ELE0205: Linear Algebra

Linear Equations and Gaussian

Elimination
Dr. Ma’moun Abdullah Al-Smadi
Electrical Engineering Department
Al-Balqa Applied University
Linear Equations

◼ In two dimensions a line in a rectangular 𝑥𝑦-coordinate system can be

represented by an equation of the form
❑ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐 (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜)
◼ In three dimensions a plane in a rectangular 𝑥𝑦𝑧-coordinate system can
be represented by an equation of the form
❑ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑 (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜)
◼ General Form, define a 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 in the 𝑛 variables 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛
❑ 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏
◼ Where 𝑎1 , 𝑎2, ⋯ 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are real constants
◼ The variables in a linear equation are sometimes called 𝒖𝒏𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒔.
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Linear Equations
◼ A linear equation does not involve any products or roots of variables. All
variables occur only to the first power and do not appear, as arguments of
trigonometric, logarithmic, or exponential functions. The following are
linear equations:
❑ 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 7 𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 0
1
❑ 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = −1 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 = 1
2
◼ The following are not linear equations:
❑ 𝑥 + 3𝑦 2 = 4
❑ 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 = 5
❑ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0
❑ 𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 1
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Linear Equations
◼ A finite set of linear equations is called a
𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 or, more briefly, a 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎.
◼ The variables are called 𝒖𝒏𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒔.
◼ For example,
◼ The following system has unknowns 𝑥 and 𝑦,
❑ 5𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3
❑ 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 4
◼ The following system has unknowns 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥3
❑ 4𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = −1
❑ 3𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 9𝑥3 = −4

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Linear System
◼ A general linear system (System of linear equations) of 𝑚 equations in the
𝑛 unknowns 𝑥1, 𝑥2 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 can be written as:
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥n = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥n = 𝑏2
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥n = 𝑏𝑚
◼ The sequence of numbers 𝑠1 , 𝑠2, ⋯ , 𝑠𝑛 is called a solution of the system
for which
❑ 𝑥1 = 𝑠1 , 𝑥2 = 𝑠2 , ⋯ ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑠𝑛
◼ The set of all solutions of the equation is called its solution set or general
solution of the equation.

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linear system

◼ A solution of a linear system in 𝑛 unknowns is called an ordered 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒

can be written as:
❑ 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , ⋯ , 𝑠𝑛
◼ Inconsistent system: is a system that has no solution.
◼ Consistent system: is a system that has at least one solution.
◼ Every system of linear equations has either
❑ no solutions,
❑ exactly one solution,
❑ or infinitely many solutions

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Linear Systems in Two Unknowns
◼ A general system of two linear equations
❑ 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 = 𝑐1 (𝑎1 , 𝑏1 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜)
❑ 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 = 𝑐2 (𝑎2 , 𝑏2 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜)
◼ Two parallel line, no intersection –no solution
◼ Two line that may intersect at only one point –one solution
◼ Two line may coincide, infinitely many points of intersection –infinitely
many solutions

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Linear Systems in Three Unknowns
◼ For a linear system of three equations in three unknowns
❑ 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝑑1
❑ 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝑑2
❑ 𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 = 𝑑3
◼ The graphs of the equations are planes.
◼ The solutions of the system, if any, correspond to points where all three
planes intersect,
◼ There are only three possibilities—no solutions, one solution, or infinitely
many solutions

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Linear Systems in Three Unknowns

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Example
◼ Solve the linear system
❑ 𝑥 − 𝑦 =1
❑ 2𝑥 + 𝑦 =6
◼ Eliminate 𝑥 from the second equation by adding −2 times the first
equation to the second.
❑ 𝑥−𝑦 =1
❑ 3𝑦 = 4
◼ Thus, the system has the unique solution
4 7
❑ ⇒ 𝑦 = ,𝑥 =
3 3
◼ The system has exactly one solution, the lines represented by the
7 4
equations in the system intersect at the single point (3 , 3)

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Example
◼ Solve the linear system
❑ 𝑥 + 𝑦 =4
❑ 3𝑥 + 3𝑦 =6
◼ Eliminate 𝑥 from the second equation by adding −3 times the first
equation to the second.
❑ 𝑥+𝑦 =4
❑ 0 = −6
◼ The second equation is contradictory, so the given system has no
solution.
◼ Geometrically, the lines corresponding to the equations in the original
system are parallel and distinct.

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Example
◼ Solve the linear system
❑ 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 1

❑ 16𝑥 − 8𝑦 = 4

◼ Eliminate 𝑥 from the second Eq. by adding −4 times the first Eq. to the second.
❑ 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 1

❑ 0 = 0

◼ The second Eq. does not impose any restrictions on 𝑥 and 𝑦 and hence can be omitted.
◼ Geometrically, this means that the lines corresponding to the two equations in the
original system coincide.
◼ To describe the solution set, solve the first equation for 𝑥 in terms of 𝑦 to obtain
1 1
❑ 𝑥= + 𝑦
4 2
◼ Then assign an arbitrary value 𝑡 (called a parameter)
1 1
❑ 𝑥= + 𝑡, 𝑦=𝑡
4 2
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Example
◼ Solve the linear system
❑ 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5
❑ 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 10
❑ 3𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 15
◼ since the second and third equations are multiples of the first.
◼ Geometrically, this means that the three planes coincide and that
those values of 𝑥,𝑦, and 𝑧 that satisfy the first equation
◼ Assigning arbitrary values 𝑟 and 𝑠 (parameters) to ,𝑦, and 𝑧, and then
expressing the solution by the three parametric equations
◼ 𝑥 = 5 + 𝑟 − 2s, 𝑦 = 𝑟, 𝑧=𝑠
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Augmented Matrices
◼ The location of the +’𝑠, the 𝑥’𝑠, and the = ‘𝑠 can be abbreviated by writing only
the rectangular array of numbers.
◼ This is called the augmented matrix for the system.
◼ It must be written in the same order in each equation as the unknowns and the
constants must be on the right
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥n = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥n = 𝑏2
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥n = 𝑏𝑚

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏2
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑚
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Example

◼ Find the augmented matrix for the system of equations

❑ 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 9

❑ 2𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 = 1

❑ 3𝑥1 + 6𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 = 0

◼ The augmented matrix is:

1 1 2 9
2 4 −3 1
3 6 −5 0

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Elementary Row Operations

◼ The basic method for solving a linear system is to replace the given
system by a new system that has the same solution set but which is
easier to solve.
◼ Since the rows of an augmented matrix correspond to the equations in
the associated system, new systems is generally obtained in a series of
steps by applying the following three types of operations to eliminate
unknowns systematically..
◼ The corresponding operations on the rows of the augmented matrix:
1. Multiply a row through by a nonzero constant.
2. Interchange two rows.
3. Add a constant times one row to another.

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Example (Using Elementary Row Operations)
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 9 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 9 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 9 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 9
7 17
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 1 ⟹ 2𝑦 − 7𝑧 = −17 ⟹ 2𝑦 − 7𝑧 = −17 ⟹ 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = − 2
3𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0 3𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0 3𝑦 − 11𝑧 = −27 3𝑦 − 11𝑧 = −27
1 1 2 9 1 1 2 9 1 1 2 9 1 1 2 9
7 17
2 4 −3 1 ⟹ 0 2 −7 −17 ⟹ 0 2 −7 −17 ⟹ 0 1 − 2 − 2
3 6 −5 0 3 6 −5 0 0 3 −11 −27 0 3 −11 −27
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 9 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 9
11
𝑥+ 2 𝑧= 2
35
7 17 𝑥=1
𝑦 − 2𝑧 = − 2 ⟹ 7
𝑦 − 2𝑧 = − 2
17
⟹ 𝑦 − 7 𝑧 = − 17 ⟹ 𝑦=2
1 3 2 2 𝑧=3
−2𝑧 = −2 𝑧=3 𝑧=3
2 9 11 35
1 1 7 17 1 1 2 9 1 0 2 2 1 0 0 1
0 1 − 2
− 2 ⟹
7 17
0 1 −2 − 2 ⟹ 0 1 7 17 ⟹ 0 1 0 2
−2 −2
0 3 −1 −3 0 3 1 3 0 0 0 0 1 3
2 2 1 3

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Echelon Forms
◼ A row echelon form is a matrix which has the following properties
❑ If a row does not consist entirely of zeros, then the first nonzero number in the

row is a 1. it is called a leading 1.

❑ If there are any rows that consist entirely of zeros, then they are grouped

together at the bottom of the matrix.

❑ In any two successive rows that do not consist entirely of zeros, the leading 1

in the lower row occurs farther to the right than the leading 1 in the higher row.
◼ A reduced row echelon form is a row echelon form with additional property of
❑ each column contains a leading 1 has zeros everywhere else.

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Example
◼ Row Echelon and Reduced Row Echelon Form
◼ Matrices in reduced row echelon form.

0 1 −2 0 1
1 0 0 4 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 3 , 0 0
0 1 0 7 , 0 1 0,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 −1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
◼ Matrices in row echelon form but not reduced row echelon form.
1 4 −3 7 1 1 0 0 1 2 6 0
0 1 6 2 , 0 1 0 , 0 0 1 −1 0
0 0 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

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Example
◼ Matrices in the form are in row-echelon form ( *: real number)
0 1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
1 ∗ ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ ∗ ∗
0 0 0 1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
❑
0 1 ∗ ∗ , 0 1 ∗ ∗ , 0 1 ∗ ∗ , 0 0 0 0 1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
0 0 1 ∗ 0 0 1 ∗ 0 0 0 0 ∗ ∗ ∗
0 0 0 0 0 1 ∗
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ∗
◼ Matrices in the form are in reduced row-echelon form (*: real number)

∗ ∗ 0 1 ∗ 0 0 0 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 ∗ 1 0
∗ ∗ 0 0 0 1 0 0 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗
❑
0 1 0 0 , 0 1 0 ∗ , 0 1 , 0 0 0 0 1 0 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 ∗ 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ∗

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Example

◼ Suppose that the augmented matrix for a linear system in the unknowns
𝑥1, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥4 has been reduced by elementary row operations as
follow
1 0 0 0 3
0 1 0 0 −1
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 5
◼ Thus, the system has a unique solution, namely
❑ 𝑥1 = 3, 𝑥2 = −1, 𝑥3 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥4 = 5 .

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Example
◼ For the following reduced row echelon form of an augmented matrix for
a linear system in the unknowns 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧.
1 0 0 0
❑ 0 1 2 0
0 0 0 1
◼ The equation that corresponds to the last row of the augmented matrix
is
❑ 0𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 0𝑧 = 1
◼ Since this equation is not satisfied by any values of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧, the
system is inconsistent.
❑ There is no solution

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Example
◼ For the following reduced row echelon form of an augmented matrix for a
linear system in the unknowns 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧.
1 0 3 −1
❑ 0 1 −4 2
0 0 0 0
◼ The equation that corresponds to the last row of the augmented matrix is
❑ 0𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 0𝑧 = 0
◼ The linear system corresponding to the augmented matrix is
❑ 𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 3𝑧 = −1 ⇒ 𝑥 = 3𝑧 − 1
❑ 0𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = 2 + 4z
◼ based on the value of the free variable 𝑧 the system has infinitely many
solutions for the leading variables 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦
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Example
◼ For the following reduced row echelon form of an augmented matrix for
a linear system in the unknowns 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧.
1 −5 1 4
❑ 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
◼ The linear system corresponding to the augmented matrix is
❑ 𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4 ⇒ 𝑥 = 4 + 5𝑦 − 𝑧
◼ The free variables 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 can be assigned arbitrary values, 𝑦 = 𝑠 and
𝑧 = 𝑡 , which then determine the value of the leading variable 𝑥.
◼ Thus, the solution set can be expressed parametrically as
❑ 𝑥 = 4 + 5𝑠 − 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑠, 𝑧 = 𝑡

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Definition 1

◼ If a linear system has infinitely many solutions, then a set of parametric

equations from which all solutions can be obtained by assigning
numerical values to the parameters is called a 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 of the
system.

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Elimination Methods

◼ A step-by-step elimination procedure that can be used to reduce any

matrix to reduced row-echelon form

0 0 −2 0 7 12
2 4 −10 6 12 28
2 4 −5 6 −5 −1

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Elimination Methods

◼ Step 1: Locate the leftmost column that does not consist entirely of zeros.
0 0 −2 0 7 12
2 4 −10 6 12 28 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
2 4 −5 6 −5 −1

◼ Step 2: Interchange the top row with another row, to bring a nonzero entry
to top of the column found in Step1
2 4 −10 6 12 28
𝑇ℎ𝑒 1′ 𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2′ 𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒
0 0 −2 0 7 12
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑.
2 4 −5 6 −5 −1

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Elimination Methods

◼ Step 3: If the entry that is now at the top of the column found in Step1 is a,
multiply the first row by 1/a in order to introduce a leading 1.
1 2 −5 3 6 14 𝑇ℎ𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
0 0 −2 0 7 12
𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 1/2.
2 4 −5 6 −5 −1
◼ Step 4: Add suitable multiples of the top row to the rows below so that all
entries below the leading 1 become zeros
1 2 −5 3 6 14 −2 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
0 0 −2 0 7 12
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 3𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑤.
0 0 5 0 −17 −29

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Elimination Methods

◼ Step 5: Now cover the top row in the matrix and begin again with Step1
applied to the submatrix that remains. Continue in this way until the
entire matrix is in row-echelon form
1 2 −5 3 6 14
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
0 0 −2 0 7 12
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
0 0 5 0 −17 −29
1 2 −5 3 6 14 𝑇ℎ𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
7
0 0 1 0 −2 −6 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 − 1/2 𝑡𝑜
0 0 5 0 −17 −29 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 29

Elimination Methods
1 2 −5 3 6 14 −5 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
7
0 0 1 0 − 2 −6 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 2𝑛𝑑
1 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒
0 0 0 0 1 𝑎 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1.
2

1 2 −5 3 6 14
7
0 0 1 0 − −6 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑖𝑛
2
1 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
0 0 0 0 1
2

1 2 −5 3 6 14 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 (𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦) 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒

7
0 0 1 0 − 2 −6 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
0 0 0 0 1 2 𝑏𝑦 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 30

Elimination Methods
◼ Step 6. Beginning with the last nonzero row and working upward, add
suitable multiplies of each row to the rows above to introduce zeros
above the leading 1’s.
1 2 −5 3 6 14
7/2 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑎𝑠
0 0 1 0 0 1
𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑤
0 0 0 0 1 2
1 2 −5 3 0 2 −6 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑎𝑠
0 0 1 0 0 1 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑤
0 0 0 0 1 2
1 2 0 3 0 7 5 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑎𝑠
0 0 1 0 0 1 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑤
0 0 0 0 1 2

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 31

Elimination Methods
◼ Step1~Step5: the above procedure produces a row-echelon form and is
called 𝑮𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
◼ Step1~Step6: the above procedure produces a reduced row-echelon form
and is called 𝑮𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒂𝒏 − 𝑱𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
◼ Every matrix has 𝒂 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒐𝒘 − 𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒏 form but a row
echelon form of a given matrix is not unique
◼ Back-Substitution
❑ It is sometimes preferable to solve a system of linear equations by using
Gaussian elimination to bring the augmented matrix into row-echelon form
𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒐𝒘 − 𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎.
❑ When this is done, the corresponding system of equations can be solved by a
technique called 𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌 − 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 32
Example
◼ Solve the following linear system of equations by Gauss–Jordan
elimination.
❑ 𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 + 2𝑥5 =0
❑ 2𝑥1 + 6𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 − 2𝑥4 + 4𝑥5 − 3𝑥6 = −1
❑ 5𝑥3 + 10𝑥4 + 15𝑥6 = 5
❑ 2𝑥1 + 6𝑥2 + 8𝑥4 + 4𝑥5 + 18𝑥6 = 6
◼ The augmented matrix for the system is
1 3 −2 0 2 0 0
2 6 −5 −2 4 −3 −1
0 0 5 10 0 15 5
2 6 0 8 4 18 6
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 33
Example

◼ Adding −2 times the first row to the second and fourth rows gives
1 3 −2 0 2 0 0
0 0 −1 −2 0 −3 −1
0 0 5 10 0 15 5
0 0 4 8 0 18 6
◼ Multiplying the second row by −1 and then adding −5 times the new
second row to the third row and −4 times the new second row to the
fourth row gives
1 3 −2 0 2 0 0
0 0 1 2 0 3 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 6 2

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 34

Example
◼ Interchanging the third and fourth rows and then multiplying the third row
1
of the resulting matrix by 6 gives the row echelon form
1 3 −2 0 2 0 0
0 0 1 2 0 3 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 1Τ3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
◼ Adding −3 times the third row to the second row and then adding 2 times
the second row of the resulting matrix to the first row yields the reduced
row echelon form
1 3 0 4 2 0 0
0 0 1 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1Τ3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 35
Example
◼ The corresponding system of equations is
❑ 𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 4𝑥4 + 2𝑥5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 = −3𝑥2 − 4𝑥4 − 2𝑥5
❑ 𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥3 = −2𝑥4
1
❑ 𝑥6 =
3
◼ Finally, we express the general solution of the system parametrically by
assigning the free variables 𝑥2 , 𝑥4 and 𝑥5 arbitrary values 𝑟, 𝑠, and 𝑡 ,
respectively. This yields
❑ 𝑥1 = −3𝑟 − 4𝑠 − 2𝑡, 𝑥2 = 𝑟, 𝑥3 = −2𝑠,
1
❑ 𝑥4 = 𝑠, 𝑥5 = 𝑡, 𝑥6 =
3

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 36

Homogeneous Linear Systems
◼ A system of linear equations is said to be 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 if the constant terms
are all zero; that is, the system has the form
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥n =0
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥n =0
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥n =0
◼ Every homogeneous system of linear equations is 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 because all such
systems have 𝑥1 = 0, 𝑥2 = 0 ,⋯ ⋯ 𝑥𝑛 = 0 as a solution.
❑ This solution is called the trivial solution.
❑ If there are another solutions, they are called nontrivial solutions.
◼ There are only two possibilities for its solutions:
❑ There is only the trivial solution
❑ There are infinitely many solutions in addition to the trivial solution

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 37

Homogeneous Linear Systems
◼ The special case of a homogeneous linear system of two equations in two
unknowns
❑ 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 = 0 (𝑎1 , 𝑏1 not both zero)
❑ 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 = 0 (𝑎1 , 𝑏1 not both zero)
◼ The graphs of the equations are lines through the origin, and the trivial solution
corresponds to the point of intersection at the origin

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 38

Example

◼ Use Gauss–Jordan elimination to solve the homogeneous linear system

❑ 𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 + 2𝑥5 = 0

❑ 2𝑥1 + 6𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 − 2𝑥4 + 4𝑥5 − 3𝑥6 = 0

❑ 5𝑥3 + 10𝑥4 + 15𝑥6 = 0

❑ 2𝑥1 + 6𝑥2 + 8𝑥4 + 4𝑥5 + 18𝑥6 = 0

◼ The augmented matrix for the system is

1 3 −2 0 2 0 0
2 6 −5 −2 4 −3 0
0 0 5 10 0 15 0
2 6 0 8 4 18 0

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 39

Example
◼ the reduced row echelon form is:
1 3 0 4 2 0 0
0 0 1 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
◼ The corresponding system of equations is
❑ 𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 4𝑥4 + 2𝑥5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 = −3𝑥2 − 4𝑥4 − 2𝑥5

❑ 𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥3 = −2𝑥4

❑ 𝑥6 = 0

◼ Assigning the free variables 𝑥2 , 𝑥4 and 𝑥5 arbitrary values 𝑟, 𝑠, and 𝑡 ,

respectively. This yields
❑ 𝑥1 = −3𝑟 − 4𝑠 − 2𝑡, 𝑥2 = 𝑟, 𝑥3 = −2𝑠, 𝑥4 = 𝑠, 𝑥5 = 𝑡, 𝑥6 = 0
◼ Note that the trivial solution results when 𝑟 = 𝑠 = 𝑡 = 0.
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 40
Homogeneous Linear Systems
◼ THEOREM: Free Variable Theorem for Homogeneous Systems
❑ If a homogeneous linear system has 𝑛 unknowns, and if the reduced row
echelon form of its augmented matrix has 𝑟 nonzero rows, then the system
has 𝑛 − 𝑟 free variables.
◼ THEOREM:
❑ A homogeneous linear system with more unknowns than equations has

infinitely many solutions.

◼ Remark
❑ This theorem applies only to homogeneous system!
❑ A nonhomogeneous system with more unknowns than equations need not be
consistent; however, if the system is consistent, it will have infinitely many
solutions. e.g., two parallel planes in 3-space
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 41
Example
◼ If the matrices below are augmented matrices for linear systems in the
unknowns 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 and 𝑥4 .
◼ These matrices are all in row echelon form but not reduced row echelon form.
◼ Discuss the existence and uniqueness of solutions to the corresponding linear
systems

1 −3 7 2 5
0 1 2 −4 1
0 0 1 6 9
0 0 0 0 1
❑ The last row corresponds to the equation

❑ 0𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 + 0𝑥4 = 1

◼ Therefore, the system is inconsistent.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 42
Example
1 −3 7 2 5
0 1 2 −4 1
0 0 1 6 9
0 0 0 0 0
❑ The last row corresponds to the equation
❑ 0𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 + 0𝑥4 = 0

◼ In the remaining three equations the variables 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 and 𝑥3 correspond to

leading 1’s and hence are leading variables.
◼ The variable 𝑥4 is a free variable.
◼ The leading variables can be expressed in terms of the free variable, and the free
variable can be assigned an arbitrary value.
◼ Thus, the system must have infinitely many solutions.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 43

Example
1 −3 7 2 5
0 1 2 −4 1
0 0 1 6 9
0 0 0 1 0
◼ The last row corresponds to the equation
❑ 𝑥4 = 0

◼ If we substitute this value into the third equation,

❑ 𝑥3 + 6𝑥4 = 9 ⟹ 𝑥3 = 9

❑ 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 − 4𝑥4 = 1 ⟹ 𝑥2 = 1 − 2𝑥3 + 4𝑥4 = −17

❑ 𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 + 7𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 = 5 ⟹ 𝑥1 = 5 + 3𝑥2 − 7𝑥3 − 2𝑥4 = −109

◼ Thus, the system has a unique solution.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 44

Gaussian Elimination and Back-Substitution

◼ For small linear systems that are solved by hand, Gauss–Jordan

elimination (reduction to reduced row echelon form) is a good procedure
to use.
◼ However, for large linear systems, it is generally more efficient to use
Gaussian elimination (reduction to row echelon form) followed by a
technique known as 𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌 − 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 to complete the process of
solving the system.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 45

Example
◼ If a row echelon form of the augmented matrix is
1 3 −2 0 2 0 0
0 0 1 2 0 3 1
1
0 0 0 0 0 1
3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
◼ To solve the corresponding system of equations
❑ 𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 + 2𝑥5 = 0
❑ 𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 + 3𝑥6 = 1
1
❑ 𝑥6 =
3

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 46

Example
◼ Step 1: Solve the equations for the leading variables.
❑ 𝑥1 = −3𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 − 2𝑥5
❑ 𝑥3 = 1 − 2𝑥4 − 3𝑥6
1
❑ 𝑥6 =
3
◼ Step 2: Beginning with the bottom equation and working upward,
successively substitute each equation into all the equations above it.
1
❑ Substituting 𝑥6 = into the second equation yields
3
❑ 𝑥1 = −3𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 − 2𝑥5
❑ 𝑥3 = −2𝑥4
1
❑ 𝑥6 =
3

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 47

Example

◼ Substituting 𝑥3 = −2𝑥4 into the first equation yields

❑ 𝑥1 = −3𝑥2 − 4𝑥4 − 2𝑥5
❑ 𝑥3 = −2𝑥4
1
❑ 𝑥6 =
3
◼ Step 3: Assign arbitrary values to the free variables, if any.
❑ now assign 𝑥2 , 𝑥4 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥5 the arbitrary values 𝑟, 𝑠, and 𝑡 , respectively, the

general solution is given by the formulas

❑ 𝑥1 = −3𝑟 − 4𝑠 − 2𝑡, 𝑥2 = 𝑟, 𝑥3 = −2𝑠, 𝑥4 = 𝑠, 𝑥5 = 𝑡, 𝑥6 = 0

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 48

Example
◼ Suppose that the matrices below are augmented matrices for linear
systems in the unknowns 𝑥1, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 and 𝑥4.
◼ These matrices are all in row echelon form but not reduced row echelon
form.
◼ Discuss the existence and uniqueness of solutions to the corresponding
linear systems

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 49

Example
◼ (a) The last row corresponds to the equation
❑ 0𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 + 0𝑥4 = 1
❑ from which it is evident that the system is inconsistent.
◼ (b) The last row corresponds to the equation
❑ 0𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 + 0𝑥4 = 0
❑ which has no effect on the solution set.
❑ In the remaining three equations the variables 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 correspond to
leading 1’s and hence are leading variables.
❑ The variable 𝑥4 is a free variable.
❑ The leading variables can be expressed in terms of the free variable, and the
free variable can be assigned an arbitrary value. Thus, the system must have
infinitely many solutions.
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 50
Example

◼ (c) The last row corresponds to the equation

❑ 𝑥4 = 0
◼ Substitute this value into the third equation,
❑ 𝑥3 + 6𝑥4 = 9
❑ we obtain 𝑥3 = 9. You should now be able to see that if we continue this
process and substitute the known values of 𝑥3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥4 into the
equation corresponding to the second row, we will obtain a unique
numerical value for 𝑥2 known values of ; and if, finally, we substitute the
into the equation corresponding to the first row, we will produce a
unique numerical value for 𝑥1 . Thus, the system has a unique solution.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 51

Some Facts About Echelon Forms
◼ There are three facts about row echelon forms and reduced row echelon
forms that are important to know but we will not prove:
❑ Every matrix has a unique reduced row echelon form; that is, regardless of
whether you use Gauss–Jordan elimination or some other sequence of
elementary row operations, the same reduced row echelon form will result in
the end.
❑ Row echelon forms are not unique; that is, different sequences of elementary
row operations can result in different row echelon forms.
❑ Although row echelon forms are not unique, the reduced row echelon form
and all row echelon forms of a matrix 𝐴 have the same number of zero rows,
and the leading 1’s always occur in the same positions. Those are called the
pivot positions of 𝐴. A column that contains a pivot position is called a pivot
column of 𝐴.
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ma'moun Abdullah Al-Smadi 52