.

Ship stability is that branch of Naval

Architecture which deals with how the
ship responds to external forces wind,
waves & sea, swell.
Ship Stability can be understood to be the INHERENT
(natural) ability of the ship to remain in its upright
position while floating freely & also to return to the
upright position once inclined by external factors, when
the forces subside.

WHY THE SHIP DID NOT TOPPLE OVER, CAPSIZE or SINK

IS WHAT SUBJECT OF STABILITY ADDRESSES.
 2

I am NOT this body

I am NOT a name I am NOT a gender
I am NOT a relation I am NOT a man-made
religion
I am NOT a man-made caste I am NOT a nationality
I am NOT a profession I am NOT a designation
I am NOT a financial status I am NOT a position
I am NOT a rank I am NOT an educational
qualification
I AM THE ENTITY, THE DIVINE BEING, THE DIVINE ENERGY
RUNNING THIS BODY, INSIDE THIS BODY
I AM A PURE SOUL

Just as we say,
My car is not running, my car has very good average etc
So DRIVER SEPARATE & CAR SEPARATE
Same way we say that,
My body is healthy, My body is paining, My hand is bleeding etc
So BODY SEPARATE, DRIVER OF BODY SEPARATE

So what/who is the driver of the body?

The body is perishable, ages with time, is destructible, is

damageable, weakens with wear & tear but the driver of the body
is a divine, living, spiritual energy.
 3
Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed.
That energy is permanent , imperishable, ageless, timeless,
indestructible.
It is called a SOUL.
Human soul & animal souls are different because of great
humongous difference in their consciousness.
Introduction
Stability Of A Ship Depends Upon :
1. The Weights - Ship, Cargo & Its Distribution, Location,
Securing - Under My Direct Control
2. The Buoyancy - More The Draft More The Buoyancy - Under
My Direct Control
3. Environmental Weather Conditions - Sea, Swell & Wind State
- Indirectly Under My Control
4. The Inherent Construction Of The Ship - Size, Shape &
Location Of Various Compartments, Tanks Etc - Under My
Direct Control

From Above It Is Clear That

I As A Navigator,
I as A Cargo Handling Officer, I as A Maintenance In Charge,
I as A Operations In Charge,
I as An Officer,
I am Constantly Involved & Therefore Have A Vital Role In
Making, Maintaining A Ship In Stable Condition Always.
I Am The Most Important Element In The Ship’s Stability Because
I Do Everything. ( But what or who Am I)?
That is the answer to the question as to WHY DO WE STUDY STABILITY?

Ship construction & stability go hand in hand ie a good

construction can go a long way in ensuring good stability but THE
MAIN FACTOR IS proper ACTIONS, handling, operations which is
most critical & which is done entirely by me, the ship’s crew.

Stability has 2 aspects -

transverse stability &
longitudinal stability.

TRANSVERSE STABILITY is the most important

 4

& critical to ship safety.

List & heel are the most important or critical to ship safety as
ships can topple over beyond a certain angle of inclination. When
a ship is rolling, the ship heels to one side & then comes back to
upright. If she were not stable she would remain heeled or heel
further & capsize. When the ship is neither inclined to port side
not starboard side ⇒ upright.

We study ship’s stability under normal conditions of floating. If the

ship runs aground or is sitting on the bottom then the whole study
changes & many principles Do NOT apply & undergo a major
change.

Boats and ships are indeed a work of wonder as they have evolved into such a
stable shape in such an unstable medium such as that of the open ocean with
its sea & swell, as it meets these unique requirements with ease :
i. A good carrying capacity for the overall size of the vessel
ii. Good sea keeping abilities
iii. Ability to be driven easily & efficiently through water
iv. Ability to remain & return to upright even in a seaway & complex sea &
wave forms
v. Strength to withstand the stresses & strains due to the motions of the sea,
load of cargo & loss of strength due to ageing & rusting etc

Some basics : (by heart)

Density = Mass/volume
shipping unit : T/M3

Some constant values to be by-hearted :

Water density Term
1.000 t/m3 Fresh water FW
1.025 t/m3 Salt water SW
1.001 to 1.024 t/m3 Dock water DW
 5

Sounding is the height of the liquid filled inside the tank where as
ullage is the height of the empty space above the liquid in the
tank.
Sounding is also called in a fillage or innage.

SOUNDING
 6

ULLAGE
FOR A LIQUID TANK,
1. EMPTY VOLUME + FILLED VOLUME = TOTAL VOLUME OF TANK

ALSO,
2. TOTAL HEIGHT/DEPTH OF TANK = SOUNDING + ULLAGE

BUT SINCE ULLAGE IS MEASURED FROM TOP OF ULLAGE PIPE OR

FROM REFERENCE POINT,
3. TOTAL ULLAGE or MEASURED ULLAGE or OBSERVED ULLAGE =
ULLAGE INSIDE TANK + HEIGHT OF REFERENCE POINT ABOVE TANK
TOP ie HEIGHT OF ULLAGE PIPE.

Checking sounding or ullage is a daily task on board.

Why do we check sounding ullage of a tank?
So that we know :
-what is inside the tank? SW OR OIL OR WHAT?
 7
-how much is inside the tank. Because from sounding/ullage
we get volume of liquid, using sounding tables or ullage
tables. Using density x volume we get weight of liquid in the
tank. By doing this for every tank we know how much liquid
weight is on board.
-know weights on board which otherwise cannot be
measured
-calculate stability
-verify that tank is not leaking ( tank to tank or sea to tank or
tank to sea )
-verify structural integrity by confirming that tank is not
leaking
-verify that stability is not endangered due to tank leaking
which can cause weights to shift/change
-liquid is not getting contaminated. For ex we do not want
diesel in a tank of a product tanker to get mixed with sea
water from sea/adjoining ballast tank or with aviation fuel
from another tank. So we will check both ullage of cargo tank
& sounding of ballast tanks.

For following tanks we measure sounding using

sounding tapes:
FW Tks - Fresh water tanks
SW Tks or salt water ie ballast tanks
FO Tks - Fuel oil tanks of all types
E/R Tks - engine room tanks
 8
For following tanks we measure ullages

using UTI:
Cargo tanks of oil/products/chemicals/liquified gases
UTI : Ullage temperature interface indicator

Above is a typical liquid filled tank of Length L, breadth B, depth or

height H.
Shape of fluid will be same as shape of tank ie rectangular.

So for the rectangle formed by the liquid :

Length of liquid : L, Breadth of liquid : B, Sounding of liquid : S
 9
As the tank gets filled or emptied,
Sounding or height or depth of liquid increases or decreases while
shape remains rectangular & thus its L & B remains the same.

VOLUME OF RECTANGULAR TANK = L x B x H-------①

VOLUME OF LIQUID (also RECTANGULAR SHAPE) = L x B x
S-------②

L x B IS COMMON IN BOTH VOLUMES & EQUAL IN VALUE.

But L x B = AREA OF RECTANGLE.( also called AREA OF CROSS
SECTION OF TANK)

SO BOTH THE ABOVE EQUATIONS ① & ② ALSO BECOME,

VOLUME OF RECTANGULAR TANK = AREA x H-------③
VOLUME OF LIQUID = AREA x S (sounding of tk)-------④
===========================================
STABILITY NUMERICALS CHAPTER 1
https://drive.google.com/file/d/14NnGDQVIoFVGrOJjEHyJBS3ckDmJrUGd
/view?usp=share_link
https://drive.google.com/file/d/17UupRXoh8cBNGlahZTXdwdO8r_-HxIji/v
iew?usp=share_link ANSWERS
===========================================
Ship’s weight acts downwards through a point called centre of
gravity & buoyancy acts upwards through a different point called
centre of buoyancy. Both these centres are different & located
apart from each other. They must be in balance ie equal in value
but opposite in direction. Thus this creates a dynamism between
these 2 forces - they always need to find a balance while being
apart from each other. The ship will always settle about a position
in which these forces balance each other out. This dynamic nature
of these forces on a ship that is itself in dynamics (in motion) in
such a dynamic medium such as the sea makes the study of
stability very important, interesting, critical as well as
challenging.
 10

BUOYANCY
Any liquid exerts buoyancy on any object immersed in it. The
molecules are not as strongly bound to each other as in a solid
but elastically giving the liquid their property of being able to
flow. Thus they can change shape easily as per the area which
contains it. When any solid is placed in a liquid, the solid pushes
the liquid volume and occupies space within the liquid. The entire
liquid body behaves like an elastic medium in which a foreign
body of different density is exerting a pressure. As a counter to
this pressure the object experiences
buoyancy.
It acts all over ONLY that part of the body which is inside the
liquid.
Gravity acts over all part of the body but buoyancy acts on the
underwater volume part of the body that is a main difference
between buoyancy force and force of weight.
1. Definition :
The upward force experienced by a body partly or wholly
immersed in a liquid is called buoyancy. It is a Force.
2. Direction is upwards, opposite to that of gravity.
Shipping unit : Tonnes or T
 11
[[ Actual Unit : N ( kg.m/s2) in physics. But in marine industry we only
use unit of mass ie tonnes, (by ignoring ‘g’ part in F=mg)]]

The weight of the ship acting downward (due to gravity) on the

liquid has an equal & opposite reaction called buoyancy acting in
the opposite upward direction For a body which is floating freely
in any fluid.
The factors that affect buoyant force are:
-The density of the fluid.
-The volume of the fluid displaced.
-Depth of the point of the observation.
-the surface area of the object immersed or the size/volume of
the object
-the shape of the object immersed
-The local acceleration due to gravity.(g - ignored in stability)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jHAFDkZ1KMI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=khc2wUBsFU4
 12

LAWS OF FLOATATION
Can be explained using Archimedes’ principle :
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE :
1. Definition :
PART A
ANY OBJECT IMMERSED (partly or completely
submerged) IN A FLUID EXPERIENCES A FORCE ACTING
IN THE UPWARD⇑ DIRECTION CALLED BUOYANCY.
 13

PART B
AMOUNT OF BUOYANCY EXPERIENCED BY BODY =
WEIGHT OF FLUID DISPLACED (pushed away) BY THE
BODY.

Full weight of object is =5 kg acting downwards as shown in the

spring balance.
When the object is inside the fluid the spring balance reads 3 kg
because 2 kg of buoyancy is acting upwards. The weight of water
collected in the overflow can is 2 kg and that is the value of
buoyancy that is experienced by the object.
https://www.youtube.com/shorts/PubhcGqt70Q
https://www.youtube.com/shorts/L3t3Uh_eIMo
2. FORMULA & units
FOR A FREELY FLOATING OBJECT IN A LIQUID,
WEIGHT OF OBJECT = WEIGHT OF LIQUID DISPLACED BY OBJECT
WEIGHT OF SHIP = WEIGHT OF WATER DISPLACED BY SHIP

WEIGHT OF SHIP= VOLUME OF WATER DISPLACED BY SHIP x

DENSITY OF
WATER x ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
But acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ part is commonly dropped &
also ‘g’ is constant, so it is just mass that is considered in the
equation.

So this becomes simple as a mass, volume, density equation

(Mass = volume x density)
 14
So
MASS/WEIGHT OF SHIP= VOLUME OF WATER DISPLACED BY
SHIP x DENSITY OF WATER in which it floats
DISPLACEMENT W = UNDERWATER VOLUME OF THE SHIP x
DENSITY OF WATER
W = U/W Vol x 𝛅water

where
W = SHIP’S DISPLACEMENT or SHIP’S WEIGHT
U/W V = UNDERWATER VOLUME OF THE SHIP IN m3
𝛅w : Density of water in which the ship is floating in T/m3
Sea water density = 1.025 T/M3 for sea water
Unit of displacment : Tonnes
3. Application :
Ships float because buoyancy exists. They can be used to
transport heavy cargoes in that huge, bulk quantity which
otherwise would be impossible to carry on land by any means.
Because the ship floats even with such heavy loads, it can be
easily propelled by a machine & the advantage is that we can
transport such heavy loads easily over water where there are no
physical obstructions unlike on land, where there may be
mountains, valleys, ghats, rocks, cities, narrow roads, no roads,
long round abouts etc.
Also we can calculate weight of ship because of buoyancy
Indirectly because by measuring the draft we know the
underwater volume of the ship.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IfldVIUX4sI

For a box shaped ship of length L, breadth B, draft d

under water volume U/W vol = L x B x d.
 15
But (L x B) is the water plane area.
So ,
U/W vol = water plane area x draft of the box shaped vessel
So,
W = water plane area x draft x density of water, for a box shaped
vsl
{{So using Archimedes’ principle we can understand that if a
loaded ship is to float with a freeboard then weight of the
displaced water needs to be many many times more than the total
weight of the empty ship. }}

Another View Point

HOW CAN SHIP’S STEEL WHOSE DENSITY IS FROM 7.8 UPTO 9
T/M3 FLOAT IN WATER OF DENSITY 1.0 T/M3?
By spreading the steel into a wide shape whose resultant density
(of the entire volume) is less than the water it is floating in. If
you were to stack the steel plates of a ship one atop the other it
would sink in the blink of an eye but give it a tub like shape &
spread its volume up to 7.8 times its weight & behold a floating
mass of steel. So if it is spread into a volume just 7.8 times its
weight, it will just float at surface of water. To float with a
freeboard it needs to be spread into a much bigger volume many
times more. So a typical ship would displace water of weight
10-15 times its own weight as its entire volume.

CENTRE OF BUOYANCY
Just as the force of weight tax downwards due to gravity through
a point call the centre of gravity in the body similarly in force of
Buoyancy acting upwards act through a point call the centre of
buoyancy.
It is the geometric centre of underwater volume of the ship
through which force of buoyancy acts upwards.
Indications :
Type 1 : It is indicated by its vertical height above the keel. ( KB)
called vertical centre of buoyancy. VCB = KB
Type 2 : It is indicated by its longitudinal distance from the aft
perpendicular or fwd perpendicular or from midships. (LCB) called
longitudinal centre of buoyancy.
Type 3 : It is indicated by its athwartship location on either side
of the centre line which decides the vessel’s heel.
 16
Factors upon which centre of buoyancy depends :
1. It depends on the draft & KB increases with increase in draft.
2. It depends on the form of the ship & shape of the under water
hull.

Transverse Shift Of COB Causes Heel

Centre of buoyancy - COB shifts when the underwater volume of

the ship changes.
So this means COB changes each time when the ship experiences
:
a. Change in Draft due to operations
b. Rolling
c. Pitching
 17
d. Heaving
e. Surging
f. Slamming
g. Large waves
h. Big Swell

RESERVE BUOYANCY
A. Definition :
The above water intact volume of the ship which is enclosed &
water tight. (Or)
The volume of intact enclosed water tight spaces of the ship
above the water line.
B. It represents :
The unused sinkage available to the ship. (or)
The volume of the water tight freeboard part of the ship.
[[Keywords : Water tight, enclosed, intact. Definition is invalid
without these keywords ( 0 marks ).]]
C. Expression :
It is generally expressed as a percentage of the total volume of
the ship or as a volume in m3.
More freeboard ⇒ more reserve buoyancy ⇒ more stability &
safety margin
Less freeboard ⇒ less reserve buoyancy ⇒ less stability & safety
margin
D. Important note : Accommodation volume is not considered a
part of reserve buoyancy as it is enclosed but not water tight. Nor
is the main deck space part of reserve buoyancy. [[Mandatory
point to be written]].
E. FORMULAE & UNITS
 18

R.B. = Total w/t enclosed volume of ship - underwater w/t

enclosed volume of ship
w/t = water tight
Unit : m3
RB% = Above water enclosed w/t volume of ship x 100
Total w/t enclosed volume of ship
Unit : %
[[Pls Note it is not the volume of the empty portion in the tanks
or holds above the cargo/ballast but irrespective of the level of
cargo/ballast inside the tanks or holds, it depends on the
freeboard. The empty volume of tanks is contributing to the total
freeboard but the real freeboard is only proportional to the total
weight of the ship.]]
F. DIAGRAMS

BALLAST LOADED
H. IMPORTANCE OF RESERVE BUOYANCY
1. Reserve buoyancy is the potential buoyancy of the ship.
2. When a weight is added onboard, reserve buoyancy is
converted to buoyancy by increasing the draught.
3. If buoyancy is lost due to bilging*,reserve buoyancy is
converted to buoyancy by increasing the draught.
4. Reserve buoyancy is important for the vessel's safe operation
at sea.
5. In case of damage or flooding of any compartment the
Reserve buoyancy comes into play by providing buoyancy.
 19
6. More reserve buoyancy means more safety. It is vital for
determining or evaluating sea worthiness of a vessel.
*:damage to a compartment where water has free access to go in
& out.
I. How minimum reserve buoyancy is ensured/prescription on
every vessel:
1. By using & following Load lines regulations as they
prescribe minimum MANDATORY freeboard to every
ship.
2. Means of ensuring compliance with the above=entries
made in the official log book ; loadlines marked on the
ships sides.
J. Application :
Since reserve buoyancy of v/l when is loaded is less more
safety
precautions are maintained ie vessel will be kept more
away from
heavy weather zone, away from navigational hazards,
maybe more
clear of traffic etc. We will handle & operate the ship with
more
caution when reserve buoyancy is less ie when loaded.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=faZ5LdXBMxg

Change of draft with density

A. For the same displacement, Draft changes as density of water
changes.
If weight of ship is same, ship in different densities will
experience different buoyancy.
B. More density ⇒more buoyancy ⇒more uplift ⇒ less sinkage ⇒
less draft.
Less density ⇒less buoyancy ⇒ less uplift ⇒ more sinkage ⇒ more
draft.
C. Density increases draft decreases.
Density decreases draft increases.
[[A common experience is when swimming in sea water vs in
fresh water. The human body floats more easily in sea water vs
fresh water.]]
D. So Draft is inversely proportional to density of water.
 20

draft ∝ 1 .
Density
When ship moves from :
Salt (1.025) to fresh water ( 1.000) draft INCREASES.
Fresh (1.000) to salt water ( 1.025) draft DECREASES.
E. For same ship(same displacement,same weight)in different
densities
SW 1.025 DW 1.015 FW 1.000
Least draft Medium draft Maximum draft
[[Below Is An Exaggerated Effect Of Change Of Draft With
Density.In Actual It Is Just A Few Cm.]]

Example : A ship of displacement W = 10000 T

In SW : W = 10000 T = U/W Vol1 x 1.025
∴ U/W Vol1 = 9756 m3
Now W is constant:
In FW : W = 10000 T = U/W Vol2 x 1.000
∴U/W Vol2 = 10000 m3
So Vol2 > Vol1 as water plane area is same for nearly same draft.
∴ draft2 > draft1 Or Draft in FW > Draft in SW for same
displacement.
DISPLACEMENT IS CONSTANT & WE ARE COMPARING THE SAME
SHIP WHEN IN 2 DIFFERENT DENSITIES OF WATER, so we can
observe the change in draft due to change in density of water.
FORMULA :
FOR A SHIP WITH SAME DISPLACEMENT (SAME WEIGHT W),
moving from a water of density d1 to a density d2,
When in water of density d1,
W= U/W Vol1 x 𝛅1 -------①
 21
When in water of density d2,
W= U/W Vol2 x 𝛅2 -------②
NOW LHS A= LHS B = W( W is the same), so RHS A = RHS B

∴U/W1 x 𝛅1 = U/W2 x 𝛅2 C FOR A SHIP SHAPED VSL -------③

BUT For a box shaped vsl, U/W vol = L x B x draft
& for a box shaped vessel L & B are constant so,
Equation ① become
L x B x d1 x 𝛅1 = L x B x d2 x 𝛅2

∴draft 1 x 𝛅1 = draft 2 x 𝛅2 D FOR A BOX SHAPED VSL -------④

DISPLACEMENT
Is the mass of the ship at any given time. It can also be said to be
the weight of the ship in common language.
Unit : tonnes (T)
It is called so as it is equal to the mass of the water DISPLACED
by the ship, when it is floating freely in water.
DISPLACEMENT = UNDERWATER VOLUME OF THE SHIP x DENSITY OF WATER
W = U/W Vol x 𝛅w
where,
W = SHIP’S DISPLACEMENT(MASS) IN TONNES
U/W V = UNDERWATER VOLUME OF THE SHIP IN M3
𝛅w Density of water in which ship is floating
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3hJXaWnQyjA

Summer displacement total mass/weight of the ship when she is

floating at her summer draft in sea water. Also called Load
displacement. Corresponding draft is called LOAD DRAFT.
It includes empty ship’s weight, cargo, ballast, fuel, stores,
provisions, fresh water, crew & passengers & their effects, spares
etc.
Usually ships are loaded to summer displacement as that is the
most commonly found loadline on the globe.
Summer displacement = light ship + summer deadweight
 22

Light ship displacement or just light ship mass of the empty ship
without
any :
Cargo
Fuel
ballast water
lubricating oils
fresh water
boiler feed water
stores
crew & passengers & their effects
Consumables
Stores .
It represents the ship that has just been constructed at the
shipyard &
complete fitting & outfitting has been done but no consumable
weights have been added onto her.
It includes hull fittings such as anchors & chains, mooring
ropes/wires/all machineries & equipment, lifeboats, bridge
equipments,
radars, hydraulic & lube oils/oil levels, water in boiler tubes at
operating levels etc as such weights are always part of the ship &
are therefore a part of lightship. IT IS A KNOWN CONSTANT.
Corresponding draft is called LIGHT DRAFT.
 23
An experiment called the light ship Inclining experiment is done
to determine the value of light ship displacement, KG, LCG etc
Present displacement : The total mass of the ship at present.
Present displacement = light ship + (mass of the cargo, fuel,
ballast water, lubricating oils, fresh water, boiler feed water,
stores, crew & passengers & their effects, consumables &
anything else present o/b.)
Unit of all displacements is tonnes.
Present displacement = light ship + present deadweight aboard/onboard
{{Ballast cond displacement mass of ship in typical ballast cond
draft.}}

DEADWEIGHT (DWT)
Deadweight or summer deadweight is the total mass of cargo,
fuel, ballast water, lubricating oils, fresh water, boiler feed water,
stores, crew & passengers & their effects, consumables etc that
the ship can carry when she is floating at her summer draft in SW.
It is NOT the weight of the ship.
Unit : tonnes (T)
*When we say only the word deadweight we refer to summer
dead weight.
Summer DWT or DWT = summer/Load displacement - Light displacement
There are few other definitions :
Deadweight available:
The total mass of cargo, fuel, fresh water, stores, lubes,
provisions, passengers, crew & their effects etc that can be put on
the ship at present to bring her to summer draft in salt water.
DWT available = Summer displacement - present displacement
Deadweight aboard or onboard :
The total mass of cargo, fuel, ballast, fresh water, stores, lubes,
provisions, passengers, crew & their effects etc on board at
present.
DWT aboard = Present displacement - light ship
===========================================
===
NUMERICALS CH 3
 24
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1pqasjhzHRkrOw2wTjjpiOn0N6F
8-nuYH/view?usp=share_link
===========================================
===
NUMERICALS CH 4
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1xX_Egymz7U95EODn8H1t_AkA
M8Ua8R0Z/view?usp=share_link
https://drive.google.com/file/d/17UupRXoh8cBNGlahZTXdwdO8
r_-HxIji/view?usp=share_link answers
===========================================
===

CENTRE OF GRAVITY (COG)

A. Definition
Is the point through which the force of gravity acting downwards
in a body can be assumed to act or the point at which the entire
mass of the body is assumed to be at through which the weight of
the body acts downwards.
The resultant of all moments about the centre of gravity will be 0.
Net sum of all clockwise & anti clockwise moments will be 0.
B. Indications :
Using 3 components :
1. Vertical height above keel - KG or VCG
2. Longitudinal centre of gravity - LCG measured from fore/aft
perpendiculars/from midships.
3. Transverse centre of gravity - from centre line of the ship
towards P/S side as the case may be. Ideally to be 0 at all
times to keep vessel upright at sea or port. ( 0 list)
C. Location of centre of gravity of a ship depends upon below
factors :
1. The materials used & their shape ie the ship’s construction,
2. Each and every weight present on board & its location, loading
characteristics of the ship.
It is therefore NOT located at the geometrical centre of the ship
shape or hull shape.
If more weights are concentrated at the bottom of the ship then
KG will be low.
The ship is called bottom heavy. Ex : bulk carrier loaded with steel
coils.
 25
If deck cargoes are loaded on board, then it will be higher. The
ship is called top heavy. Ex : container vsl.
So position of G does not depend upon the total weight but on the
distribution of weights.

Centre of gravity shifts only due to shift in weights on board.

Otherwise it does not move on its own unlike COB which is
dynamic.

An experiment is conducted on board on completion of launching

of the empty ship initially after all hull, machinery & equipment
outfitting is done called the INCLINING EXPERIMENT. With the
help of this experiment the ship’s initial location of its COG in
values of KG, LCG is determined.

Ideally centre of gravity should be on the centre line of the

vessel. If it lies to the port of the centre line it will result in a port
list. If it lies to the stbd of the centre line it will result in a stbd
list.

xxxxxEFFECT ON POSITION OF COG ON

ADDING/ DISCHARGING/ SHIFTING
WEIGHTS/ LOAD ON BOARDxxxxx
If any weight is loaded or discharged then the centre of gravity of
the entire ship changes :

i. When a weight is loaded (added) the COG of the ship moves

directly towards the COG of the weight added.
 26

ii. When a weight is discharged (removed) the COG of the ship

moves away from the COG of the weight removed.
 27

iii. When an existing weight on board is shifted the COG of the

ship moves parallel to COG of the moved weight in the same
direction.
 28

FORMULA FOR SHIFT OF COG FOR SINGLE WEIGHT

SHIFTED/ADDED OR LOADED / REMOVED OR DISCHARGED :

GG1 = w x d
Final W
w : weight shifted/loaded/discharged
 29
W: FINAL displacement of ship after loading/discharging. In case
of
shifting it does not change.
d : When loaded or discharged d is the vertical distance between
the COG
of ship & COg of weight. When shifting d is the vertical
distance moved
by the weight.
Unit : m
http://www.splashmaritime.com.au/Marops/data/less/Shipk/St
ab/Basicstab/Craneload.gif

http://www.splashmaritime.com.au/Marops/data/less/Shipk/St
ab/Basicstab/AddG.gif

http://www.splashmaritime.com.au/Marops/data/less/Shipk/St
ab/Basicstab/RemoveG.gif

METHOD FOR SHIFT OF COG FOR MULTIPLE WEIGHTS LOADED /

ADDED OR REMOVED / DISCHARGED :
By taking moments of each weight about its KG or LCG as the case
maybe & adding/subtracting them to get final moment, final
weight & thereby final KG or LCG.
xxxxxINTERACTION BETWEEN COG &
COBxxxxxx
1. For a ship to float upright (0 list) both COG &
COB must transversely lie on same vertical line-
centre line.
2. For a ship to float at even keel (0 trim) both COG
& COB must be in the same position longitudinally,
LCB = LCG.
See figures RR.
FIGURE RR
 30

EVEN KEEL UPRIGHT

A.======SHIFTING OF WEIGHTS=======
3. When weights are shifted on board⇒COG SHIFTS. So
when COG & COB are not in 1 line vertically then :
A. TRANSVERSELY : As COG shifts, a turning moment
is produced causing the vessel to list. As the vessel
lists in the direction of the shifted weight the
underwater volume part of hull changes & thus COB
shifts. Ship will continue to list until new COG &
shifting COB realign in 1 vertical line. In this position
there is no more turning lever. This is the equilibrium
position or listed position.
 31
B.LONGITUDINALLY : LCG will shift. This will produce a
trimming moment which will turn the vessel in the
direction of the shifted weight & this results in
change of under water volume of the hull. Thus COB
shifts. LCB shifts in the same longitudinal direction as
LCG. LCB will continue to shift till such time LCG &
LCB are in 1 vertical line. The ship will thus be
trimmed either by stern or by bow. The F/A drafts &
therefore trim, will change. The ship will remain in
equilibrium in this position of trim. In this position
there is no more trimming moment.
 32

FIG
AA

So when COG shifts transversely or longitudinally, a

moment will realign the ship causing COB to shift till such
time that COB & COG come in 1 vertical line. Once they are
in 1 vertical line, now a moment is no more formed. So
when COG shifts the ship changes trim & can trim either
way by head or stern depending on where the weight was
shifted.

B.==CHANGES DUE TO EXTERNAL FORCES==

When ship rolls/pitches/heaves etc U/W volume shape
changes ⇒ COB shifts ⇒ LCB & VCB(KB) changes. COG
does not shift.
So when COG & COB are not in 1 line vertically then they
form a couple
(2 equal forces acting at a distance apart in opposite
directions) dynamically to move the ship back to its
original position.
When COB shifts COG does not shift. That is why a couple
is formed ALWAYS when COB shifts WHICH BRINGS THE
 33
SHIP BACK TO EVEN KEEL OR ORIGINAL TRIM POSITION
ONCE THE EXTERNAL FORCE IS REMOVED.

cog position depends on individual weights & their positions. so in

a sense its position is ‘locked’ if the weights are not moved. but
cob depends on the water which is dynamic medium always in
motion so cob shifts easily & will definitely shift whenever the
ship moves in water even ever so slightly.
 34

SHIP’S COEFFICIENTS
The Naval Architect uses many coefficients in ship technology,
five of which are listed below:

1. Block coefficient Cb or coefficient of Fineness of displacement

2. Waterplane Area coefficient Cw

3. Midship Area coefficient Cm

4. Prismatic coefficient Cp

5. Deadweight coefficient CD

Here always L : LBP, B : MOULDED BREADTH, d : draft & always

all coefficients are less than unity (1) in value. They are a ratio
so no units.

WATER PLANE COEFFICIENT (or) COEFFICIENT OF

FINENESS OF WATER PLANE AREA : ( Cw)
Is the ratio of the water plane area of the ship to the area of a
rectangle having the maximum length & maximum breadth.

Cw = area of water plane of ship

LxB

At drafts below SLWL, the Water Plane Area decreases and with it
the Cw values.
 35
BLOCK COEFFICIENT (or) COEFFICIENT OF FINENESS
OF DISPLACEMENT : ( Cb) is the ratio of the underwater
volume of the ship to that of corresponding block having the same
length, same breadth & same draft throughout.

Imagine you had a rectangular block of clay. It has a certain

volume.

To make a ship out of the bloc of clay, we would narrow it at both

the ends. More at bow less at stern. This is now a ship shape. It
has lesser volume.

The ratio of these 2 volumes if the block coefficient. Since the

volume of ship is less than volume of the initial block we used,
block coefficient will always be less than 1.

Cb=underwater volume of ship = underwater volume of ship

Volume of the full box LxBxd

LxBxd
Typical values of block coefficients of different ship types
Oil Tankers & Bulk carriers : 0.80 to 0.86

Ro-Ro ships : 0.75 to 0.80

Gas carriers : 0.70 to 0.75
Container ships : 0.67 to 0.72
Passenger ships : 0.65 to 0.70
Ferries : 0.50 to 0.65
 36
The more fine form the ship the lower the block coefficient. ⇒
more fuel efficiency ( less water resistance).The more boxy the
ship the greater the block coefficient. ⇒ lesser fuel efficiency (
more water resistance)

The resistance of the hull in water is directly proportional to the

fullness of the hull & vice versa.

So, using the formula above which is

Cb = underwater volume of the ship

LxBxd

Under water volume of the ship = Cb x (L x B x d )

But ( L x B x d ) = volume of the box shaped ship

& (L x B) is the water plane area of a box shaped vessel.

W = under water volume x density of water

Displacement or W = Cb x (L x B x d ) x 𝛅 = Cb x ( water plane area x

draft ) x 𝛅
= Cb x under water volume of a box shaped ship x 𝛅
Any equation can be used depending on the available parameters in the question or

situation..

MID-SHIP AREA COEFFICIENT : (Cm)

is the ratio of the under water mid-ship cross-sectional area & the
surrounding rectangle of extreme breadth & draft.

Cm = u/w cross sectional area

 37

Bxd

For merchant ships it is typically between 0.975 to 0.995.

PRISMATIC COEFFICIENT : (CP)

is the ratio of the underwater volume (V) to that of a prism
having its length as LBP & midship underwater cross sectional
area as its area throughout.

Cp = u/w Volume of the ship .

Midship cross sectional area x L

Using the above formulae by interlinking can you establish a

relation between Cp, CB & Cm?
 38

Cp= CB .

C
m

DEADWEIGHT COEFFICIENT : (CD)

is the ratio of a ship’s deadweight (carrying capacity in tonnes)
with the ship’s displacement (W)
CD = deadweight .
W
**So NONE OF THE COEFFICIENTS VALUE WILL BE MORE THAN 1.
ALSO THEY HAVE NO UNITS AS THEY ARE ALL A RATIO.

TPC - Tonnes Per Centimeter

A. DEFINITION
It is the amount of weight required to change (rise up or sink
down) the ship’s draft by 1 cm.( bodily)
Unit : tonner per centimeter. T/cm
B. xxxxxxDERIVATION OF FORMULAxxxxxx
Water plane area = A m2.
After change by 1 cm in draft, change in water plane area is
negligible.
So new water plane area after change of draft by 1 cm is also ‘A’
m2.
So change in volume for 1 cm change in draft = Area (constant) x
change in draft
= A x 1 cm
= A x 1/100 m
Change in weight for 1 cm change in draft = change in volume x
density of water
= A x 1 /100 x d
formula
TPC = Ax .
100 Water plane area = A m2.

Ex : In salt water TPC = A x 1.025

100
 39
In fresh water TPC = A .
100
C. Diagram :

D.WHERE TO FIND TPC & CHANGES

TPC is mentioned in the capacity plan or deadweight scale plan
posted in the alleyways.
TPC changes with change in density & also with change in draft.
Higher draft ⇒ more water plane area ⇒ higher TPC.
Lower draft ⇒ less water plane area ⇒ lower TPC.
E. APPLICATION :
For instant answers to calculations involving small changes of
drafts, TPC is simply multiplied with the change in draft to get the
amount of cargo to be loaded/discharged instead of going for
complex calculations or using loadicator. But bear in mind to
change TPC for the density of water in which ship is.

FWA - Fresh water Allowance

A. DEFINITION
Is the change in draft when ship goes from SW to FW or vice
versa when
floating at her summer draft.
B. FORMULA
FWA = W in cm
40 TPC
Unit : cm
TPC : tonnes per centimeter
W = summer displacement of the ship in tonnes
C. DEPENDS ON:
FWA value is fixed for summer draft. It is marked as the
difference between F & S loadline marks on the shipsides.
FWA increases with increase in ship’s draft. This is because
though W & TPC both
 40
increase with draft, increase in W is more than increase in TPC.
D.APPLICATION:
When the ship is loading in FW it can immerse her loadline by an
amount equal to the
FWA so that when she goes into SW she would automatically rise
to the appropriate loadline.

LOADLINES ARE APPLICABLE TO A VESSEL WHEN SHE IS IN SALT

WATER AT SEA.

If ship is in SW & we want to know her FW draft just simply add

FWA to the summer draft to get her FW draft.
E. APPLICATION :
1. It is marked indirectly on the loadlines. It is the distance
between S & F loadlines.
2. When ship is in FW it can submerge her applicable S load
line by an amount equal to the FWA so that when goes
out to sea she would rise up to her applicable S load line.
That is why it is called an allowance.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ajzBCOgavs
F. xxDERIVATION OF FORMULAxx
 41

Let the initial water line of the ship in SW be WL & the corresponding
under water volume
be V.
Let the new water line of the ship in FW be W1L1 & let the added under
water volume of the ship due to change in draft be v. So final under
water volume of the ship is V+v.

DWA - DOCK WATER ALLOWANCE

A. DEFINITION
is the change in draft when ship goes from salt water to dock
water or vice versa.
Dock water is water of density between 1.001 to 1.024 t/m3 e
other than SW & FW.
B. FORMULA
When ship goes from FW to SW ( or vice versa ) for change in
density of 0.025 change in draft is = FWA
 42
So for change in density of “x” it will be (by direct proportion)
DWA = FWA x ( change in density )
0.025
Unit: same as FWA
This formula holds good for any change of density.
In other words when ship goes from any density to any other
density this formula can be used.
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1fsQuE_A6AMv0cx0Ql
NZjPxufnajt70KJLqf2Qhdtq0c/edit?usp=sharing
Unit : Same as th4at of FWA ie either cm or mm.
C. APPLICATION :
1. When ship is in DW it can submerge her applicable load line
by an amount equal to the DWA so that when goes out to sea
she would rise up to her applicable load line. That is why it is
called an allowance.
===========================================
====
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1sSxbsVVBUNTjKEVvQoij7rzNOJ
MdZkEm/view?usp=share_link CH 5 STABILITY NUMERICALS
https://drive.google.com/file/d/17UupRXoh8cBNGlahZTXdwdO8
r_-HxIji/view?usp=share_link answers
===========================================
====

Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxmid term

HEEL & LIST

S FACTOR LIST HEEL
N
O

1 Cause unequal internal external forces such

distribution of weights as wind, sea, swell
on board

2 COB/COG caused by transverse caused by transverse

shift of COG shift of COB

3 Corrective ship will not upright by a stable ship will

 43

Action itself unless corrective upright itself once

action taken by ship’s external forces are
crew removed

4 Diagrams AA below BB below

5 Turning COG shifts, so initially a a righting lever

Lever turning lever forms always forms which
which causes COB to makes the ship back
move till such time it is upright again once
vertically below COG. cause of heel is
Once COB & COG removed
vertically align ship
maintains this
equilibrium/listed
position & there is no
more turning lever.

6 When One when COG shifts, COB when COB shifts cog
Shifts Does always shifts as under does not shift as COG
The Other water submerged part of position depends on
Shift? hull changes amount & position of
weights.

AA

BB
 44

STABLE, UNSTABLE & NEUTRAL

EQUILIBRIUM/STABILITY OF SHIPS
UNSTABLE SHIP = NEGATIVE STABILITY
STABLE SHIP = POSITIVE STABILITY
NEUTRAL SHIP = NEITHER NEGATIVE NOR POSITIVE
FACTOR STABLE UNSTABLE NEUTRAL

1. Ability To comes back to tends to heel once heeled ship

Come Back upright once more once has no tendency to
To Upright heeled inclined come back to
upright or heel
further

2. Position Of low to medium high medium

COG

3. Turning righting lever capsizing lever no lever

Lever

4. GM Meta- positive negative 0

Centric
Height

5. KG, KM KG<KM KG>KM KG=KM

 45

6. Diagrams below

7. Behaviour continues to tends to behave comes back to

At Larger comes back to as a neutral angle of heel which
Angle Of upright once equilibrium ship is also called the
Heel heeled at angle of loll, angle of Loll
beyond angle of
loll as a slightly
stable ship

8. Safety safe very / highly dangerous

dangerous, can
capsize any
time, emergency

9. Action By no action immediate/ urgent action

Crew needed urgent action needed to make
needed. It is an ship positively
emergency stable.
situation.

10. GZ curve Draw gz curve Draw gz curve Draw gz curve for

for stable ship for unstable ship neutral ship
Refer part 2 Refer part 2 Refer part 2 notes
notes notes
46
 47
ANGLE OF LOLL : That Angle Of Incline At Which An Unstable Ship
Or A Neutral Ship Settles When Its KG Becomes Equal To KM. At
The Angle Of Loll The Unstable Ship Behaves Like A Neutral Ship
Which Neither Uprights Nor Heels Further. The Forces Of Weight
Downward & Buoyancy Upward Act Vertically In One Line
Balancing Each Other. Therefore There Is No Righting Lever Nor
Capsizing Lever At This Angle Of Loll. There Would Have Been A
Initial Capsizing Lever To Incline The Ship Upto The Angle Of Loll.
http://www.splashmaritime.com.au/Marops/data/less/Shipk/St
ab/Basicstab/Loll2.gif
http://www.splashmaritime.com.au/Marops/data/less/Shipk/St
ab/Basicstab/Roll.gif
More about an Unstable ship :
The unstable ship can capsize either side if the heeling forces
exceed the small righting lever formed. In any case due to the
momentum when it flips from one side to the other, that is a
dangerous condition & is usually the cause of the capsizing. See
the GIF above.

TRANSVERSE METACENTRE (M)

The Point Or Centre About Which The Centre Of Buoyancy Shifts
In A Circular Arc With BM(Metacentric Radius) As Its Radius With
Increasing Angles Of Heel Is Called Transverse Metacentre,
Denoted Commonly As M.
It Is The Point Where The Line Drawn Vertically Upwards Through
The New Position Of Centre Of Buoyancy B1 Would Meet The
Centre Line Of The Heeled Vessel.
Position Of M Is Given By KM - Height Of M Above Keel.
From 0 To 15 Degrees Of Heel, Value Of KM Has A Very Small
Change So Is Considered Constant Upto 15 Degrees Of Heel. This
Is Called Initial KM. Thereafter It Increases With Increase In
Heel. KM Is Obtained From Hydrostatic Particulars - Tables
/Curves In The Ship’s Trim & Stability Booklet.
FIG SB.01 BELOW
 48

FIG SB.01*

FIG SB.02*

METACENTRIC RADIUS (BM)

With metacentre M as centre & BM or metacentric radius as the
radius, a circular arc can be drawn which is the path prescribed or
followed by centre of buoyancy B (COB) as it shifts in position for
upto 15 degrees angle of heel. So BM Is The Metacentric Radius.
FIG SB.02* ABOVE
BM=KM-KB Unit : m
KM Is Obtained From Hydrostatic Particulars - Tables /Curves In
The Ship’s Trim & Stability Booklet.

METACENTRIC HEIGHT (GM)

 49
It is the distance from centre of gravity of the ship G to the ship’s
transverse metacentre M which is a fair measure of the ability of
the ship to upright itself. FIG SB.03 BELOW
GM = KM-KG Unit : m
KM Is Obtained From Hydrostatic Particulars - Tables /Curves In
The Ship’s Trim & Stability Booklet.
KG has to be calculated each time for the ship’s different
condition & weights. Starting value of KG is obtained using
Inclining experiment which gives ship’s initial KG & LCG apart
from the light ship displacement.

FIG SB.03

RIGHTING LEVER (GZ)

The Lever Which Heels/Inclines/Turns The Ship About The
Longitudinal Horizontal Axis. It Is The Perpendicular Distance
Between The 2 Vertical Forces Of Gravity & Buoyancy When The
Ship Is Heeled At Any Angle.

GZ = GM x Sin ⦵, upto 15 degrees of heel only ( angle at Z is 90)

 50

BEYOND THAT GZ = GMSin⦵ + ½ BM Tan2⦵Sin⦵ , until the deck edge

goes under water
Unit : m

RIGHTING MOMENT /
MOMENT OF STATICAL STABILITY
A couple is formed when two equal parallel forces are acting in
opposite directions.
The lever of a couple is the perpendicular distance between the
forces forming the couple.
Moment of a couple is the product of one of the forces forming the
couple and the lever of the couple. ( F x r )
So the product of the weight of the ship (buoyancy is equal to the
weight of the freely floating ship) & the perpendicular distance
between them ie the righting lever, when the ship heels is the
RIGHTING MOMENT or MOMENT OF STATICAL STABILITY, which
is in turn responsible for bringing a ship back to upright position.

RIGHTING MOMENT = W x GZ
Unit : TM ( tons meter)

STIFF & TENDER SHIPS

S FACTOR STIFF SHIP TENDER SHIP
NO

1 GM - high low
Metacentric
Height

2 GZ - Righting large small

Lever
 51

3 Vertical usually low usually high

Centre Of
Gravity VCG /
KG

4 Angle & Period small, ship comes to large, ship comes to

Of Roll upright very quickly upright slowly once
once heeled even to heeled
small angle

5 Rolling violent, irregular smooth & regular

6 Comfort For very uncomfortable less uncomfortable

Crew

7 Hull Stresses severe low

8 Cargo more likely to break less risk of cargo

Lashings causing shift of lashings breaking &
cargo, damage to cargo shifting
ship & cargo

9 Bulk Cargo more likely less likely

Shifting

10 Ability To more ability to less ability to

Withstand withstand - will list withstand - will list
Shift Of Cargo less for same shift more for same shift
of cargo of cargo

11 Ability To more ability to less ability to

Withstand withstand loss of withstand loss of GM
Loss Of GM due to FSC, due to FSC, bilging
Metacentric bilging etc etc
Height GM

12 Stability more margin of comparatively less

stability or more stable or just
stable sufficiently stable

13 Example a ship with high a ship with timber

density cargo deck cargo or a RORO
loaded in lower hold vessel with more
such as heavy iron deck cargo & empty
ore cargo bottom holds/decks

14 Diagram CC below DD below

15 During The most likely to with slackening of

 52

Voyage remain stable tanks due to

during the voyage consumptions/
operations during the
voyage, likely to
become unstable or
have neutral stability
if GM reduces

CC STIFF SHIP DIAGRAM ABOVE

DD TENDER SHIP DIAGRAM ABOVE

 53

***MINIMUM List of books to be carried on

board in HARD COPY by CADETS : ***
NOT SOFT COPY
BOOKS ARE AN INVESTMENT. BUY THEM.
*ROR + CARDS
*PRACTICAL NAVIGATION - CAPT
SUBRAMANIAM
*PRINCIPLES OF NAVIGATION
*DETAILED BOOK / NOTES ABOUT PASSAGE
PLANNING
*DETAILED BOOK / NOTES ABOUT ECDIS
*CARGO WORK BY CAPT ERROL FERNANDES
*CARGO WORK for your specific ship type
(tanker/bulky/gas etc)
*BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING - CAPT
SUBRAMANIAM
*SEAMANSHIP - any author

https://sketchfab.com/3d-models/cruise-ship-bb782326932e4c1
79e34f3d6c8e36b86