UNIT-2

2-1 Introduction to Manufacturing Process

Manufacturing is any process that takes raw materials and converts them into one or more
finished goods. These finished goods can then be used to meet a need or expectation from
customers.
Ex: Casting, Forming, Joining, Machining etc.
“For example, a company that manufactures cars will first buy raw materials and
components. This would include metals, engine parts, electrical wiring, tires and everything
that goes into the car. They will then process these components in a manufacturing plant,
using a combination of machines and human labour to produce a fully functional car.”
 Metal Casting
Metal Casting:
It is defined as the process in which the liquid molten metal is poured into the moulding cavity
whose shape remains same as that of the component to be produced, and allow it to solidify.
After solidification the component will be taken out by breaking the mould.
Different types of Casting process:
1.​ Sand Casting
2.​ Investment Casting
3.​ Centrifugal Casting
4.​ Slush Casting
5.​ Gravity Die Casting
6.​ Pressure Die Casting
7.​ Shell Casting
8.​ Hot Chamber Die casting
9.​ Cold Chamber Die Casting
Sand Casting:
Sand casting is a type of metal casting technique that involves the use of sand to create a mould
cavity; molten metal is poured into the mould cavity (or Casting cavity) whose shape is the same
as that of the component to be produced.
The following are the steps involved in the sand casting process.
1.​ Pattern making
2.​ Mould making
3.​ Melting and pouring of liquid molten metal
4.​ Solidification of molten metal
5.​ Breaking the mould
6.​ Cleaning and Inspection
Pattern Making:
Pattern is the replica of the casting to be produced and used to prepare the mold cavity (Or
Casting cavity). The mould cavity is created by surrounding the pattern with the moulding sand
(Green sand/Dry sand/Loam sand), supported by a rectangular (metallic/wooden) frame.
Wood, Metals, Plastic, Wax are used as pattern materials.
Mould Making:
Moulding involves packing the rectangular frame with some readily formed aggregate material,
such as moulding sand, surrounding the pattern.
●​ Hand moulding: If the force required for ramming and compressing the moulding
sand around the pattern is from the human hand then it is called hand moulding. It
is the cheapest method because there is no equipment required.
Green sand/Dry Sand/Loam Sand is used as moulding sand.
Melting & Pouring of liquid molten metal:
The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting and transferring it to
the moulding cavity (or Casting cavity) is referred to as pouring.
Melting temp or Pouring temp = Melting point of metal + 200℃
Solidification
Solidification is a heat removing process to obtain a final product from casting. As soon as the
molten metal is poured into the moulding casting cavity the process of solidification starts.
Breaking the mould:
The operation of breaking the mould and taking out the casting is performed after solidification
to room temperature.

Cleaning and Inspection:

Cleaning involves the removal of sand, scale and excess metal from the casting. This improves
the surface appearance and quality of the casting. Finally the casting is inspected for defects and
overall quality.

Advantages Disadvantages
1.​ Simple and Inexpensive tools are 1.​ Limited Accuracy and surface
used in casting finish: Requires additional machining
2.​ Small, Intricate and complex or finishing process for final
shaped components can be application
manufactured by casting 2.​ The presence of moisture induces
operations. defects
3.​ Light weight components can be 3.​ Labour intensive: Require skilled
produced labour for efficient and high quality
4.​ Casting allows use of both ferrous production
and non-ferrous alloys

Applications:
Applications in a wide range of industries includes manufacturing of cylindrical blocks,
pipes, bells, pistons, piston rings, machine tool beds, turbine blades, pulleys etc.

References: 0001, 0002, 0003, 0004, 0005, 0006,

 Metal Forming
Basic Definitions:
Deformation: In material science, deformation refers to change in the shape & size of a
component due to applied forces or a change in temperature.
Deformation is classified it two types ;
1)​ Elastic Deformation.
2)​ Plastic Deformation.

Elastic Deformation Plastic Deformation

When a material is deformed by external When a material is deformed by external

load/force, if it regains its original size and shape load/force, if it does not regain its original size
after the removal of external load/force, the type and shape after the removal of external load/force
of deformation produced is known as elastic the type of deformation produced is known as
deformation. plastic deformation.
To deform the metal elastically the stress must not To deform the metal plastically the stress must
exceed the elastic limit. (i.e. within the elastic exceed the elastic limit. (i.e. much beyond the
limit in stress strain curve). elastic limit in stress strain curve).

Metal Forming:
Metal Forming can be defined as a process in which the desired size and shape are obtained
through the plastic deformation of material. To deform the metal plastically the stress must
exceed the elastic limit.
The stresses induced during the metal forming process are greater than the yield strength but less
than the ultimate strength of the material.
Ex: Rolling, forging, Wire drawing, Extrusion etc.
Classification of metal forming processes:
Metal forming processes are classified in to two categories
1)​ Bulk metal forming
2)​ Sheet metal forming
1) Bulk metal forming:
It is a severe deformation process resulting in massive shape change, mostly done in hot
working conditions. Bulk forming processes are broadly classified into four types
1)​ Rolling 2) Forging 3) Extrusion 4) Wire Drawing

Rolling: In Rolling (or) Roll forming operation the work piece is compressed between two
rotating rollers so that the thickness is reduced. Here the workpiece is in the form of slab or plate.
Forging : In forging the material is compressed between two dies until the required size and
shape of the component is obtained either with the application of continuous or intermittent
impact load.
(OR)
It is a deformation process in which the work piece is compressed between two dies, using
continuous or intermittent impact load.
Extrusion: Extrusion is a bulk forming process in which the work piece is forced or
compressed to flow through a die hole to produce a desired cross-sectional shape.
Wire Drawing: The operation of producing wire from the solid rod by pulling it through a
series of stationary dies is called wire drawing operation.
References: 0001, 0002, 0003,
 2)​ Sheet metal forming:
The operations performed on the sheets to get the required shape are called sheet metal
operations. The operations involve plastic deformation of sheets like deep drawing, cutting,
bending, Stretch forming/stretching, stamping etc.
1) Deep Drawing (or) Cup drawing 2) Bending 3) Shearing (or) Cutting
Deep Drawing (or) Cup Drawing:
It is a sheet forming operation, in which the sheet is placed over the die opening and is pushed by
punch into the opening. The sheet is held flat on the die surface by using a blank holder.
All the utensils used in the kitchen are produced by deep drawing operations

Bending:
It involves subjecting a sheet of metal to the force of a punch to create a bent angled shape,
typically along a straight axis.
Shearing (or) Cutting operations:
In cutting operations the material is physically removed or separated to get the required shape.
Ex: Punching and blanking operations are cutting (or) shearing operations.
Punching (or) Piercing: In sheet metal cutting operation if the hole produced in the component
is useful, it is called punching (or) piercing operation.
Blanking: In sheet metal cutting operation if the blank produced in the component is useful, it is
called blanking operation.

Reference: Punching and Blanking

 Metal Joining
Welding (or) Metal joining is the process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals with (or)
without the application of heat, with (or) without application of pressure and with (or) without
application of filler material.
Fusion Welding:
By melting of parent materials (or) base materials (or) metallic components to be joined, if the
joint is produced, it is called a fusion welding process.
Based on the method of heat generated for the melting of parent materials, the fusion welding
process can be divided into three types.
●​ Gas Welding: If the heat required for melting of plates is obtained by burning of gas, it is
known as gas welding.
●​ Arc Welding: If the heat required for melting of plates is obtained by burning of
electrical arc, it is known as arc welding.
●​ Chemical Welding: If the heat required for melting of plates is obtained by exothermic
reaction, it is known as chemical welding.
Non-Fusion welding:
Without melting of parent materials (or) base materials (or) metallic components to be joined if
the joint is produced, it is called non-fusion welding process.
In the non-fusion welding process the filler rod (filler metals) is melted to provide molten metal
to the components which are to be joined.
 Arc Welding

Principle:
It is a fusion welding process in which the melting and joining of metals is due to the heat
energy generated by the electric arc between the electrode (cathode) and the workpiece (anode).
Construction:
The arc welding equipment mainly includes an AC or DC Power source, electrode, electrode
holder, cables, connectors for cable, earthing clamps, chipping hammer, helmet, wire brush,
hand gloves, safety goggles, Aprons, etc.
Principle of Heat Generation:
●​ Mechanism of Electric Arc Generation: When the power supply is given and the
optimum gap is maintained between the electrode (Cathode) and the workpiece (Anode),
the high velocity electrons (negatively charged) generated at the electrode (cathode)
moving towards the workpiece (anode).
●​ When these high velocity electrons from electrodes (i.e. cathode) strike the surface of the
workpiece (i.e. anode), the kinetic energy of electrons is converted into heat energy.
Therefore heat is generated at the workpiece (i.e. anode), which is enough for melting
and joining the metallic components.
Working Mechanism:
1.​ After the power supply is given the electrode contacts the work piece and then quickly
separates to maintain the gap (i.e. 1mm to 3mm), an electric arc is generated.
2.​ This arc is a sustained glowing electric discharge in the gap (i.e. 1mm to 3mm) between
the electrode (Cathode) and the workpiece (anode).
3.​ A temperature of 5500°C is generated by this arc. This temperature is sufficient to melt
most of the metals.
4.​ The molten metal consisting of base metals (metallic components to be joined) and
molten filler rod (only in case of non-consumable electrode) solidifies in the weld region.
5.​ Two types of electrodes are used. They are consumable and non-consumable.
●​ Consumable electrodes: Present in rod or wire form with 200 to 450 mm length
and less than 10 mm diameter. This is the source of filler rod in arc welding. The
electrode is consumed by the arc during the welding process and added to the
weld joint as molten filler metal.
●​ Non Consumable electrodes: The electrodes are not consumed during arc
welding. Though this is the case, some depletion occurs because of vaporization.
Filler metal must be supplied by means of a separate wire ( or filler rod) to supply
the additional molten metal for joint formation.
6.​ Power source in arc welding: Both AC and DC can be used; DC is advantageous as
better arc control is possible.
7.​ Applications of Arc Welding:
●​ Used in the welding of sheet metals.
●​ For the welding of thin ferrous & non-ferrous metals.
●​ Used to design pressure & pressure vessels.
●​ Industries of Shipbuilding.
●​ Used in the manufacture of aircraft & aerospace components.
●​ Industries like construction, automotive, mechanical etc.

References : 0001, 0002,

 Machining
Machining is a subtractive manufacturing process where the desired size, shape and accuracy or
finish of a workpiece is achieved by removing excess material in the form of chips using a
wedge shaped cutting tool.
●​ Machining involves the removal of surplus material to create the desired product. This
process is carried out within a machining system, where the workpiece is transformed
into a finished product with the assistance of machine tools and cutting tools.
●​ The primary objective is to shape the workpiece into the desired product by removing
unwanted material. Machining employs cutting tools, discs, abrasive wheels (Grinding
wheel) to eliminate excess material producing chips as a result.
●​ Traditional Machining or Conventional Machining: These methods rely on direct
contact between cutting tools and the workpiece to eliminate excess material. In
Traditional machining these processes are fundamental, involving the precise interaction
of cutting tools with the workpiece.
●​ Non Traditional Machining or Unconventional Machining: In these types of processes
machines do not require direct interaction of the workpiece with the cutting material to
remove excess material, offering a unique approach to precision machining.

LATHE Machine:

1.​ A lathe machine is a stationary cutting tool used primarily for shaping wood and metal,
which are referred to as workpieces.
2.​ The lathe machine removes unwanted parts of the workpiece to produce the desired
product. The movements of a traditional lathe machine are manually controlled by an
operator.
3.​ It rotates a work piece about an axis of rotation to perform various operations such as
cutting, boring, facing, and turning etc., with tools that are applied to the rotating
workpiece to create an object with symmetry about that axis.
Plain Turning:
It is the turning operation used for reducing the diameter of the workpiece. Here in this operation
the cutting tool moves along the length of the component (feed direction) and the workpiece
rotates at constant speed.

Face Turning:
It is the turning operation used for reducing the length of the workpiece. Here in this operation
the cutting tool moves along the diameter of the component (feed direction) and the workpiece
rotates with constant speed.
Threading (or) Thread Cutting operation:
It is the turning operation used for producing threads on the outer surface of the workpiece
(cylindrical) .Here in this operation cutting tool moves along the length of the component (feed
direction) and the workpiece rotates with very low speed.
Drilling Operation:
The Operation of producing holes in the component by using a rotating multi-point cutting tool
called Drill bit.
During the drilling operation it is not recommended to produce the large hole by using a large
size drill bit directly, because the positional accuracy of the hole produced will become poor.
To avoid this the smaller diameter is produced first i.e. first produce a 5mm hole and then
enlarge it by using different sizes of drill bit like 5mm, 8mm, 12mm…….etc. until the required
hole size is produced.
Milling Operation:
Milling is the multi-point cutting tool machining operation performed by using rotating cutters to
remove excess material from a workpiece.
●​ Slot Milling: The operation of producing slots in the workpiece using milling cutters is
called slot milling.
●​ Face Milling: The operation of flattening (or) smoothing the surfaces of workpieces is
called face milling.
Slot Milling Face Milling

Example:
Gear Milling (Indexing):
Indexing is the process of evenly dividing the circumference of a circular workpiece into
equally spaced divisions, such as in cutting gear teeth, cutting splines, milling grooves in
reamers and taps, and spacing holes on a circle.
Shaping:
Shaping is the operation of removing a layer of material from the surface of a workpiece by
using a reciprocating single point cutting tool.
In shaping operation the workpiece is stationary and cutting movement is given to a single point
cutting tool.

Planing
Planing is the operation of removing a layer of material from the surface of a workpiece by using
a reciprocating single point cutting tool.
In planing operation the tool is stationary and the tool bed which holds the workpiece slides.
Planing and shaping processes excel at creating flat surfaces.
Grinding:
●​ Grinding is the multi-point cutting tool conventional machining operation used for
removing a very small amount of material from the surface of the workpiece.
●​ This operation is performed by a rotating grinding wheel. Grinding produces good or
excellent surface finish on the surface of the component. It is a conventional finish
machining operation.
●​ The abrasive particles present on the surface of the grinding wheel will be acting as a
single point cutting tool for removing the material from the outer surface of the
workpiece.

Sawing:
●​ The operation of cutting up bars of material or for cutting out shapes in plates of raw
material. The cutting tool of sawing machine is a thin metallic disk with sharp teeth on
their edges.
Broaching:
●​ Broaching is generally considered a secondary machining operation.
●​ It is a process of machining a surface with a special multi point cutting tool called
‘BROACH’ which has successively higher cutting edges in a fixed path.
●​ A hole is to be drilled before performing broaching operation.
●​ Used for producing internal gear teeth, Key slots etc.
 CNC Machines
Numerically Controlled Machine tool (NC Machine)
●​ If each and every movement of a machine tool is controlled by using numbers (or)
numerals, letters, symbols it is called a numerically controlled machine tool.
(OR)
●​ Numerical control machining is a programmable automation in which the machining
process is controlled by Numbers, Letters, and symbols.
●​ The concept of NC was proposed in the late 1940s by John Parsons who recommended a
method of automatic machine control that would guide a milling cutter to produce a
curvilinear motion in order to generate smooth profiles on the workpieces.

Computer Numerically Controlled Machine tool (CNC Machine):

●​ Computer numerical control (CNC) is the numerical control system in which a dedicated
computer is built to perform basic and advanced NC functions.
●​ CNC Machining is a process used in the manufacturing sector that involves the use of
computers to control machine tools like lathes, mills and grinders.
●​ The computer allows for the following: storage of additional programs, program editing,
and running of programs from memory, machine and control diagnostics.

Why is CNC Machining necessary?

●​ To manufacture complex curved geometries in 2D or 3D was extremely difficult by
traditional manufacturing methods.
●​ Machining components with high repeatability and precision.
●​ To survive in global markets, usage of CNC machines is must to achieve close
dimensional tolerances.
Basic Components of CNC Machine:
Any CNC machine tool essentially consists of the following basic components:
1.​ Program input devices.
2.​ Machine Control Unit (MCU).
3.​ Drive Systems.
4.​ Feedback System.
5.​ Minicomputer (or) Display unit.
Program Input Devices:
●​ Part Programming of CNC Machine: A series of coded instructions required to
produce a part. The coded instructions are composed of letters, numbers and symbols.
(G-Codes and M-Codes).
●​ These coded instructions control the movement of the machine tool and on/off control of
auxiliary functions such as spindle rotation (Rotation of Workpiece in case of Lathe
machine) and Coolant.
●​ Three commonly used program input devices are USB Flash drives, Floppy Disk Drives,
magnetic tape reader, and computer via RS-232-C communication.

Machine Control Unit (MCU)

●​ The MCU of a CNC machine is working like the brain of a human being. It is taking the
input information from the available program input devices. It is used to perform the
following functions:
★​ To read the coded instructions.
★​ To decode the coded instructions.
★​ To receive the feedback signals of position and speed sensors.
Drive Systems:
●​ In machine tools, power is generally required for driving the main spindle and for the
movement of cutting tools.
●​ A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, drive motors.
●​ Drives are used to provide controlled motion. (Input power) to CNC elements. (Used to
supply power for rotating the workpiece in case of CNC Lathe).
●​ In CNC, stepper and servo electrical motors are used as drive systems.
Feedback System:
●​ The feedback system is also referred to as the displacement measuring system/equipment.
●​ Feedback system uses position and speed transducers to continuously monitor the actual
distance travelled by the machine tool and send it as a feed back to MCU.
Minicomputer (OR) Display Unit:
●​ The Display unit (or) Mini computer functions as an interactive interface between the
CNC machine and the operator. When the machine is in operation the display unit
provides real time position of the tool, Spindle RPM and part programs.
●​ In advanced CNC machines the Display Unit may even offer visual representation of the
tool path allowing for the verification of part programs before actual machining begins.
This feature enhances the precision cutting and efficiency of CNC operations.
Applications of CNC Machines:
1.​ To manufacture complex curved geometries.
2.​ Machining components with high repeatability and precision.
3.​ To manufacture critical components where human errors can be costly.
Types of CNC Machines:
1.​ Lathe machine/ Turning centre
2.​ Drilling Machine
3.​ Laser Cutting machine
4.​ Industrial Robots.
5.​ Grinding machine
6.​ Milling machine/Machining centre
7.​ Coordinate measuring machine (CMM)
8.​ Water Jet machining
 Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing)
Introduction:
●​ Three-dimensional (3D) printing, also known as Additive Manufacturing, has found
extensive use in various industrial manufacturing processes.
●​ It involves the production of components layer by layer using base materials.
●​ Today, this innovative process plays a significant role in the manufacturing and
fabrication of numerous parts.
Steps involved in Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing):
1.​ Modelling: The first step in 3D printing involves modelling the component in CAD.

2.​ Pre-Processing:
●​ In this stage, the 3D model is converted into an STL (Stereolithography) file,
which is a standard file format for 3D printing.
●​ By using the software, the CAD model is then sliced into numerous digital
cross-sections, hundreds or even thousands of horizontal layers, creating a digital
representation of how the object will be built layer by layer.
●​ This stage serves as a guide for 3D printers during the printing process.
3.​ Printing:
●​ The core of 3D printing is the actual printing or building of the object. Assuming
there are no errors in the STL file, it is uploaded to the 3D printer. The printer
reads the file and proceeds to add layer upon layer of material.
●​ This material can be in various forms, such as liquid resin, melted plastic
filament, dry powder, or even sheet material.
●​ The layers are progressively added and fused together, ultimately forming the
final 3D object. This layer-by-layer construction allows for the construction of
intricate and complex geometries.
4.​ Finishing:
●​ Final step in 3D printing is finishing.
●​ Depending on the application, finishing techniques such as painting, assembly, or
other post-processing steps may be carried out to achieve the desired final
product.
 Different 3D Printing Processes Materials used in 3D printing
Electron Beam Melting (EBM) Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)

Stereolithography (SLA) Nylon

Polyjet Technology Polylactic Acid (PLA)

Digital Light Process (DLP) Carbon-reinforced filaments

Multi Jet fusion (MJF) Thermoplastic Polyurethane

Applications of 3D printing:
3D printing is widely used in various fields including Healthcare, Entertainment, Forensics,
Electronics, Marine and Robotic Engineering, Scientific research etc.

Smart Manufacturing
Introduction:
●​ Smart Manufacturing represents the utilisation of interconnected machinery and tools for
improving manufacturing performance while optimising energy consumption and
workforce.
●​ This is achieved through the integration of big data processing, artificial intelligence,
advanced robotics technology and the seamless connectivity of these elements.
●​ In Europe, smart manufacturing is commonly referred to as “Industry 4.0” while in
China; it is termed as “Made in China 2025”.
Technological foundations of Industry 4.0:
The technological foundation of Industry 4.0 encompasses following digital concepts.
●​ Autonomous Robots: The use of robots equipped with AI to perform tasks with minimal
human intervention.
●​ The Industrial Internet of Things (IoT): Enabling devices, machinery and systems to
communicate and share data for improved efficiency.
●​ Cyber security: Ensuring the security of interconnected systems and data in the digital
manufacturing landscape.
●​ Additive Manufacturing (or) 3D Printing: Utilising these technologies to create
intricate, light weight, custom components and products.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Smart Manufacturing:

Advantages Disadvantages
Enhanced Accuracy and Efficiency of High initial investment cost
manufacturing operations.

Increased Productivity in manufacturing Smart manufacturing systems can be intricate

operations and require specialised knowledge

Optimal utilisation of resources and assets for Skilled workforce is essential for operating
improved performance. and maintaining smart manufacturing
technologies.
 ‭2-2 Introduction to Thermal Engineering‬
‭Internal Combustion Engines‬
‭Engine:‬
‭An engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another form. However, while‬
‭transforming energy from one form to another, the efficiency of conversion plays an important‬
‭role.‬
‭Normally, most of the engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work ( Reciprocating‬
‭motion of the piston) and therefore they are called ‘heat engines’.‬
‭Heat Engines:‬
‭Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy,‬
‭which in turn is converted to mechanical energy to perform useful work.‬
‭Heat engines can be broadly classified into two categories:‬
‭1.‬ ‭External Combustion Engines (IC Engines)‬
‭2.‬ ‭Internal Combustion Engines (EC Engines)‬
‭External combustion engines are those in which combustion takes place outside the engine‬
‭whereas in internal combustion engines combustion takes place within the engine.‬
‭Engine Components:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Cylinder‬
‭2.‬ ‭Piston‬
‭3.‬ ‭Combustion Chamber‬
‭4.‬ ‭Inlet and Exhaust Valves‬
‭5.‬ ‭Spark Plug (Petrol Engine)‬
‭6.‬ ‭Fuel Injector (Diesel Engine)‬
‭7.‬ ‭Connecting Rod‬
‭8.‬ ‭Crankshaft‬
‭9.‬ ‭Cams.‬
‭10.‬‭Piston Rings.‬
‭11.‬‭Camshaft.‬
 ‭Important Components of an I.C Engine‬

‭Name of the component‬ ‭Function‬

‭The cylinder is the space through which the‬‭piston‬
‭Cylinder‬ ‭travels, and also accommodates cylinder liners.‬

‭The main reciprocating gas-tight component of the‬

‭engine; combustion takes place on its head; it‬
‭Piston‬
‭transmits the power of explosion to the engine‬
‭shaft.‬

‭Connects the piston to the crankshaft ; converts to‬

‭and fro motion of the piston to rotary motion ;‬
‭Connecting rod‬
‭transmits power produced in the cylinder to‬
‭crankshaft‬‭.‬

‭The inlet valve admits fuel air mixture into the‬

‭cylinder.The exhaust valve provides a passage to‬
‭Valves‬
‭the exhaust gases after combustion for leaving the‬
‭cylinder.‬

‭I‬‭t is the main rotating member. It converts‬

‭Crankshaft‬ ‭reciprocating motion of the piston to rotary‬
‭motion which is transmitted to the gearbox.‬

‭part of the engine's‬‭ignition system‬‭, to produce a‬

‭Spark plug ( in SI engines)‬ ‭spark which ignites the air-fuel mixture in the‬
‭combustion chamber‬‭.‬

‭The fuel injector is effectively a‬‭spray nozzle‬‭that‬

‭performs the delivery of fuel into the‬
‭Fuel Injector (in CI engines)‬
‭engine.(Atomization of fuel into fine droplets)‬
‭Name of the component‬ ‭Function‬
‭Provided with eccentric lobs called cams, driven‬
‭Camshaft‬ ‭by crankshaft, it provides motion to valves, oil‬
‭pumps etc.‬

‭Connect the piston to the small end of the‬

‭Gudgeon pin (or) Piston pin‬ ‭connecting rod.‬

‭Compression rings are mounted on the piston in‬

‭its upper grooves, avoiding leakage of combustion‬

‭Piston rings‬ ‭pressure.‬

‭Oil rings are fitted beneath compression rings,‬
‭removing excess lubricating oil.‬

‭Reference: Car Engine‬

 Working of 4-Stroke Internal Combustion Engine
4-Stroke Petrol Engine/ 4-Stroke SI Engine 4-Stroke Diesel Engine/ 4-Stroke CI Engine

Working of 4-Stroke Petrol Engine/4-Stroke SI Engine Working of 4-Stroke Diesel Engine/4-Stroke CI Engine
In the 4-Stroke Petrol engine, the cycle of operations is completed in In the 4-Stroke Diesel engine, the cycle of operations is completed in
four strokes of the piston. four strokes of the piston.
The cycle of operation for an ideal four-stroke petrol engine consists of The cycle of operation for an ideal four-stroke diesel engine consists of
the following four strokes. the following four strokes.
1. Suction stroke (or) Intake stroke. 1. Suction stroke (or) Intake stroke.
2. Compression stroke. 2. Compression stroke.
3. Expansion stroke (or) Power stroke (or) Working stroke (or) 3. Expansion stroke (or) Power stroke (or) Working stroke (or)
Combustion stroke Combustion stroke
4. Exhaust stroke 4. Exhaust stroke
Suction Stroke (or) Intake Stroke: Suction Stroke (or) Intake Stroke:
1)​ During the suction stroke, the Inlet valve opens and the 1)​ During the suction stroke, the Inlet valve opens and the
Exhaust valve remains closed. Exhaust valve remains closed.
2)​ Through the Inlet valve, Fuel-air mixture is drawn into the 2)​ Through the Inlet valve, Clean-air is drawn into the cylinder
cylinder during the suction stroke, due to the suction created during the suction stroke, due to the suction created by the
by the motion of the piston from TDC to BDC. motion of the piston from TDC to BDC.
3)​ When the piston reaches the BDC the suction stroke ends 3)​ When the piston reaches the BDC the suction stroke ends
and the Inlet valve closes. and the Inlet valve closes.
Compression Stroke: Compression Stroke:
1)​ During the compression stroke piston moves from BDC to 1)​ During the compression stroke piston moves from BDC to
TDC compressing the fuel air mixture which is drawn during TDC compressing the air which is drawn during the suction
the suction stroke. stroke.
2)​ Both Inlet and Exhaust valves remain closed during the 2)​ Both Inlet and Exhaust valves remain closed during the
compression stroke. compression stroke.
3)​ When the piston reaches TDC the compression stroke ends. 3)​ When the piston reaches TDC the compression stroke
(fuel air mixture posses high pressure & high temperature at ends.(high pressure & high temperature of air at the end of
the end of compression) compression, i.e hot compressed air at the end of compression
stroke.)
At the end of the compression stroke the fuel-air mixture is ignited 4)​ At the end of compression stroke the temperature of the hot
with the help of a spark plug located on the cylinder head. compressed air is greater than the self ignition
temperature of the fuel, i.e diesel.
At the end of the compression stroke through the fuel injector, fuel
is injected directly into the cylinder (containing hot compressed air) at
high pressure.
Expansion Stroke (or) Power Stroke: Expansion Stroke (or) Power Stroke:
1)​ At the end of the compression stroke (i.e. the piston is at TDC) 1)​ At the end of the compression stroke (i.e. the piston is at TDC)
the fuel-air mixture is ignited with the help of a spark plug the fine spray of fuel is injected into the hot compressed air
causing it to burn explosively (tiny explosion), which pushes with the help of fuel injector, causing it to burn explosively
the piston in the downwards direction i.e from TDC to BDC. (tiny explosion), which pushes the piston in the downwards
2)​ Both Inlet and Exhaust valves are closed during the direction i.e from TDC to BDC.
expansion stroke. 2)​ Both Inlet and Exhaust valves are closed during the
3)​ The expansion stroke ends, when the piston reaches to BDC. expansion stroke.
3)​ The expansion stroke ends, when the piston reaches to BDC.
Exhaust Stroke: Exhaust Stroke: :
1)​ At the end of the expansion stroke piston reaches BDC, the 1)​ At the end of the expansion stroke piston reaches BDC, the
exhaust valve opens and the inlet valve remains closed. exhaust valve opens and the inlet valve remains closed.
2)​ During the exhaust stroke the piston starts moving from BDC 2)​ During the exhaust stroke the piston starts moving from BDC
to TDC and sweeps the burnt gases out from the cylinder. to TDC and sweeps the burnt gases out from the cylinder.
3)​ The exhaust valve closes when the piston reaches TDC. 3)​ The exhaust valve closes when the piston reaches TDC.
Hence the cycle is completed. Hence the cycle is completed.
Note: Note:
1.​ 4-Stroke Petrol engines (or) Spark Ignition (SI) engines work 1.​ 4-Stroke Diesel engines (or) Compression Ignition (CI)
on Otto cycle. engines work on Diesel cycle.
2.​ Used for light duty vehicles such as scooters, motorcycles. 2.​ Used in heavy-duty vehicles such as buses, trucks, tractors etc.
3.​ Thermal efficiency is less.(about 26%). 3.​ Thermal efficiency is high (about 40%).
 Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle

The Otto cycle, this was named after German scientist A.N. Otto The diesel cycle was devised by Dr. Rudolph diesel in the year
in 1876, is a thermodynamic cycle that is commonly represented 1897, is a thermodynamic cycle that is commonly represented
on the P-V (Pressure-Volume) diagram. on the P-V (Pressure-Volume) diagram.
(0-1) Suction Stroke (or) Intake Stroke (0-1) Suction Stroke (or) Intake Stroke
(1-2) Compression Stroke (1-2) Compression Stroke
(2-3) Constant Volume Heat addition (Spark Ignition) (2-3) Constant Pressure Heat addition (Fuel Injection)
(3-4) Expansion stroke (or) Power stroke (or) Working stroke (3-4) Expansion stroke (or) Power stroke (or) Working stroke
(or) Combustion stroke (or) Combustion stroke
(1-0) Exhaust Stroke (1-0) Exhaust Stroke
Stroke Diagrams of 2-Stroke Engines (SI & CI)
 Working of 2-Stroke Internal Combustion Engine
2-Stroke Petrol Engine/ 2-Stroke SI Engine 2-Stroke Diesel Engine/ 2-Stroke CI Engine
In a 2-stroke engine, the cycle of operations is completed in two In a 2-stroke engine, the cycle of operations is completed in two
strokes of the piston. During the two strokes, there are four events to strokes of the piston. During the two strokes, there are four events to
be completed. be completed.
The Cycle of operation for an ideal 2-stroke SI engine consists of the The Cycle of operation for an ideal 2-stroke CI engine consists of the
following strokes. following strokes.
1.​ Upward stroke 1.​ Upward stroke
2.​ Downward stroke 2.​ Downward stroke
Suction and Compression takes place during Upward stroke Suction and Compression takes place during Upward stroke
whereas the Expansion and Exhaust during Downward stroke. whereas the Expansion and Exhaust during Downward stroke.
Ports are used in place of valves for admitting fuel air mixture and Ports are used in place of valves for admitting Clean air and
discharging the exhaust gases.They are inlet,transfer and exhaust ports. discharging the exhaust gases.They are inlet,transfer and exhaust ports.
Upward Stroke Upward Stroke
During the upward stroke the piston moves up from BDC to TDC. During the upward stroke the piston moves up from BDC to TDC.
The inlet port is uncovered, the exhaust and transfer ports are The inlet port is uncovered, the exhaust and transfer ports are
covered. covered.
Suction: Fuel-air mixture is admitted into the crankcase through inlet Suction: Clean air is admitted into the crankcase through inlet port.
port. (takes place below the piston ) Compression: The compression of previously available air takes place
Compression: The compression of previously available fuel air above the piston.
mixture takes place above the piston. At the end of the upward stroke through the fuel injector, fuel is
At the end of the compression stroke the fuel-air mixture is ignited by injected directly into the cylinder (containing hot compressed air).
a high voltage spark produced from the spark plug. Self ignition (or) Auto ignition takes place.
 Downward Stroke Downward Stroke
During the downward stroke the piston moves up from TDC to BDC. During the downward stroke the piston moves up from TDC to BDC.
Expansion: At the end of the upward stroke, (i.e. the piston is at TDC) Expansion: At the end of the upward stroke (i.e. the piston is at TDC)
the fuel air mixture is ignited with the help of a spark plug causing the fine spray of fuel is injected into the hot compressed air with
it to burn explosively (tiny explosion) which pushes the piston in the the help of fuel injector, causing it to burn explosively (tiny
downwards direction towards BDC i.e towards BDC. explosion), which pushes the piston in the downwards direction i.e
Exhaust: The exhaust port is uncovered immediately after the towards BDC.
expansion, and burnt gases are discharged into the atmosphere Exhaust: The exhaust port is uncovered immediately after the
through it, and the inlet port is also uncovered. expansion, and burnt gases are discharged into the atmosphere
During the same downward stroke the piston uncovers the transfer through it, and the inlet port is also uncovered.
port and the previously available fuel-air mixture in the crankcase During the same downward stroke the piston uncovers the transfer
enters above the piston through the transfer port. port and the previously available air in the crankcase enters above
Hence the cycle is completed. the piston through the transfer port.
Hence the cycle is completed.
Note: Note:
1)​ Generally employed in light vehicles as scooters and 1.​ Generally employed in light vehicles as scooters and
motorcycles. motorcycles.
2)​ During the exhaust stroke, the exhaust of burnt gases is 2.​ During the exhaust stroke, the exhaust of burnt gases is
assisted by the slightly compressed charge which is transferred assisted by the slightly compressed charge which is transferred
into the cylinder. into the cylinder.
3)​ More wear and tear, noisier. 3.​ More wear and tear, noisier.
4)​ Consume more lubricating oil. 4.​ Consume more lubricating oil.
5)​ Thermal efficiency is less. 5.​ Thermal efficiency is less.
 Refrigeration Air Conditioning
Refrigeration is defined as the process of achieving and Air Conditioning refers to the treatment of air so as to
maintaining a temperature below that of the surroundings with simultaneously control its temperature, moisture content,
an aim to cool some products to the required temperature. cleanliness , odor and circulation as required by the occupants, a
One of the most important applications of refrigeration has been process, or products in the space.
the preservation of perishable food products by storing them at Air Conditioning system consists of two units
low temperatures. 1)​ Outdoor unit
2)​ Indoor unit
It consists of key components including a condenser coil, It consists of key components including a condenser coil,
evaporator coil and compressor all interconnected in a closed evaporator coil and compressor all interconnected in a closed
loop system through the pipelines filled with liquid refrigerant at loop system through the pipelines filled with liquid refrigerant at
any instant. any instant.
“A refrigerant is a working fluid used in the air conditioning “A refrigerant is a working fluid used in the air conditioning
and refrigeration systems, where it undergoes a continuous and refrigeration systems, where it undergoes a continuous
evaporation (boils) while flowing through the evaporator coils, evaporation (boils) while flowing through the evaporator coils,
thereby producing a cooling effect.”. thereby producing a cooling effect.”.
The refrigerant evaporates (boils) at low temperature & pressure The refrigerant evaporates (boils) at low temperature & pressure
(i.e at room temperature) because of very low boiling point. (i.e at room temperature) because of very low boiling point.
 Refrigeration Air Conditioning

The evaporator coil is visible and located in the indoor unit of an air
The evaporator coil is invisible and located inside a refrigerator and it conditioning system. The continuous evaporation of refrigerant takes
is the part that makes the items in the refrigerator cold. The continuous place due to pressure manipulation while flowing through the
evaporation of refrigerant takes place due to pressure manipulation evaporator coils, pulling heat from the circulated air over the
while flowing through the evaporator coils produces a cooling effect. evaporator coils produces a cooling effect.
 Electric Vehicles Hybrid Vehicles
An electric vehicle is an automotive mode of transportation propelled Hybrid vehicles are also known as Hybrid Electric Vehicles.(HEV)
by one or more electric motors, utilising electrical energy stored in an A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a fusion of components derived
energy storage device (Battery Storage). These vehicles are commonly from both fully electric vehicles and traditional petrol/diesel -powered
referred to as electric vehicles (or) simply EV’s . vehicles ( or powered by I.C engines).
Electric vehicles (EVs) consist of several key components. They are In these combinations, one power source involves energy storage,
1.​ Battery: The battery serves as the energy storage device, storing while the other entails the conversion of fuel into energy.
electrical power to supply the electric motor and other vehicle Diesel/electric HEVs operate with an electric motor , while the internal
components. combustion engine serves as a generator to recharge the battery
When the battery is recharged, it stores electric energy, which is (electric energy storage).
subsequently used to power the electric motor and other vehicle Classification of HEV’s:
components 1.​ Series HEV’s: Series HEV primarily operate with the electric
2.​ Inverter: The power inverter plays a pivotal role in converting motor, while the internal combustion engine serves as a generator to
DC power from the batteries into AC power for the motor. It also recharge the battery or provide supplement power.
converts AC current generated during regenerative braking back 2.​ Parallel HEV’s : Parallel HEVs can operate with both the
into DC current for battery recharging. internal combustion engine and the electric motor working in
3.​ Electric Motor: The motor is responsible for propelling the tandem to drive the vehicle.
vehicle, converting electrical energy into mechanical power for 3.​ Series-Parallel HEV: Series-parallel HEVs combine elements of
motion. both series and parallel architectures to optimise energy efficiency
4.​ Transmission: The transmission is responsible for transmitting and performance.
the mechanical power generated by the motor to the vehicle's
wheels, enabling movement.
5.​ Motor Controller: The motor controller manages the Advantages Disadvantages
distribution of electric power from the battery to the motor,
●​ Reduce the dependency on fossil
regulating power flow based on data from the accelerator pedal.
fuels. ●​ Managing multiple energy
6.​ Vehicle Controller: This component controls various ●​ The electric motor is far more sources is difficult.
vehicle functions, including monitoring and managing efficient than the I.C engine. ●​ Potential for higher weight.
different systems for safe and efficient operation. ●​ Approximately 2 times more ●​ Electrical losses.
efficient than conventional
Advantages Disadvantages
engines.
●​ Zero emissions. ●​ ●​ Cut emissions of global
●​ Zero fuel costs. ●​ High initial cost, often warming pollutants.
●​ Cost effective operation with exceeding that of
lower maintenance conventional vehicles.
requirements. ●​ Limited driving range.
●​ Reduced noise during ●​ Longer recharging times
operation compared to internal compared to refuelling
combustion engine vehicles. with gasoline.
 ‭Boilers‬
‭Definition:‬‭A boiler may be defined as a “‬‭Closed vessel‬‭in which steam is produced from water‬
‭by combustion of fuel”‬‭. (Pulverized coal). It takes‬‭the form of a closed vessel constructed from‬
‭steel. Within a steam boiler, water undergoes conversion into steam through the application of‬
‭heat at controlled temperature (Combustion of fuel), pressure and mass flow rates.‬
‭Commonly used fuels for generating the heat inside the boilers include coal, oil and gas.‬
‭As per the Indian Boiler Regulations (IBR), a boiler constitutes a closed pressure vessel with a‬
‭capacity of exceeding 25.75 litres for generating pressurized and superheated steam.‬
‭Note:‬‭As per the American Society of Mechanical Engineers‬‭(ASME) a boiler is also termed as a‬
‭“‬‭Steam generating unit”‬‭or “‬‭Steam generator”‬‭.‬
‭Functions of a Boiler:‬‭Boilers serve various functions,‬‭including‬
‭●‬ ‭Generation of Electrical Energy:‬‭Steam boilers produce‬‭steam ( in Tons) which drives‬
‭the steam turbines to produce electrical power.‬
‭●‬ ‭Building Heating:‬‭Boiler systems heat buildings during‬‭cold weather.‬
‭●‬ ‭Hot Water Supply:‬‭Boilers generate hot water for various‬‭applications.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cogeneration in Industries:‬‭Used in textile, sugar‬‭mills and chemical industries to‬
‭produce power and process heat simultaneously.‬
‭Classification of Boilers:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Horizontal, Vertical and Inclined Boilers:‬
‭●‬ ‭Horizontal boiler:‬‭Features a horizontal axis for‬‭the boiler shell.( e.g, Locomotive‬
‭boilers).‬
‭●‬ ‭Vertical boiler:‬‭Features a vertical axis for the‬‭boiler.( e.g Cochran boiler)‬
‭●‬ ‭Inclined boiler:‬‭Features an inclined axis.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Fire Tube and Water Tube boilers:‬

‭Fire tube boiler:‬‭Hot flue gases are‬ ‭Water tube boiler:‬‭Water is contained‬
‭contained within tubes, with water‬ ‭within the tubes, with hot flue gases‬
‭surrounding them.‬ ‭surrounding them.‬
‭Ex:‬‭Locomotive, Cochran and Lancashire.‬ ‭Ex:‬‭Babcock and Wilcox boiler.‬
 Cochran Boiler Lamont Boiler
Fire tube boiler: Hot flue gases are contained within tubes, with Water tube boiler: Water is contained within the tubes, with hot
water surrounding them. flue gases surrounding them.
Ex: Locomotive, Cochran boilers. Ex: Babcock and Wilcox boilers.
 Cochran Boiler Lamont Boiler
Cochran boiler consists of a cylindrical shell with a dome shaped top It is a forced circulation, high pressure water tube boiler. The
where the space is provided for steam.The furnace is one piece circulation of the water is maintained by a centrifugal pump.It is a
construction and is seamless. high-pressure boiler with operating parameters typically at 170 bar and
The fuel is burnt on the grate and ash is disposed of from the ash 773 K (550℃).
pit.The hot flue gases of combustion produced by burning of fuel It has a steam generation capacity of 50 tonnes per hour.
enters the combustion chamber through the flue pipes and strike The hot flue gases (heat) produced from the combustion of the fuel, is
against fire brick lining which directs them to pass through a number then supplied to the water flowing in the evaporator tubes, superheater
of horizontal tubes being surrounded by water. tubes, economizer tubes and the air in the air heater tubes.
After which the gases escape to the atmosphere through a smoke box Then the waste gases move to the atmosphere through the chimney.
and chimney. Applications:
Applications: 1.​ Power Generation
1.​ Small Power Plants 2.​ Industrial Applications
2.​ Paper Manufacturing Plants
3.​ Chemical Processing Divisions
4.​ Refining Units