Logic

And
CRITICAL THINKING

Prepared by:
JESTONY B. AMTAR
Philosophy Instructor
 This course is an introduction to the meaning and
formation of terms, propositions and logical reasoning.
It will acquaint the student with the fundamental
principles and methods of valid reasoning so as to equip
him/her with the logical tools necessary for his/her
constant battles against fallacies and inconsistencies.
This course is also an introduction to symbolic logic and
other forms of logical reasoning.

- CMO-26-s-2017
INTRO TO PHILOSOPHY

Philia - love

Sophia - wisdom

Philosopher – lover of
wisdom

the science and art that studies

all things and their ultimate
causes through the use of human
reason alone.
It is a science because the knowledge that In this quest or
it establishes is based on facts and other search, philosophy
empirical observations. uses just one tool
and that is natural
reason alone.
Its subject matter is everything since
philosophy studies everything: man, world,
God, being, soul, etc. It is reason that
will enable man to
attain the truth
It seeks the ultimate reasons of and genuine
everything. All people, even those who are knowledge.
not philosophers, will agree that
everything comes into being because of a
cause.
 PARTS OF WISDOM
Since philosophy is the quest for wisdom, it is but proper
to study its parts. Without them, wisdom will not be
wisdom.

Wisdom

Theoria Praxis
Theory & Practice &
Knowledge Application
 Wisdom

Theoria Praxis

refers to the practice

refers to the theory and
and application.
knowledge.
Example:
Example:
A skilled machinist who
The teachers are the
can fix well the
main instruments for
machine but cannot
the students’
explain the
knowledge acquisition.
connections on it.
 Wisdom

Theoria Praxis

Wisdom is not only about knowledge nor application.

It should be the combination of the two. Knowledge
is not enough if it is not applied and application
without knowledge is lacking too.

Example:
In order for a teacher to be considered a wise teacher, he
must have enough knowledge about education, mastery on
his field, good foundation on the principles of teaching,
and the like.
Man gets to know reality in a partial and step by step manner.
This process of knowing which he engages into is called
reasoning. Reasoning would not have been necessary if only
man has all the knowledge about the whole of reality. But since
his knowledge is limited, reasoning plays an important role to
his life.
1. Explain why logic is the science and art of
valid reasoning. (10 pts)

2. Provide a brief and clear explanation of

formal, material, deductive, and inductive
logic and give atleast one example each.
(20 pts)

3. Differentiate first intention and second

intention concepts and give one example
each. (10 pts)
 Example:
Pedro is a man and he is mortal.
the kind of reasoning from which
All men are mortal.
man gains a universal knowledge
based on particular knowledge.

Note:

The above truth claims are all particular knowledge. If they are true, then
the proper universal knowledge that can be derived from them is that “All
men mortal”.
 Example:
Every student is a learner.
the kind of reasoning from which
Bryan is a student and also a
man gains a particular knowledge
learner. P
based on a universal knowledge.

Note:

In the above syllogism, “Every student is a learner” is a known fact. If it is

true that Bryan is a student, then it is a necessary consequence that she is
a learner.
Reasoning and Logic are oftentimes synonymous.
Actually, when a person says to another that he has
no logic, it means that he (the other) has no
reasoning. Logic requires a person to be reasonable
and to be a critical thinker.

The act of reasoning is endowed to man and logic is

being studied in order for man to polish his
reasoning.
1. Logic, etymologically speaking, comes from the
Greek words logike which means a treatise
pertaining to matters of thought. Hence, we can
say that logic is an activity of the mind.
2. Logic is order and consistency. It is the science
of those principles, laws and methods which the
mind of man must follow in its thinking for the
secure and accurate attainment of truth. In short,
logic is the science and art of correct thinking.
1. FORMAL LOGIC
that which is concerned with the aspect of form, its
structure, correctness, sequence and following of the rules.
It looks whether or not there is conformity with the given
standards, or with the existing rules of logic.
If it rains, the ground will be wet.
But it rained.
Therefore, the ground is wet.
The above inferences are sound and valid because they follow all
the rules set forth by logic. (The rules will be explained as we reach
the topic about inference)
2. MATERIAL LOGIC
that which is concerned with the subject matter, content, or
truth. It looks at whether there is conformity with reality.

Example: All heroes are brave.

But Andres Bonifacio is brave.
Therefore, Andres Bonifacio is a hero.

In material logic, the validity of the inference does not depend on

the rules applied but, rather, on the conformity of the arguments
with reality. The propositions in the above syllogisms are all true.
3. DEDUCTIVE LOGIC
that which a conclusion logically flows from the premises. It
is also called formal deductive logic. It is from universal to
particular. It implies necessity.
Example: All philosophers are wise.
But Rene Descartes is a philosopher.
Therefore, Rene Descartes is wise.
4. INDUCTIVE LOGIC
that which the argument flows from specific to general or
particular to universal. Inductive logic implies a sense of
probability.
Example: Filipinos are mortal.
But Filipinos are men.
Therefore, all men are mortal.
1. SIMPLE APPREHENSION
the act by which the intellect grasps the essence of a thing. This act produces
ideas or concepts which are materialized through terms. In this process,
perception is important. Perception is the direct contact of the senses with the
objects of knowledge. Philosophers argue that “nothing is in the intellect which
one does not have in the senses.”

For example, a person who is born blind is impossible to have the idea of colors,
shapes, lines and the like. It is true that in order for simple apprehension to come
about, perception must first take place.
Example: red, table, big, cell phone, man, tree, etc.
2. JUDGMENT
the act by which the intellect pronounces upon the agreement and
the disagreement between two or more ideas, which the mind has
formed and compared. Judgment produces enunciation and is
externalized though proposition.

Example: The table is red.

Christine is beautiful.

Adobo is delicious.
3. REASONING
the act by which the intellect relates several judgments to
arrive at a new judgment that necessarily follows from the
relationships established. The product of reasoning is
argument and its material expression is syllogism.

Example: Every cell phone is an electronic gadget.

But Iphone 16 Pro Max is a cellphone.

Therefore, Iphone 16 Pro Max is an electronic gadget.

 CONCEPT
It is the mental representation of the object by the intellect
through which man comprehends a thing. It is the mental
image of an object or an idea about something. Concept or
idea is formed by simple apprehension.
 TYPES OF CONCEPTS
1. CONCEPT BASED ON INTENTION
A. First Intention Concept
a concept by which man understands what a thing is in reality, regardless of
what he thinks about it. It is that which man grasps what a thing really is
without abstraction and adverting to a special mode of existence that the
thing has as it exists in the mind.
Example: Man is a rational animal.
Man is a social being.
Man is composed of body and soul.
The attributes to man as a rational animal, as a
social being, and as composed of body and soul are
innate in man. These attributes are already
possessed by man whether we think of it as such or
not.
 TYPES OF CONCEPTS
1. CONCEPT BASED ON INTENTION
B. Second Intention Concept
a concept by which man understands not only what a thing is in reality but
also how it is in his mind. It is that which man grasps a thing by considering a
special mode of existence that the thing has as it exists in the mind. It is that
which man understands what a thing is as his mind wants us to understand it.
Example: Man is the measure of all things.
No man is an island.
Man is a beast to another man.
The above examples, although pertaining to man, are
not necessarily conforming to reality. The predicates
to man as the measure of all things, as not an island,
and as a beast to another man are true because it is
what man puts in his mind.
Simplified example: Putting a different meaning to something outside
its real meaning.
Human private parts are sometimes referred by Filipinos
as: flowers, monay, bird, talong, etc.
 TYPES OF CONCEPTS
2. CONCEPT BASED ON SUBJECT AND FORM
A. Concrete Concept
a concept that has form and a subject. Form is that which makes an object
exist as it is. It is the attribute of the subject and also called essence or
quiditas. Subject on the other hand is that which has or looked as having a
perfection or attribute embodied in itself. It is also the concept that which can
be perceived through the senses.
Example: pen, book, bag, table, man, woman, adobo, white

The examples above are all subjects. Can you give their form?
 TYPES OF CONCEPTS
2. CONCEPT BASED ON SUBJECT AND FORM
B. Abstract Concept
a concept that has form only. It is that which we cannot perceive through our
senses.
Example: love, holiness, kindness, justice, cheerfulness, serendipity, orgasm, etc.

The above examples are not alone perceivable through the senses. Love in itself cannot
be perceived through the senses because what can be perceived is a loving child, or a
loving father. Also, holiness alone is non-perceivable because what can be perceived is
a holy person or a holy celebration. And so goes on with the other examples.
 TYPES OF CONCEPTS
3. CONCEPT BASED ON SUBSTANCE AND ACCIDENT
A. Absolute Concept
a concept that signifies the meaning of a complete substance endowed with
its dependent in reality.
Substance is that which exists in itself without requiring another being as a
subject of its inherence.
Example: Cell phone

(it does not matter whether it is Samsung, or iphone, or cherry mobile, or myphone, or
any other brand because a cell phone exists regardless of its brand name)
 TYPES OF CONCEPTS
3. CONCEPT BASED ON SUBSTANCE AND ACCIDENT
B. Connotative Concept
a concept that signifies the object as an accident existing in the substance. It
represents form of the subject.
Accident is that which cannot exist in itself but only as a perfection or
modification to the subject.
Example: Lebron James is a 6”9’ small forward in the NBA.
Hulk is the gigantic, furious, green, and powerful marvel superhero.
Jose Rizal is so brilliant and brave, he is our national hero.
 TYPES OF CONCEPTS
4. CONCEPT BASED ON EXISTENCE AND POSSESSION
A. Positive Concepts
a concept that signifies the possession or existence of something.

Example: Good, love, justice, healthy, kind

B. Negative Concepts
a concept that signifies the non-possession or nonexistence of something.
Example: Bad, hatred, injustice, unhealthy, unkind
 TERMS
It is the external representation of an idea or concept. It is the ultimate structure of
a proposition. It is called an oral term if it is spoken and written term if it is written
or drafted.

1. Contrary Terms
these are terms that represent the two extremes among objects of series
belonging to the same class. One statement can be true, but both statements
can be false.
Example: Every dog is a mammal. No dog is a mammal.

All dogs are reptiles. No dog is a mammal.

 TERMS
2. Contradictory Terms
these are those that affirm what the other denies. They cannot be both true at
the same time.
Example: Today is sunny day. All birds have feathers, but some birds have scales.
Today is rainy day. Every dog is a mammal. Some dogs are not
mammals.
3. Relative Terms
these terms are those not understandable without the other. The connotation
of one implies the connotation of the other.
Example: LeBron James is more dominant and powerful in the NBA because he
is “taller” than his teammate Vincent Gabe who is much “shorter”.
 TERMS
4. Univocal Terms
these are terms that have exactly the same meaning in at least two
occurrences.
Example: Every primate is hairy.
Monkey is a primate.

5. Equivocal Terms
these are terms that do not have exactly the same meaning in at least two
occurrences.
Example: Jose Elmer Mangalinao is the bishop of the Diocese of Bayombong.
A bishop moves diagonally.
 TERMS
6. Analogous Terms
these are terms that are partly the same and partly not the same in at least
two occurrences. It also refers to words that share similar meanings in some
contexts but they are not totally the same.

Example: John suffered from a concussion because his head was hit by a baseball.

Mr. John Octavious Palina is the current head of our institution.

 PROPERTIES OF TERMS
1. COMPREHENSION
the sum total of all notes which constitute the meaning of
the concept. It comprises the elements that are considered
significant in the development of the idea.
Example: A cellular phone is an electronic gadget intended to be
used for communication such as sending text messages
and making voice calls; it is a device used in taking
pictures, listening to music, connecting to the internet, etc.
 PROPERTIES OF TERMS
2. EXTENSION
the sum total of particulars to which the comprehension of
a concept can be applied.
Example: A cellular phone is an electronic gadget intended to be
used for communication such as sending text messages
and making voice calls; it is a device used in taking
pictures, listening to music, connecting to the internet, etc.
KIND OF TERMS ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
1. SINGULAR TERMS
terms that apply only to a single individual or group.
Example:

A. Proper Nouns
names of specific persons, places, things.

Christian, Nokia, Acer, Pilot, Starbucks, Saint Mary’s University

KIND OF TERMS ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
1. SINGULAR TERMS
B. Nouns Modified By A Superlative Pronoun
Expressing the highest or a very high degree of quality.
most beautiful, tallest man, smartest student, largest diaper
C. Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives
Words that point to a specific person, place, or thing.
this wallet, that car, these girls, those tables
KIND OF TERMS ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
1. SINGULAR TERMS
D. Collective Nouns
nouns that express a single whole.
a basketball team, a bucket of beer, a pack of wolves

E. Noun preceded by the article “the”

the black swan, the quick brown fox, the handbook
KIND OF TERMS ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
1. SINGULAR TERMS

F. Personal Pronouns

I, you, it, she, he, we, they, and others

KIND OF TERMS ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
2. PARTICULAR TERMS
terms that stand to a part of the given group, or it applies
for an indefinite individual.

A. Noun modified by an indefinite pronoun

Refers to a person or being in a general way.

some women, several dancers, few students, most couples

KIND OF TERMS ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
2. PARTICULAR TERMS
B. Noun preceded by the articles “a” and “an”
an apple, a yellow bird, an elephant, an eagle

C. Noun modified by the use of numbers

twenty one guns, seven dwarfs, one thousand soldiers

KIND OF TERMS ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
2. PARTICULAR TERMS
D. Subject of a general proposition
Ilocanos are thrifty.

* It is as good as saying “Some or most Ilocanos are thrifty”.

KIND OF TERMS ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
3. UNIVERSAL TERMS
terms that apply to every subject signified.

A. Nouns modified by universal expressions

Every Marian, all electric fans, each word

B. Universal Idea – statement of reality based on factual

notion.
Man is mortal. Soldiers are brave. All professors are doctors.
SUPPOSITION
the property of a term acquired from its use in the proposition.

KINDS OF SUPPOSITION
1. FORMAL SUPPOSITION
the kind of supposition that uses a word for its real meaning.
A square is a figure with four equal sides.
A dog is a four legged animal that barks.
A bachelor is an unmarried male.
SUPPOSITION
KINDS OF SUPPOSITION
2. MATERIAL SUPPOSITION
the kind of supposition that uses a word for itself alone and for its spoken or
written sign, and not for its real meaning.

The clock’s shape is square

Love is a many splendored thing
Angeline is the apple of my eyes.
DEFINITION
etymologically comes from the Latin word definire, which means “to state
the limits of” or “to enclose within limits”. Hence, to define a thing means to
limit a thing or to mark the boundaries of a thing. In short, definition is the
act of stating the meaning of a term. It marks off the thing defined and
differentiates it from others.
ELEMENTS OF DEFINITION
1. Definiendum – the term to be defined.
“Man is a rational being”
DEFINITION
ELEMENTS OF DEFINITION
2. Definiens
a word or phrase that explains or describes the defining property of the
definiendum. It has two parts: genus and specific difference.
A. Proximate Genus
the nearest general class to which a thing belongs.
“Man is a rational being”
* “being” is the genus of man. It is what makes man the same with others of his class.
DEFINITION
ELEMENTS OF DEFINITION
2. Definiens
B. Specific Difference
the essential characteristic that differentiates a thing from the rest of the
class.
“Man is a rational being”

* “rational” is the specific difference. It is because rationality is what makes man

different from other beings. Only man is given with rationality.
DEFINITION
KINDS OF DEFINITION
1. Nominal Definition / Definitio Nominis
merely indicates that a thing is signified by a term without declaring the nature
of a thing.
A. Etymological Definition
the kind of definition that defines a word by giving the meaning of the word
from which it is derived.

Logic comes the Latin word logike, meaning a treatise pertaining to matters of thought.
DEFINITION
KINDS OF DEFINITION
1. Nominal Definition / Definitio Nominis
B. Definition by Synonym
the kind of definition that defines a word by giving its similar meaning.
To pass is to submit.
C. Definition by Description
the kind of definition that defines a word by describing the thing signified by a
term for the purpose of indicating what a thing is.
A pen is a stick-like instrument that can be used to write on a paper
DEFINITION
KINDS OF DEFINITION
2. REAL DEFINITION / DEFINITIO REI
it does not only indicate that a thing is signified by a term but also declares the
nature of a thing. A real definition is consists of at least two parts: proximate
genus and specific difference.

Man is a being capable of reasoning.

RULES OF DEFINITION
1. The definition must be clearer than the thing to be defined. Avoid using
metaphorical expressions and unusual terms.
Nurses are licensed individual’s who are experts in caregiving.

2. The definition must not contain the terms to be defined. Avoid using circular
definition.

Educational Management is the process of managing educational institutions

3. The definition must be convertible with the idea defined.
Man is the highest form of being – The highest form of being is man.
4. The definition must be positive. Avoid using negative terms.
Philosophy is the love for wisdom.
THANK
YOU
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