PPGC 211: PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP

2nd SEMESTER FINALS 3RD YEAR NURSING

WEEK 13 - Local Government & Decentralization the income of the province, the higher is its
classification.
Local Government Units
− A province elects its executives, the governor, vice
governor, and the members of the provincial board
(vocales). 32 vocales - 1, 2, 3rd class provinces
Vocales in other provinces
✓ There are three vocales in the first-, second-
, and third-class provinces, and two in the
other classes of provinces.
− The election of the governor, vice governor, and
members of the provincial board;
✓ Takes place on the Second Tuesday of
November of the election year. They hold
office for three years.
✓ They cannot serve for more than three
consecutive terms.
− The Constitution of the Philippines recognizes the − The provincial governor exercises general
importance of local governments. supervisory powers over the entire province.
− It provides as a policy that "the State shall guarantee ✓ He also makes known to the people of his
and promote the autonomy of the local government province all laws and orders of the
units, especially the barangays. To ensure their fullest government.
development as self-reliant communities. “ ✓ He acquaints himself with the conditions of
− Local governments constitute the foundation of the the municipalities comprising the province
entire structure of the government.
Ang mga lokal na pamahalaan ang nagsisilbing pundasyon ng and advises local officials.
buong estruktura ng pamahalaan.
− The acts of the local government units affect the Municipalities
ordinary citizen more directly than those of the national
government. − A municipality is a local government unit (LGU) in the
− The average citizen has more and closer contacts with Philippines.
the local governments and their agencies than with the − A municipality is called town in its archaic term: a
national or provincial government. municipality has the function of a town since its
inception.
Over-all Supervision of the LGUs − It is distinct from city, which is a different category of
− The President of the Philippines exercises supervision local government unit.
over the whole country. − Provinces of the Philippines are divided into cities and
− But for purposes of administrative control, the municipalities, which in turn, are divided into barangays
Philippines is divided into units of different sizes, known (formerly barrios) villages.
as political subdivisions. These are provinces, − As of 7 September 2019, there are 1,488 municipalities
municipalities, cities, and barangays. across the country.
− These political subdivisions enjoy autonomy, especially − Each province is composed of municipalities
in local affairs. But they are also under the general commonly called towns.
supervision of the Chief Executive, through the − The municipality is a public corporation which
Secretary of the Department of Interior and Local defines its duties and powers.
Government (DILG). ✓ Being public corporations, municipalities can
sue or be sued in court;
Provinces ✓ enter into contracts; acquire and hold real and
− The provincial government takes care of the function personal properties for municipal purposes;
so which affect the people of a certain province. ✓ and exercise such other powers as are
granted by law.
− The province is the largest political unit in the
Philippines. − Municipalities are classified according to their average
annual income for the last four fiscal years.
− It possesses the following powers: (lupa at gusali)
1. To acquire and transfer real and personal − There are 1,540 municipalities in the Philippines.
properties. (mga kagamitan, sasakyan, atbp.) ✓ They are autonomous units of government
2. To enter into contracts, including those and have elective and appointive officials.
incurring obligations, which are expressly ✓ The elective officials are the municipal mayor,
provided by law. vice mayor, and councilors.
3. To exercise such other rights and incur such ✓ They are elected by the qualified voters for a
other obligations. term of three years.
✓ They cannot serve for more than three
− There are 77 provinces in the Philippines.
consecutive terms.
✓ They are classified according to their average
income for five consecutive years. The higher

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 ✓ The appointive officials are the municipal ✓ To levy and collect taxes in accordance with
secretary, treasurer, justice of the peace, and law
chief of police. ✓ To enact ordinances
✓ To provide for public works constructions and
Municipal Mayor
for the maintenance of a local police force
− Is the chief executive officer of the town. ✓ To establish fire zones within the city and to
− Functions of the Mayor: regulated the type of building which may be
1. To execute all laws and municipal ordinances. constructed within each zone
2. To supervise the administration of the town. ✓ To provide for the protection of the inhabitants
3. To issue orders relative to the maintenance of from public calamities and to provide relief in
peace and order. times of emergency.
4. To preside over the meetings of the municipal − NOTE: There are 67 chartered cities in the Philippines.
council.
Barangays
5. To recommend measures to the municipal
council aimed at the improvement of the − Each municipality or city is composed of a number of
social and economic conditions of the people. villages or barangays.
− The barangays are the smallest units of local
The Municipal Council:
government in the Philippines.
− The municipal councils are the lawmaking body of the ✓ They are governed by the Barrio Charter.
town and is composed of the mayor, who is the ✓ The elective officials of the barangays are the
chairman of the council vice mayor, and the councilors. Barangay Captain and the Barangay
− Functions of the Municipal Council: Councilors.
1. To fix the salaries of all municipal offices and − Functions of the Barangay Captain:
employees, except the treasurer, teachers in ✓ As chief executive, the barangay captain is its
the public schools, and staff of national recognized leader.
government agencies assigned to the ✓ He enforces all the laws and ordinances
municipality; applicable to his constituency.
2. To provide for expenses necessary to carry ✓ He may organize fire brigades, preside over
out the functions of the municipality; all meetings both of the barangay council and
3. To provide for buildings adequate for assembly, organize groups of citizens to fight
municipal uses, including school houses; criminality and brigandage, and approve all
4. To provide for the levy and collection of taxes, payments from barangay funds.
fees, and charges as sources of municipal ✓ He also sings all contacts in which the
revenue; and barangay is a party.
5. To establish and maintain an efficient police − Nature of the Barangays:
department and an adequate municipal jail. ✓ There are 41, 945 barangays in the
Philippines.
✓ They are public corporations and so, they can
sue and be sued in court; can enter into
contract.
Cities (Chartered City)
Decentralization
− The chartered city is also a unit of local administration.
It is created by a special law which serves as its charter. − Is the transfer of power and authority from central
− The charter is the constitution of the city. institution to lower or local levels of a government
✓ The charter creates the city, defines its system.
boundaries, provides its system of − Raul P. De Guzman, decentralization generally refers
government, and defines the powers and to the systematic and rational dispersal of power,
duties of its officials. authority and responsibility from the center to the
✓ A city or any of its officials cannot perform any periphery.
official act which is not permitted by its − Refers to the transfer of powers from central
charter. government to local levels in a political-administrative
− The city elective officials are the mayor, vice mayor, and territorial hierarchy.
and the members of the city council. ✓ This process allows the participation of the
✓ They are elected for a term of three years. people and the local government.
✓ They cannot serve for more than three − Three Forms of Decentralization:
consecutive terms. 1. Devolution – transfer of power and authority
− The mayor is the executive official of the city, aided by from the national government to local
the appointive heads of the various departments. government units.
− The vice mayor is the presiding officer of the board. 2. Deconcentration – transfer of power,
And the city courts exercise judicial functions. authority or responsibility or the discretion to
✓ The lawmaking body of the city is council. plan, decide and manage from central to local
− Functions of the City Council: levels.

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 3. Debureaucratization – transfer of some 2. Bridging and empowering the public and
public functions and responsibilities, which private sectors of different regions in the
government may perform to private entities or country.
non-government organizations (NGOs). 3. Working within networks is a strategic
element in achieving sustainability, reliability
Decentralization & Local Governance
and a broad effect.
− Three Components of Decentralization: 4. Exchange of ideas and mutual understanding
1. Political Decentralization - focuses among among local chief executives, police and
others on improved planning and monitoring military is crucial in achieving sustainable
of development measures, formulating peace and development.
strategies for the active integration of civil
society and the economic sector, and the
promotion of information exchange and
management.
2. Fiscal Decentralization – focuses on the
increase in local government’s responsibility
for expenditures.
3. Institutional Decentralization - focuses
among others on the delivery of basic
services from the national government to the
local government units concerned.
− Indicators of Political Decentralization:
1. Accountability – local committees consisting
of men and women work in selected LGUs
according to the guidelines of the Local
Government Code of 1991 to implement
result-oriented & target-relevant decisions
and measures.
2. Transparency – selected LGUs and national
organizations / departments publish their
annual budgets in media accessible to
citizens.
3. Responsibility and Participation – The
portion of programs and projects realized by
LGUs through active and quantifiable
participation.
− Impact of Political Decentralization:
1. Decentralization empowered Local leaders to
take greater control over their region’s
destinies.
2. Local leaders, citizens and other stakeholders
are given more freedom in determining their
development paths.
3. Political Decentralization delegated some
powers from the central authority to the local
authorities, who are much familiar with the
cultural, social and economic aspects of their
respective regions.
4. The main objective is for the provinces, cities
and municipalities to use their financial
resources more efficiently, generate
additional resources and tap alternative
resources.
− Indicators of Fiscal Decentralization:
1. Improved financial management including
qualification of participants in areas of
financial management
2. Strengthening cooperation on different levels
3. Promoting exchange of experiences,
formulating strategies.
− Impact of Institutional Decentralization:
1. Better service delivery is a matter of
coordination& collaboration.

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 PPGC 211: PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP
2nd SEMESTER FINALS 3RD YEAR NURSING
WEEK 14 - 1987 Philippine Constitution
Article V Suffrage Persons Disqualified to Vote
Section 1. 1. Those who have been sentenced to suffer
imprisonment for not less than 1 yr.
− Suffrage - It is the right and obligation to vote of
2. Those who committed any crime involving disloyalty to
qualified citizens in the election of public officers.
the government such as rebellion and sedition.
✓ No literacy, property, or other substantive
3. Those declared as insane or incompetent persons.
requirement shall be imposed in the exercise
of suffrage. Section 2A.
− Suffrage may be exercised by all citizens of the
− The Congress shall provide a system for securing the
Philippines not otherwise disqualified by law.
secrecy and sanctity of the ballot as well as a system
✓ Who are at least eighteen years of age
for absentee voting by qualified Filipinos abroad.
✓ Who shall have resided in the Philippines for
at least one year Secrecy and Sanctity of the Ballot
✓ In the place wherein they propose to vote for
at least six months immediately preceding the − To ensure that the voters shall exercise their right to
election. freely, uninfluenced by threats, intimidation or corrupt
motives and to secure a fair and honest count of the
Section 2. ballots.
− The Congress shall provide a system for securing the Absentee Voting System
secrecy and sanctity of the ballot as well as a system
for absentee voting by qualified Filipinos abroad. − Filipinos who, by force of circumstances, have
temporarily work and reside abroad but maintain their
Section 2B. love and loyalty to their native land are still part of our
Republic, they are also affected by the quality of public
− The Congress shall also design a procedure for the
officials and policies of the government.
disabled and the illiterates to vote without the
assistance of other persons. Republic Act No. 9189 (The Overseas Absentee Voting Act
− Until then, they shall be allowed to vote under existing of 2003)
laws and such rules as the Commission on Elections
− All citizens of the Philippines abroad, who are not
may promulgate to protect the secrecy of the ballot.
otherwise disqualified by law, at least eighteen (18)
Nature of Suffrage years of age on the day of elections, may vote for
president, vice-president, senators and party-list
1. A mere privilege – suffrage is not a natural right but
representatives.
merely a privilege to be given or withheld by the law
2. A political right – suffrage enables a citizen to Article IX Constitutional Commissions
participate in the process of government.
The Constitutional Commissions
Scope of Suffrage
1. Commission on audit
− Election – means by which people choose their 2. Civil service commission
officials. 3. Commission elections
− Plebiscite – vote of the people expressing their choice
Are they independent?
for or against a proposed law submitted to them.
− Referendum – submission of a law passed by the − Section 1, Article IX - Salary is fixed by law and not
legislative body to the people for their ratification or decreased during their term
rejection. − Fiscal Autonomy - can promulgate its own rules
− Initiative – people directly propose and enact laws. concerning pleadings and practice
− Recall – a method by which a local elective official may
Can Congress abolish the Constitutional Commissions?
be removed from office during his tenure.
− No, their creation is guaranteed by the constitution.
Age Qualification
Commission on Elections
− Based on the assumption that under a certain age,
human beings have the maturity, experience, − Chairman and 6 Commissioners
education and sense of judgment that will enable them ✓ Natural-born citizens
to vote with reasonable degree of intelligence. ✓ 35 years of age
✓ Holder of a college degree
Residence Qualification
✓ Majority must be members of the IBP
− This is to give reasonable period within which a person ✓ Not candidates in preceding election
can familiarize himself with the needs and conditions − Term: 7 (Chair),7 (3 members) 5 (2 members) and 1
and the personalities of the nation and locality. year (1 member)
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 − Appointment: President with confirmation of 3. Exclusive Authority - define the scope of its
Commission on Appointments audit, establish techniques and methods,
− No reappointment, no temporary capacity promulgate accounting rules and regulations.
− Powers and Functions − NOTE: No law shall be passed exempting an entity of
✓ Enforce and administer all laws as regards the government from audit.
conduct of elections
Article XI Accountability of Public Officials
✓ Exercise original jurisdiction over all contests
relating to elections for the regional, provincial Section 1.
and city officials and appellate jurisdiction
− Public office is a public trust.
over municipal and barangay officials decided
by municipal courts − Public officers and employees must, at all times, be
✓ Decide the number and location of all polling accountable to the people.
places, appointment of election officials and − “Public Office is a Public Trust” as expressed by
registration of voters Justice Malcolm in Cornejo vs. Gabriel, 41 Phil. 188,
✓ Deputize armed forces for elections 194 (1920), the basic idea of government in the
✓ Register political parties Philippines.
✓ File petitions for exclusion or inclusion of Rules in Public Services that must be followed by Public
voters, investigate violations of election laws Officers and Employees
✓ Recommend to Congress measures to
minimize election spending 1. Accountability to the people;
✓ Recommend to the President the removal of 2. Service with utmost responsibility, integrity,
any officer or employee deputized loyalty and efficiency;
✓ Submit to the President and Congress a 3. Acting with patriotism and justice; and
comprehensive report of each election, 4. Leading modest lives.
plebiscite, initiative, referendum or recall
Section 2.
✓ Section 4: During the election period,
supervise the grant of franchise for operation − Impeachable Officials
of transportation and other public utilities ✓ President
Other Provisions ✓ Vice-President
✓ Members of the Constitutional Commissions
− Comelec may sit en banc or in two divisions ✓ Justices of Supreme Court
− Can promulgate its own rules of procedure ✓ Ombudsman
− All pardons on election of offenses should be with − All impeachable officials may be removed from office
recommendation of Comelec on impeachment for, and conviction of, culpable
− Votes for a party-list shall only be counted if registered violation of the Constitution, treason, bribery, graft and
with Comelec corruption, other high crimes, or betrayal of public trust.
− Free and open party system − All other public officers and employees may be
− Election period: 90 days before election day removed from office as provided by law, but not by
impeachment.
Commission on Audit
Concept of Impeachment
− Chairman and 2 Commissioners
✓ Natural-born citizens − Is a mode of terminating official relation, the main
✓ 35 years of age object of which is to serve as an effective restraint
✓ Certified public accountant with 10 years which the legislature may interpose in the abuse of the
auditing experience executive and judicial authorities.
✓ Members of the IBP with 10 years’ experience − Purpose of Impeachment:
✓ Not candidates in preceding election ✓ Is to protect the people from official
− Term: 7 (Chair),5 (1 member) 3 (1 member) delinquencies or malfeasances. Primarily
− Appointment: President with confirmation of intended for the protection of the State, not for
Commission on Appointments the punishment of the offender.
− No reappointment, no temporary capacity ✓ Penalties attached to impeachment are
− Powers: merely incidental to the primary intention of
1. Post-audit protecting the people as a body politic.
✓ Constitutional bodies, commissions
and offices granted fiscal autonomy Ground for Impeachment
✓ Autonomous colleges and
1. Culpable Violation of the Constitution - It refers to a
universities
willful and intentional breach of the Constitution.
✓ Other GOCCs and subsidiaries
✓ Violation of the Constitution committed
✓ NGOs receiving subsidy from
unintentionally or involuntarily either in good
government, directly or indirectly
faith or through an honest mistake of
2. Pre-audit
judgment is not a ground for impeachment.
✓ If the internal control system of the
2. Treason - It is a crime committed by any person who,
audited agencies is inadequate
owing allegiance to the Philippines, not being a
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 foreigner, levies war against the Philippines or adheres 5. No impeachment proceedings shall be initiated against
to her enemies. the same official more than once within a period of one
3. Bribery year.
✓ Direct bribery, the offense committed by any 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try and decide
public officer who shall agree to perform an all cases of impeachment. When sitting for that
act constituting a crime, in connection with the purpose, the Senators shall be on oath or affirmation.
performance of his official duties, in
consideration of any promise or gift received Procedure for Impeachment
by such officer. (Article 210, Revise Penal
− The above provision delineates the procedure for
Code).
impeachment, as follows:
✓ Indirect bribery, the offense committed by
1. The power to initiate impeachment is lodged
any public officer who shall accept gifts
on the House of Representatives. A resolution
offered to him by reason of his office.
for impeachment requires at least 1/3 votes of
4. Graft and Corruption - It was not included as ground
all member of the House of Representatives.
for impeachment under the 1935 Constitution. Its
2. The power to hear and decide case of
inclusion may be attributed to the awareness of the
impeachment is lodged on the Senate who
1971 Constitutional Convention of the widespread graft
may decide on a verdict of impeachment by
and corruption in the government at the time.
2/3 vote of all its members.
5. Other High Crimes - Refers to those crimes which, like
3. Judgment is limited to removal from office and
treason and bribery, are of so serious and enormous a
disqualification to hold public office.
nature as to affect the very life or orderly workings of
the government. Political Parties and Organizations
6. Betrayal of Public Trust - Is a new ground for
impeachment. It will cover any violation of the oath of History of Political Parties
office involving loss of popular support even if the
violation may not amount to criminal offense. • The first Philippine political party, established in 1900,
was the Federal Party, which advocated peace and
Section 3. eventual statehood.
• Later, the Nationalist Party (NP) and the Democratic
1. The House of Representatives shall have the exclusive Party were established.
power to initiate all cases of impeachment. o They did not produce an actual two-party
2. A verified complaint for impeachment may be filed by system, since the Nationalists retained
any Member of the House of Representatives or by any exclusive control and the Democrats
citizen upon a resolution or endorsement by any functioned as a "loyal opposition."
Member thereof, which shall be included in the Order o However, following Japanese occupation and
of Business within ten session days, and referred to the the granting of independence, an effective
proper Committee within three session days thereafter. two-party system developed between the
3. A vote of at least one-third of all the Members of the Liberal Party (LP) and the NP.
House shall be necessary either to affirm a favorable • The Progressive Party, formed in 1957 by adherents
resolution with the Articles of Impeachment of the of Ramon Magsaysay, polled more than one million
Committee, or override its contrary resolution. votes in the presidential election of 1958.
4. In case the verified complaint or resolution of
• In the elections of November 1965, Senator
impeachment is filed by at least one-third of all the
Ferdinand Marcos, the NP candidate, received 55%
Members of the House, the same shall constitute the
of the vote.
Articles of Impeachment, and trial by the Senate shall
o In the 1969 election, he was elected to an
forthwith proceed.
unprecedented second term.
Impeachment o All political activity was banned in 1972,
following the imposition of martial law, and
Verified Complaint was not allowed to resume until a few months
(House of before the April 1978 elections for an interim
Representatives)
National Assembly.
o The Marcos government's New Society
Movement (Kilusang Bagong Lipunan- KBL)
Trial and Judgment Vote of 1/3 of all won that election and the 1980 and 1982
by the Senate
members of the balloting for local officials, amid charges of
House
electoral fraud and attempts by opposition
groups to boycott the voting.
• The principal opposition party was the People's
Power Movement-Fight (Lakas Ng Bayan- Laban),
led by Benigno S. Aquino, Jr., until his assassination in
1983.
Transmittal to the Articles of o This party joined with 11 other opposition
Senate Impeachment parties in 1982 to form a coalition known as

6 | JK IRIS
 the United Nationalist Democratic o In the Senate the newly created Laban Ng
Organization (UNIDO). Masang Pilipino, led by presidential
o Following Aquino's murder, some 50 candidate, Joseph Estrada, captured 12 seats
opposition groups, including the members of to the Lakas 5, PRP 2, LP 1, independents 3.
the UNIDO coalition, agreed to coordinate o The LAMP party also dominated the House
their anti-Marcos efforts. of Representatives with 135 seats to the
o This coalition of opposition parties enabled Lakas 37, LP 13, Aksyon Demokratiko 1, and
Corazon Aquino to campaign against Marcos 35 independents.
in 1986. • Political parties and their leaders in 2002 included:
• In September 1986 the revolutionary left formed a 1. Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (New Society
legal political party to contest congressional Movement), led by Imelda Marcos.
elections. 2. Laban Ng Demokratikong Pilipino (Struggle of
o The Partido ng Bayan (Party of the Nation) Filipino Democrats) or LDP, led by Eduardo
allied with other left-leaning groups in an Angara.
Alliance for New Politics. 3. Lakas, led by Jose De Venecia.
o This unsuccessful attempt for electoral 4. Liberal Party or LP, led by Florencio Abad.
representation resulted in a return to guerrilla 5. Nacionalista Party, led by Jose Oliveros.
warfare on the part of the Communists. 6. National People's Coalition or NPC, led by
• After assuming the presidency, Aquino formally Eduardo Cojuangco.
organized the People's Power Movement (Lakas Ng 7. PDP-Laban, led by Aquilino Pimentel.
Bayan), the successor to her late husband's party. 8. The People's Reform Party or PRP, led by
o In the congressional elections of May 1987, Miriam Defensor-Santiago.
Aquino's popularity gave her party a
sweep in the polls, making it the major party
in the country. Marcos's KBL was reduced to
a minor party.
o Some of its members formed their own
splinter groups, such as the Grand Alliance for
Democracy (GAD), a coalition of parties
seeking distance from Marcos. Others revived
the LP and the NP, seeking renewed
leadership.
• The left-wing People's Party (Partido Ng Bayan),
which supports the political objectives of the NPA, was
a minor party in the elections. In May 1989 Juan Ponce
Enrile reestablished the Nacionalista Party.
o A new opposition party, the Filipino Party
(Partido Pilipino), organized in 1991 as a
vehicle for Aquino's estranged cousin
Eduardo "Danding" Cojuangco's presidential
campaign.
o He ran third in the election, taking 18.1% of
the vote, behind Miriam Defensor Santiago
with 19.8% of the vote.
• On 30 June 1992 Fidel Ramos succeeded Corazon
Aquino as president of the Philippines with a
plurality of 23.6%. In September 1992 Ramos signed
the Anti-Subversion Law signaling a peaceful
resolution to more than 20 years of Communist
insurgency, with the repeal of the anti-subversion
legislation in place since 1957.
o On 26 August 1994 Ramos announced a
new political coalition that would produce
the most powerful political group in the
Philippines. Ramos' Lakas-National Union of
Christian Democrats (Lakas/NUCD) teamed
with the Democratic Filipino Struggle (Laban
ng Demokratikong Pilipino, Laban).
o Following the 1995 elections, the LDP
controlled the Senate with 14 of the 24
members.
• The elections in 1998 changed the political
landscape once more.

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 PPGC 211: PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP
2nd SEMESTER FINALS 3RD YEAR NURSING
WEEK 15 - Citizenship ✓ It depends entirely on the government of the
country, in which he lives, to permit him to
The Citizen & Non-Citizen enjoy the social rights or not.
− State is organized and the government is established Traditional Views of Citizenship
for the welfare of the citizen.
− Citizen can be understood in a narrow or in a broad • Greek’s Traditional View on Citizenship (State-
sense. Centric)
✓ In a narrow sense, it means the resident of a o Polis meant both the political assembly of the
city or one who enjoys the privilege of living m city-state as well as the entire society.
a city. o Citizenship has generally been identified as a
✓ In a broad sense, citizen means a person, western phenomenon.
who resides within the territorial limits of the ✓ There is a general view that
state. citizenship in ancient times was a
− Political Science, citizen means a person who is a simpler relation than modern forms
member of the state and who enjoys social and political of citizenship, although this view has
rights. come under scrutiny.
o The relation of citizenship has not been a
− The concept of citizenship goes back to the ancient
fixed or static relation, but constantly changed
city- states where the population was divided into two
within each society, and that according to one
classes, the citizens and the slaves.
view, citizenship might "really have worked"
✓ The citizens enjoyed both civil and political
only at select periods during certain times,
rights.
such as when the Athenian politician Solon
✓ They directly or indirectly participate in all the
made reforms in the early Athenian state.
functions of the civil and political life of the
state. • Geoffrey Hosking
o British historian
Definition of the Citizen o Citizenship in ancient Greece arose from an
appreciation for the importance of freedom.
− Aristotle, “who has the power to take part in the ✓ Growth of slavery was what made
deliberative or judicial administration of any state is Greeks particularly conscious of the
said by us to be a citizen of that state”. value of freedom.
− Vattal “the members of a civil society bound to this ✓ When the Greeks fought together,
society by certain duties, subject to its authority and they fought in order to avoid being
equal participants in its advantages”. enslaved by warfare.
− Laski “is the contribution of one’s instructed judgment ✓ Fear of being enslaved was a central
to the public good”. motivating force for the development
of the Greek sense of citizenship.
Citizenship o Polis citizenship was marked by exclusivity.
✓ Inequality of status was widespread;
− Is a term denoting membership of a citizen in a political citizens had a higher status than
society, which membership implies, reciprocally, a duty non-citizens
of allegiance on the part of the member and duty of ✓ The first form of citizenship was
protection on the part of the State. based on the way people lived in the
Citizen ancient Greek times, in small-scale
organic communities of the polis.
− Is a person having the title of citizenship. o Citizenship was not seen as a separate
− He is a member of a democratic community who enjoys activity from the private life of the individual
full civil and political rights, and is accorded protection person.
inside and outside the territory of the State. ✓ The obligations of citizenship
were deeply connected into one's
A Citizen Must Have everyday life in the polis.
1. The membership of the state. ✓ These small-scale organic
2. The Social and Political rights. communities were generally seen
3. Sentiment of devotion to the state. as a new development in world
history.
Distinction between an Alien and a Citizen o The obligations of citizenship were deeply
connected with everyday life.
− There is a marked distinction between an alien and a o To be truly human, one had to be an active
citizen. citizen to the community;
− A citizen enjoys civil and political rights in his own ✓ which Aristotle famously expressed:
country. "To take no part in the running of
✓ Whereas an alien is not privileged to enjoy the the community's affairs is to be
political rights of the country but sometimes either a beast or a god!"
he is privileged to enjoy a few of the social o This form of citizenship was based on
rights. obligations of citizens towards the community,

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 rather than rights given to the citizens of the Ways Citizens can Participate
community.
o This was not a problem because they all had 1. Looking for information in newspapers, magazines,
a strong affinity with the polis; their own and reference materials and judging its accuracy
destiny and the destiny of the community 2. Voting in local, state, and national elections
were strongly linked. 3. Participating in a political discussion
✓ Also, citizens of the polis saw 4. Trying to persuade someone to vote a certain way
obligations to the community as an 5. Signing a petition
opportunity to be virtuous; it was a 6. Wearing a button or putting a sticker on the car
source of honor and respect. 7. Writing letters to elected representatives
o In Athens, citizens were both rulers and
8. Contributing money to a party or candidate
ruled, important political and judicial offices.
9. Attending meetings to gain information, discuss issues,
Modern Views of Citizenship or lend support
10. Campaigning for a candidate
− The modern idea of citizenship still respects the idea of 11. Lobbying for laws that are of special interest
political participation, but it is usually done through 12. Demonstrating through marches, boycotts, sit-ins, or
"elaborate systems of political representation at a other forms of protest
distance". 13. Running for office
− Is much more passive; action is delegated to others; 14. Holding public office
citizenship is often a constraint on acting, not an 15. Serving the country through military or other service
impetus to act. 16. Disobeying laws and taking the consequences to
demonstrate that a law or policy is unjust
2 Competing Views of Citizenship

1. Liberal-Individualist/Liberal Concept of Citizenship

• Suggests that citizens should have
entitlements necessary for human dignity.
• It assumes people act for the purpose of
enlightened self-interest.
• Citizens are sovereign, morally autonomous
beings with duties to pay taxes, obey the law,
engage in business transactions, and defend
the nation.
✓ Liberal Concept of Citizenship
o The state exists for the
benefit of citizens and has
an obligation to respect and
protect the rights of
citizens.
o It was later that so-called
social rights became part of
the obligation for the state.
2. Civic-Republican/Classical or Civic Humanist
Concept of Citizenship
• Emphasizes man's political nature, and sees
citizenship as an active process.
• It is relatively more concerned that the
government will interfere with popular places
to practice citizenship in the public sphere.
o Humanist Concept of Citizenship
Citizenship means being active in
government affairs.
✓ An ideal citizen is one who
exhibits "good civic
behavior".
✓ Free citizens and a republic
government are "mutually
interrelated."
✓ Citizenship suggested a
commitment to "duty and
civic virtue".
Participatory Citizenship

− A citizen that is active at local, state, or national levels

in addressing social issues relevant to the community

9 | JK IRIS
 PPGC 211: PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP
2nd SEMESTER FINALS 3RD YEAR NURSING
WEEK 16 - Citizenship 1. Pagkansela ng Certificate of Naturalization ng Korte − Cancellation of his
- Kung ikaw ay naging naturalized Filipino (dating dayuhan na naging Pilipino),
- At napatunayang hindi ka karapat-dapat (hal. nagsinungaling sa application),
certificate of naturalization
Filipino Citizenship - Maaaring bawiin ng korte ang iyong citizenship. by the court
2. Pagdeklara bilang "Deserter" sa Panahon ng Digmaan− Having been declared as a
• 1987 Philippine Constitution (Article IV): - Kapag ikaw ay miyembro ng Armed Forces ng Pilipinas, deserter in the Philippine
Citizenship - At tumakas o iniwan mo ang serbisyo sa gitna ng digmaan,
armed forces in time of
- Maaari kang mawalan ng citizenship bilang parusa.
o Section 1. The following are citizens of the war.
Philippines: Pilipino ka kung:
o Ways of Reacquiring Lost Philippine
✓ Those who are citizens of the
Pilipino ka na bago o habang ginagawa ang batas 1. Pilipino ka na noon pa,
Citizenship
na ito, Pilipino ka pa rin. Philippines at time of the adoption of 2. May nanay o tatay kang Pilipino, (Pagbabalik ng karapatan ng mga
3. Pinili mong maging Pilipino kung ang ✓ Naturalization tumakas sa militar)
this Constitution nanay mo lang ang Pilipino (at pasok ka
✓ Repatriation of deserters of the
basta Pilipino ang tatay o nanay mo, ikaw ay
automatic na Pilipino. ✓ Those whose fathers or mothers are sa specific na petsa),
4. Dumaan ka sa tamang legal na proseso Philippine armed forces
citizens of the Philippines para maging naturalized citizen.
✓ Direct act of the Congress.
✓ Those born before January 17,
Dati, tatay lang ang basehan ngo Section 4
1973, of Filipino mothers, who citizenship. Pero kung ikaw ay
ipinanganak bago ang petsang ito
✓ Citizens of the Philippines who
elect Philippine citizenship upon
Ito yung mga dating dayuhan (hindi at Pilipino ang nanay mo, puwede marry aliens shall retain their
reaching the age of majority. kang maging Pilipino kung pipiliin
Pilipino) pero sumunod sa legal na citizenship, unless by their act or
proseso para maging mamamayan ng ✓ Those who are naturalized in mo ito (magdeklara) pagdating
Pilipinas. mo sa tamang edad (usually 18 omission they are deemed.
accordance with law. years old pataas).
o Section 5
o Citizen Dual allegiance – ibig ✓ Dual allegiance of citizens is inimical
✓ A member of a democratic sabihin, tapat ka sa to the national interest and shall be
community who enjoys full civil and dalawang magkaibang dealt with by law.
political rights and is accorded bansa, lalo na pagdating ✓ It prohibits is not dual citizenship but
protection inside and outside the sa loyalty, serbisyo, o dual allegiance. Dual citizenship
territory of the State. paninindigan. arises because our laws cannot
o Citizenship Ito ay delikado sa control laws of other countries on
✓ Denotes membership of a citizen in seguridad ng bansa, citizenship.
Jus sanguinis: dahil sa dugo o lahi – a political society, which kaya hindi pinapayagan.
kung Pilipino ang nanay o tatay mo,
automatic Pilipino ka. membership implies, reciprocally, a
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9225 Citizenship Retention and Re-
duty of allegiance on the part of the
Jus soli: dahil sa lugar ng acquisition Act of 2003
kapanganakan – sa ibang bansa ito members and duty of protection on Ang batas na ito ay nagbibigay ng karapatan sa mga dating natural-born Filipinos na muling maging
madalas (hindi ito karaniwang basehan the part of the state. Pilipino, kahit naging citizen na sila ng ibang bansa.
sa Pilipinas). − Natural-born citizens who have lost their Philippine
o General Ways of Acquiring Citizenship citizenship by reason of their naturalization as citizens
✓ Involuntary Method - by birth of a foreign country are hereby deemed to have re-
because of blood relationship (jus acquire Philippine citizenship.
Ang naturalization ay ang legal na proseso sanguinis) or place of birth (jus soli).
kung saan ang isang dayuhan (hindi
Pilipino) ay nagiging mamamayan o citizen✓ Voluntary Method - by 1987 Philippine Constitution (Article V): Suffrage
ng Pilipinas. naturalization Maaaring bumoto
o Section 2 Paraan ng Pagkakaroon ng Citizenship ang lahat ng • Section 1 - Suffrage may be exercised by all citizens
mamamayang
Natural-born citizens ✓ Natural-born citizens are those who Pilipino na: of the Philippines not otherwise disqualified by law,
Ito ang mga taong: are citizens of the Philippines from 1. Hindi disqualified who are at least eighteen years of age, and who shall
ng batas (ibig
birth without having to perform any sabihin, walang legal have resided in the Philippines for at least one year and
1. Pilipino na mula sa act to acquire or perfect their na hadlang), in the place wherein they propose to vote for at least
2. Hindi bababa sa
kapanganakan pa lang, Philippine citizenship. 18 taong gulang, six months.
2. Hindi na kailangang ✓ Those who elect Philippine 3. Nakatira sa • Suffrage - It is the right and obligation to vote of
Pilipinas nang kahit 1
gumawa ng kahit anong citizenship, in accordance with par. taon, at qualified citizens in the election of public officers. No
aksyon o proseso para 3, sect. 1 hereof, shall be deemed 4. Nakatira sa lugar
kung saan sila
literacy, property, or other substantive requirement
maging citizen. natural-born citizens. boboto nang kahit 6 shall be imposed in the exercise of suffrage.
o Section 3 na buwan.
• Section 2 - The Congress shall provide a system for
Panatilihin ang lihim at
✓ Philippine citizenship may be lost or kalinisan ng balota (mgasecuring the secrecy and sanctity of the ballot as well
reacquired in the manner provided boto), as a system for absentee voting by qualified Filipinos
by law abroad. Maglaan ng absentee voting para sa mga kwalipikadong Pilipino sa ibang
bansa (hal. OFWs).
o Ways of Losing Citizenship • Section 2B - The Congress shall also design a
✓ Voluntarily procedure for the disabled and the illiterates to vote
− Naturalization in a foreign
Kapag ikaw ay nag-apply at naging citizen ng ibang bansa,
without the assistance of other persons. Until then,
mawawala ang iyong pagiging Pilipino. country they shall be allowed to vote under existing laws.
− Express renunciation of • Nature of Suffrage
Kapag ikaw ay nagdeklara na tinatalikuran mo na ang iyong
pagka-Pilipino, mawawala ito citizenship o A mere privilege – suffrage is not a natural
kung nanumpa ka ng katapatan sa ibang bansa at
− Supporting the constitution right but merely a privilege to be given or
sumusunod ka sa kanilang batas bilang mamamayan nila. and laws of a foreign
Dahil sa suffrage, nakikilahok withheld by the law
ang mga mamamayan sa
country pagpili ng mga namumuno, o A political right – suffrage enables a citizen
Kapag sumali ka sa armadong pwersa o hukbong
sandatahan (military) ng ibang bansa, maaari ka ring − Rendering service to the to participate in the process of government.
mawalan ng pagka-Pilipino.
armed forces of a foreign • Scope of Suffrage
country o Election – means by which people choose
✓ Involuntarily their officials.

10 | JK IRIS
 Pagboto ng mga tao para ipahayag ang kanilang pagsang-ayon o pagtutol
sa isang panukalang batas o mahalagang isyung iniharap sa kanila.

o Plebiscite – vote of the people expressing

Isang batas na pinasa na ng
Kongreso o ng lokal na their choice for or against a proposed law
pamahalaan ay ipinapasa sa submitted to them.
taumbayan para aprobahan o
tanggihan. o Referendum – submission of a law passed by
Ang mga tao ay nagpetisyon the legislative body to the people for their
para sa isang batas, at kapag ratification or rejection.
sapat ang pirma, puwedeng
isalang sa botohan o Initiative– people directly propose and enact
Proseso kung saan maaaring
laws.
patalsikin o tanggalin ang isang o Recall – a method by which a local elective
halal na opisyal sa lokal na official may be removed from office during his
pamahalaan bago matapos ang
kanyang termino. tenure.
• Age Qualification
o Under a certain age, human beings have the
maturity, experience, education and sense of
judgment that will enable them to vote with a
reasonable degree of intelligence.
• Residence Qualification
Pilipinas ng kahit isang taon, o Give a reasonable period within which a
at Lugar kung saan ka
boboto ng kahit 6 na buwan person can familiarize himself with the needs
and conditions.
• Persons Disqualified to Vote
o Imprisonment for not less than 1 year.
o Crime involving disloyalty to the government.
o Declared as insane or incompetent persons.
• Section 2A Secrecy and Sanctity of the Ballot
o The Congress shall provide a system for
Ang pagboto ay dapat
securing the secrecy and sanctity of the ballot
malaya at walang takot o as well as a system for absentee voting by
pamimilit mula kaninuman. qualified Filipinos abroad.
• Secrecy and Sanctity of the Ballot - to ensure that
the voters exercise their right to vote freely.
• Absentee Voting System - filipinos who, by force of
circumstances, temporarily work and reside abroad but
maintain their love and loyalty to their native land are
still part of our Republic.

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9189: The Overseas Absentee Voting

Act of 2003 Payagan ang mga Pilipinong nasa ibang bansa na makaboto sa
pambansang halalan, kahit sila ay wala sa Pilipinas sa mismong araw ng
botohan.
− All citizens of the Philippines abroad, who are not
otherwise disqualified by law, at least eighteen (18)
years of age on the day of elections, may vote for
president, vice-president, senators and party-list
representatives.

11 | JK IRIS
 PPGC 211: PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP
2nd SEMESTER FINALS 3RD YEAR NURSING
WEEK 17 - Civil Society and Social Movements Roles of the Civil Society
What defines a Civil Society? 1.
Civil Society as an instrument for securing rights
and interests of the people
− The government takes care of law and order and • Civil Society works for discharging several
businesses offer goods and services in exchange for economic, social, cultural, moral and other
money, which both help to keep a society moving. responsibilities which fall in the domain of
− These other groups actually play a very big part in how private activities.
your country operates, and they fall into a category • It is not a part of government and yet it serves
known as civil society. the purpose of securing the rights, general
binubuo ng mga organisasyon at grupo sa lipunan na hindi bahagi ng pamahalaan (government) at hindi welfare and development of all the people of
Civil Society rin naghahangad ng tubo tulad ng mga negosyo (private business)
the state.
− Used to be defined as a political community i.e., a 2. Growing Strength and Role of Civil Society in our
society governed by the government, law and authority. Country mas nakikilahok na ang mamamayan sa pagbabantay at pagsuporta sa
mga pampublikong usapin sa pamamagitan ng civil society.
− In contemporary times, however, Civil Society is • In our country the Civil Society has been
distinguished from the state and political community becoming more and more aware, alert and
− Such associations and organizations work active.
independently of the government. Civil Society even • The continuous presence and successful
opposes the wrong politics, decisions and projects of working of Indian liberal democratic political
the government. In doing so the civil society depends system, the spread of literacy, the freedom of
upon constitutional, peaceful and legal method of mass media, and people's full commitment to
action. liberal democracy have been together helping
the Civil Society to become increasingly
Definitions of Civil Society active and strong.
3. Need of Civil Society in Undemocratic States
− Is used to collectively refer to the voluntary
organizations’ corporate bodies, socially active groups,
• Is needed even in an authoritarian system
because it can help the process of overthrow
and firms working in each society.
of the authoritarian regime and replace it with
− Is the set of intermediate associations which is neither a democratic system.
the state nor the family, but which plays an active and
positive role in social, economic, and cultural activities.
• Particularly the Bar Association of Pakistan,
played a key role in 2008 to compel General
− "Civil society refers to a realm of associations, Parvez Musharraf to accept the demand for
business, interest groups, classes’ families and so on. holding democratic and free elections for
“- Andrew Heywood constituting a democratic government
− Includes all private organizations of the people. Press, capable of developing Pakistan as a
professional associations of the people, Human Right democratic state and society.
groups and organizations, voluntary social service
organizations Concept of Social Movements
− Refers to the effective presence of non- governmental − Social movements are a type of group action.
autonomous groups and associations, business
groups, interest groups, trade unions, voluntary social
− They are large, sometimes informal, groupings of
individuals or organizations which focus on specific
service organizations.
political or social issues.
− Is composed of groups or organizations working in the
interest of the citizens but operating outside of the Meaning of Social Movements
governmental and for-profit sectors.
− “A collectively acting group with some continuity to
Features of Civil Society promote or resist a change in the society or group of
which it is a part”.
1. Consists of non-governmental, voluntarily organized
associations, organizations and institutions of the − “A form of dynamic pluralistic behavior which
people. progressively develops structure through time and
2. Is different from both the State and Society. aims at partial or complete modification of the social
3. Civil Society is, however, neither opposed to state nor order.” - Anderson and Parker
to society. On the contrary it works as a supplementary − “A voluntary association of people engaged in
to each of the two. It, however, works in an organized concerted efforts to change attitudes, behavior and
and autonomous way. social relationships in a larger society.” - Lundberg
4. A healthy and efficient democratic system needs and
Features of the Social Movement
integrates civil society, society and state.
5. Constituted by the well-organized and active presence − It is an effort by a group
of a number of social, economic and cultural − Its aim is to bring or resist a change in society
associations and groups of the people.
− It may be organized or unorganized
6. Both Liberalism and Marxism accept and advocate the
role of Civil Society but each conceptualizes it in a − It may be peaceful or violent
different way. − Its life is not certain. It may continue for a long period
or it may die out soon.
Liberalismo: Nakikita ang civil society bilang proteksyon sa karapatan ng mamamayan laban sa sobra-sobrang kapangyarihan ng estado.

Marxismo: Tinatanggap din ang civil society, ngunit tinitingnan ito bilang bahagi ng struktura ng uri (class structure) ng lipunan.
12 | JK
Bagaman magkaiba ang pananaw, parehong kinikilala ng dalawang ideolohiya ang halaga nito.
IRIS
Causes of Social Movements 2. Then, thereafter, there is a period of growth following.
A preliminary organization is affected and the program
− Social movements do not just happen. It is social is restated in more popular and appealing terms.
unrest which gives rise to a social movement. 3. Then follows a more systematic effort to gain
kaguluhang panlipunan na nag-uudyok sa mga tao upang kumilos.
Factors causing Social Unrest among Societies supporters. There is a formal campaign. Backed by the
enlarged following and increased propaganda the
• Cultural Drifts leaders eventually exert pressure on those in authority.
o Society is undergoing constant changes. 4. The program is either accepted or rejected, or partly
o The values and behavior are changing in all accepted and partly rejected. If accepted, necessary
civilized societies. institutional changes are made; if rejected the
o In the course of cultural drift most of the movement either collapses or reorganizes for a new
people develop new ideas. trial of strength at a later date.
o To get these ideas operative in society they
Types of Social Movements
organize a movement.
o The development of a democratic society, the 1. Migratory Movement
emancipation of women, the spread of mass • Takes place when a large number of people
education, the removal of untouchability, leave one country and settle at some other
equality of opportunity for both the sexes, place.
growth of secularism are the examples of • Migratory social movement only when there is
cultural drift. a common focus of discontent, a shared
• Social Disorganization purpose or hope for the future and a widely
o A changing society is to some extent shared decision to move to a new location.
disorganized because changes in different • The Zionist movement, the movement of
parts of society do not take place Jews to Israel was a migratory social
simultaneously. movement.
o One-part changes more rapidly than the other 2. Expressive Movement
producing thereby numerous lags. • When people are faced with a social system
o Industrialization has brought urbanization from which they cannot flee and which they
which has in its turn caused numerous social feel powerless to change, the result is an
problems expressive social movement.
• Social Injustice • In an expressive social movement, the
o When a group of people feel that injustice has individual comes to terms with an unpleasant
been done to it, they become frustrated and external reality by modifying his reactions to
alienated. that reality.
o Such feeling of injustice provides fertile soil for • His gaze upon a glorious future. The Hippie
social movements. movement is an expressive social movement.
o The feeling of social injustice is not limited to 3. Reform Movement
the miserable poor. Any group, at any status Kilusang laban sa • Is an attempt to modify some parts of the
diskriminasyon tulad
level may come to feel itself the victim of ng untouchability society without completely transforming it.
social injustice. • Can operate only in a democratic society
Pagtutol sa dowry
o A wealthy class may feel a sense of injustice system where people have freedom to criticize the
when faced with urban property ceiling Act or Kampanya para sa
existing institutions and may secure changes.
high taxes intended to benefit the poor. population control • The movements to abolish untouchability,
o Social injustice is a subjective value Mga kilusang pro-
dowry system, preserve wildlife, control
judgment. environment population growth are reform movements.
o A social system is unjust when it is so Total Revolution ni J.P. The total revolution movement led by J. P.
perceived by its members Narayan • Narayan was a reform movement. The
movement led by J. P. Narayan was a reform
The People More Susceptible to Social Movements movement. Layunin nito ang pabagsakin ang umiiral na
sistema at palitan ito ng ganap na bagong
4. Revolutionary Movement sistema.
1. Mobile and have little chance to become integrated into • Seeks to overthrow the existing social system
the life of the community and replace it with a greatly different one.
2. Not fully accepted and integrated into the group and
• The reform movement wants to correct some
are termed marginal
imperfections in the existing social system but
3. Isolated from the community
a revolutionary movement wants to root out
4. Threatened by economic insecurity and loss of social
the system itself.
status
• Flourish where reform is blocked so that
5. Free from family responsibilities or are estranged from
revolution remains the people’s only
their families
alternative to their present misery.
6. Maladjusted
5. Resistance Movement Layuning pigilan ang isang pagbabago o ibalik sa
dati ang mga pagbabagong naisakatuparan na.
The Sequence Pattern of Social Movements • Is an effort to block a proposed change or to
uproot a change already achieved.
1. First, there is unrest and discontent in some part of the
population. A small group of individuals becomes • The revolutionary movement arises because
conscious of the need for a change, voices its feelings people are dissatisfied with the slow rate of
and opinions, and sets out to influence the opinions social change whereas resistance movement
and emotions of others and prepare them for a reform. arises because people consider social
change too fast.
Migratory - lilipat sa ibang lugar
Expressive - sarili ang babaguhin hindi ang society
13 | JK Reform - aayusin ang ilang bahagi sa lipunan
Revolutionary - papalitan ang buong system
IRIS
Resistance - tutol sa pagbabago
 • The D. M. K. movement against Hindi can be May Organisadong Estruktura - Pareho silang may malinaw na organisasyon, pamunuan, at ideolohiya.

termed resistance movement. Dumaan sa Proseso - Parehong dumaraan sa proseso mula sa mobilisasyon hanggang sa kolektibong pagkilos.

Pananaw sa Pagbabago - Layunin ng pareho na baguhin ang umiiral na sistema, ngunit maaari ring tutulan ang
Common Features between Civil Society and Social ilang pagbabago.
Movement
Gumagana sa Civil Space - Parehong aktibo sa sibil na espasyo (labas sa pamahalaan at negosyo).

− Social movements and civil society have structures like Paglikha ng Kolektibong Pagkakakilanlan - Bumubuo ng bagong pagkakakilanlan batay sa iisang paniniwala o
organizations and well identified leadership and layunin.

ideology. Pinangungunahan ng Aktibong Mamamayan - Sinimulan ng mga masigasig na tao para sa mga layunin o
− Civil society initiatives and social movements are social
interes.

processes which undergo several stages of Maaaring Sakupin ng Estado - May pagkakataon na maimpluwensyahan o sakupin ng pamahalaan ang mga ito.
progression from mobilization to intensive collective Kaibahan sa Paraan ng Pagkilos - Ang Social Movement ay karaniwang naghahangad ng radikal o malawakang
action. pagbabago. at Ang Civil Society ay nagnanais ng dahan-dahang pagbabago gamit ang legal at mapayapang
paraan.
− Social movements and civil societies pledge for change
in the established order of society.
− However, some of them also work to resist change in
society. They both occupy civil space in society.
− The creation of a new collective identity is an essential
part of both social movements and civil society. They
are based on identified ideological choices.
− They are initiated by enterprising people for the
maximization of specific interests. Here both processes
can be taken over by the state.
− Social movements are broader categories or agencies.
− At times it even looks for radical change by attacking
the existing structure of the society.
− Civil society looks for gradual change within the
existing arrangement. Civil society at times asks
political questions and political solutions through
developmental activities.

Thank you to everyone who trusted our reviewers this

semester. Good luck on your exams, future RNs!

- JK, LEI, IRIS, MARIA

14 | JK IRIS