et al. (2016);
Pervez et al. (2021); Fito et al. (2019);
Wang et al. (2021); Kiran and Mohan (2021);
Mukherjee et al. (2015); Shroti et al. (2023);
Prazeres et al. (2016); Wang et al. (2022);
Nayak et al. (2018); Monteiro et al. (2018);
Welz et al. (2014) España-Gamboa et al. (2017);
Sant’Ana et al. (2024) Lu et al. (2017);
O’Rourke et al. (2016)
Wang et al. (2024)
ii) Reduce raw water ii) Reduce of impact toward ii) Power generation ii) Reduce impact of alkalinity ii) Production
consumption environment Selvasembian et al. (2022); towards environment Castro-Muñoz et al. (2017);
Bortolini et al. (2017); Shrivastava et al. (2022); Ramanaiah et al. (2023) Paz-Samaniego et al. (2016); Shrivastava et al. (2022);
Lima et al. (2021); Boguniewicz-Zablocka et al. Fito et al. (2019); Alkaya and Demirer (2015);
Alkaya and Demirer (2015); (2020); Shroti et al. (2023); Lima et al. (2021);
Ochando-Pulido and Wang et al. (2021); España-Gamboa et al. (2017); Hernández et al. (2016)
Martinez-Ferez (2018); Prazeres et al. (2016); Ramanaiah et al. (2023)
Menussi et al. (2023); Usmani et al. (2022)
Usmani et al. (2022) Ahmed et al. (2024)
iii) Reduce cost production iii) Improve of wastewater iii) Promotion of environmentally iii) Energy generation iii) Non-potable usage
Meng et al. (2022) management strategies friendly treatment Selvasembian et al. (2022); Hernández et al. (2016)
Boguniewicz-Zablocka et al. Balbinoti et al. (2023) Ramanaiah et al. (2023);
(2020); Ahmed et al. (2024) Lu et al. (2017);
Vidyarthi and Simmons (2020); O’Rourke et al. (2016);
Welz et al. (2014); Wang et al. (2022)
Wang et al. (2021)
​ ​ ​ iv) Reduce GHG emission ​
Amit et al. (2021);
España-Gamboa et al. (2017)

Appendix 3. Benefits and barriers of wastewater reclamation in food industry (environmental-economic integration and environmental-
social integration)

Economic Social

Benefits Benefits Barriers

Environmental 1) Resource recovery 5) Compliance of regulation 1) Regulatory compliance challenges

Amit et al. (2021); Bortolini et al. (2017) Hasanudin et al. (2015)
Ochando-Pulido and Martinez-Ferez (2018); 6) Social acceptance 2) Regulatory approval
Kiran and Mohan (2021); Josa and Garfí (2023) Valili et al. (2013)
Shroti et al. (2023);
Wang et al. (2022);
Josa and Garfí (2023);
Valili et al. (2013)
Arias et al. (2024)
Anagnostopoulou et al. (2024)
2) Energy recovery
Amit et al. (2021);
Kiran and Mohan (2021);
Wang et al. (2022)
Zkeri et al. (2024)
Anagnostopoulou et al. (2024)
3) Resource efficiency
Shrivastava et al. (2022);
Hasanudin et al. (2015)
4) Renewable energy
Jain et al. (2019);
Kiran and Mohan (2021)

15
N.M. Yusoff et al. Journal of Environmental Management 377 (2025) 124552

6.1 Table 3B. Benefits and barriers of wastewater reclamation in food industry (technical-environmental integration, technical-economic integration and technical-
social integration)

Environmental Economic Social

Benefits Barriers Benefits Barriers Benefits Barriers

Technical 7) Eco-friendly treatment 3) Toxicity concern 10) Cost saving in long 8) Initial unsuitable 14) Simplicity enhance 16) Regulatory and
Balbinoti et al. (2023) Patange et al. time Lu et al. (2017); safety and acceptance safety concern
(2018) Meng et al. (2022) Castro-Munoz et al. Josa and Garfí (2023) Kiran and Mohan
López-Cabarcos et al. (2017) (2021)
(2024)
Ahmed et al. (2024)
8) Reduction of pollution 4) CO2 tolerance 11) Potential scale up 9) Scale-up challenges 15) Health-promoting 17) Public health and
load Jain et al. (2019) Patange et al. (2018) Bortolini et al. (2017); ingredients safety concern
Pervez et al. (2021); Brown et al. (2023) Hernández et al. (2016) Paz-Samaniego et al. Shrivastava et al.
Ochando-Pulido and López-Cabarcos et al. (2016) (2022)
Martinez-Ferez (2018); (2024) Kanarek et al. (2024)
Shroti et al. (2023); 5) Algal blooms 12) Use renewable energy 10) Small-private firm ​ 18) Overcoming
Balbinoti et al. (2023); Jain et al. (2019) Kiran and Mohan (2021); Meng et al. (2022) negative social
Prazeres et al. (2016) Jain et al. (2019) Balbinoti et al. (2023) perception
Sant’Ana et al. (2024) Josa and Garfí (2023)
6) Nutrient 11) Membrane fouling ​ 19) Generating trust
variability Castro-Muñoz et al. and acceptance
O’Rourke et al. (2017) Josa and Garfí (2023)
(2016) Pervez et al. (2021)
9) Improved quality of 7) High 13) Economic gain 12) Operational stability ​ ​
treated water consumption water Shroti et al. (2023); Ramanaiah et al. (2023)
Bortolini et al. (2017) Paz-Samaniego Monteiro et al. (2018) Ahmed et al. (2024)
et al. (2016) Arias et al. (2024) Brown et al. (2023)
​ 13) Require specific ​ ​
equipment and resource
Usmani et al. (2022)
​ ​ ​ 14) pH dependency ​ ​
Nayak et al. (2018)
​ ​ ​ 15) Technical complexity ​ ​
Paz-Samaniego et al.
(2016);
Castro-Munoz et al.
(2017);
Pervez et al. (2021)

Data availability for food industry wastewater treatment. J. Water Proc. Eng. 52, 103525. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2023.103525.
Boguniewicz-Zablocka, J., Klosok-Bazan, I., Callegari, A., Capodaglio, A.G., 2020. Snack-
No data was used for the research described in the article. food industry effluent pre-treatment for annatto dye and yeast removal: process
improvement for effectiveness and sustainability. J. Clean. Prod. 277. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124117.
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