Biology for Engineers BBOC407

MODULE I
CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY : The cell: the basic unit of life, Structure, and functions of a cell.
The Plant Cell and animal cell, Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells, Stem cells and their application.
Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids. Importance
of special biomolecules; Enzymes (Classification (with one example each), Properties and functions),
vitamins, and hormones.

THE CELL
The cell is the basic unit of Life. The cell provides minimum requirements to perform essential life
properties such as organization, metabolism, responsiveness, movements, and reproduction to live
independently. Hence, it ensures
1. Independent existence
2. Performing the vital functions of life.

CELL THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE:

Cell theory is a scientific theory that states that all living organisms are made of cells.
17th century onwards many curious scientists kept on observing diverse groups of organisms. The
three major contributions brought a comprehensive understanding that Cells act as a basic unit of
life.
The three important points of the modified cell theory are as follows:
1. The cell is the basic functional and structural unit of all living organisms.

2. All living organisms are made up of cells.

3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF A CELL

Understanding cell structure and functions is key to understanding life processes.
Structure:
1. Plasma Membrane: Surrounds the cell, regulating the passage of substances.
2. Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance filling the cell, containing organelles.
3. Nucleus: Houses genetic material (DNA), controlling cell activities.

RLJIT Page 1
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

4. Organelles: Specialized structures:

a. Endoplasmic Reticulum: Involvedin protein and lipid metabolism.
b. Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts,and packages molecules.
c. Mitochondria: Generates energythrough respiration.
d. Lysosomes: Break down wastematerials.
e. Ribosomes: Sites of proteinsynthesis.
f. Centrioles (in animals): Assist in cell division.

g. Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and aids in cell movement.

Functions:
1. Respiration: Converts glucose into ATP for energy.
2. Protein Synthesis: Translates genetic information into proteins.
3. Storage and Processing: Synthesizes, modifies, and transports molecules.
4. Cellular Communication: Signals between cells via various molecules.
5. Waste Management: Breaks down and recycles cellular waste.
6. Cell Division: Replicates cells for growth, repair, and reproduction.
7. Movement: Supports cell movement and shape changes.

PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are two major types of cells, each with distinct characteristics.
Though they perform functions of life, structurally and Evolutionarily they differ. Understanding the
differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is essential in studying the diversity of life and
the complexity of cellular organization and functions.
Prokaryotic Cells: Prokaryotic cells, the ancestral and less evolved cellular form, constitute
organisms known as Prokaryotes. Examples include Bacteria, Blue-green algae, Mycoplasma, and
PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms). They possess several unique characteristics:
Size and Multiplication Rate: Prokaryotic cells are generally smaller and replicate more rapidly
than eukaryotic cells.
Cellular Organization: Despite their diverse shapes and functions, prokaryotes share a fundamental
cellular organization. Bacterial shapes range from bacillus (rod-like), coccus (spherical), and vibrio
(comma-shaped), to spirillum (spiral).
Cell Wall: All prokaryotes except Mycoplasma have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane.
Cytoplasm: The fluid matrix within prokaryotic cells is called cytoplasm.
Nucleus: Prokaryotes lack a well-defined nucleus; their genetic material is naked, not enclosed
within a nuclear membrane.
Plasmids: Besides genomic DNA, many bacteria carry small circular DNA molecules called
plasmids, conferring unique phenotypic traits like antibiotic resistance.

RLJIT Page 2
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Organelles: Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles except for ribosomes, which are
associated with the cell's plasma membrane.
Ribosomes: Prokaryotic ribosomes are of 70S type, comprising 50S and 30S subunits. They are the
sites of protein synthesis and can form chains called polyribosomes or polysomes.
Reserve Materials: Prokaryotic cells store reserve materials in inclusion bodies within the
cytoplasm, such as phosphate, cyanophycean, and glycogen granules. Gas vacuoles are also present
in some photosynthetic bacteria.
Mesosomes: A specialized form of cell membrane, mesosomes, are characteristic of prokaryotes.
These extensions aid in cell wall formation, DNA replication, distribution to daughter cells,
respiration, and secretion processes. In cyanobacteria, chromatophores are membranous extensions
containing pigments.
Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells and are found in
organisms belonging to the domain Eukarya which includes all the protists, plants, animals and
fungi. Here's an account of their structure:
1. Nucleus: Enclosed within a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. Contains genetic
material (DNA) organized into linear chromosomes. The nucleolus within the nucleus is the site of
ribosome synthesis. Nuclear Pores are openings in the nuclear envelope that control the passa ge of
molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
2. Cell Membrane: Surrounds the cell, regulating the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
Composed of a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins.
3. Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance filling the cell, containing organelles and cytosol.
4. Organelles:
● Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
○ Rough ER studded with ribosomes involved in protein synthesis.
○ Smooth ER is involved in lipid metabolism and detoxification.
● Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery
to other parts of the cell.
● Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, generating energy through cellular respiration.
● Lysosomes: Contain enzymes for intracellular digestion and waste removal.
● Ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis, found free in the cytoplasm or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum. They are of 80S type; made of two subunits - 60S and 40S units.
● Chloroplasts (in plant cells): Site of photosynthesis, containing chlorophyll.
● Vacuoles (in plant and fungal cells): Store water, nutrients, and waste products.
5. Cytoskeleton: Network of protein filaments providing structural support, aiding in cell movement,
and facilitating intracellular transport.
6. Cell Wall (in plant, fungal, and some protist cells): Rigid structure outside the cell membrane,
providing support and protection.
7. Centrioles (in animal cells): Involved in cell division, forming the spindle fibers during mitosis.

RLJIT Page 3
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

8. Flagella and Cilia: Extensions of the cell membrane involved in cell movement or the movement
of the surrounding fluid.
9. Inclusions: Storage granules containing reserve materials such as starch, glycogen, or lipids.
10. Specialized Junctions (in animal cells): Tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions
facilitate cell-to-cell adhesion and communication.
Eukaryotic cell structure is highly organized and compartmentalized, allowing for diverse and
specialized functions necessary for the survival and functioning of complex multicellular organisms.
Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Feature Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

Nucleus Absent Present

Naked DNA dispersed in the Enclosed within a nuclear

Genetic Material
cytoplasm (nucleoid region) envelope

Contain membrane-bound
Organelles Lack membrane-bound organelles
organelles

Size Generally smaller and simpler Larger and more complex

Examples Bacteria, Archaea Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists

Ribosomes 70S type 80S type

Present in most, except Present in plants, fungi, and some

Cell Wall
Mycoplasma protists

RLJIT Page 4
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

THE PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL

Both plant and Animal cells are Eukaryotic cells. Their comparative analysis is as follows

Organelle Function Plant Cell Animal Cell

Regulates passage of
Cell Membrane Present Present
substances in and out

Provides structural support Present

Cell Wall Absent

e
and protection (made of cellulose)

Stores genetic information

Nucleus Present Present
and controls activity

Chloroplasts Site of photosynthesis Present Absent

Stores water, nutrients, and Present

Central Vacuole Small or absent
waste products (large and permanent)

Generates energy through

Mitochondria Present Present
cellular respiration

Endoplasmic Involved in protein and lipid Present Present

Reticulum (ER) metabolism (rough & smooth ER) (rough & smooth ER)

Modifies, sorts, and packages

Golgi Apparatus Present Present
proteins and lipids

Contains enzymes for

Lysosomes Rarely present Commonly present
intracellular digestion

Ribosomes Site of protein synthesis Present Present

RLJIT Page 5
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

STEM CELLS AND THEIR APPLICATION

Stem Cells: Stem cells are undifferentiated cells with the remarkable ability to differentiate into
specialized cell types.
They possess two main characteristics:
1. Self-Renewal: The ability to divide and produce more stem cells, maintaining a renewable
source for further differentiation.
2. Differentiation: The potential to differentiate into various cell types depending on their
environment and the signals they receive.
3.
Stem cells are classified based on their potency or potential to differentiate into different cell types:

1. Totipotent: Can differentiate into all cell types, including embryonic and extraembryonic
tissues. Examples include cells in the early embryo.
2. Pluripotent: Can differentiate into cells of all three germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and
mesoderm. Examples include embryonic stem cells (ESCs).
3. Multipotent: Can differentiate into a limited range of cell types within a particular lineage or
tissue. Examples include adult stem cells.

RLJIT Page 6
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Applications of Stem Cells:

Stem cells hold immense potential for engineering applications due to their unique properties. Here's
how stem cells are utilized in engineering:

Application Description

Stem cells combined with biomaterials can engineer tissues and organs
for transplantation. This approach holds promise for creating
Tissue Engineering replacement tissues and organs, addressing the shortage of donor
organs, and reducing the risk of rejection.

Biomaterial Stem cells can be integrated into various biomaterial scaffolds,

Integration providing a platform for tissue regeneration and repair. Engineers

design and optimize these scaffolds to mimic the natural

microenvironment and guide stem cell differentiation.

Stem cell-based bioprinting involves the precise deposition of stem

cells and biomaterials to create complex three-dimensional structures.
Bioprinting This technology enables the fabrication of tissue constructs with
defined architectures, suitable for transplantation.

Stem cell-based models can be used for drug screening and

development, providing a more accurate representation of human
Drug Screening and biology than traditional cell lines. Engineers develop high-throughput
Development platforms for screening potential drugs and assessing their safety and
efficacy.

Engineers design stem cell-based gene delivery systems for gene

therapy applications. Stem cells can serve as vectors for delivering
Gene Therapy therapeutic genes to target tissues, offering potential treatments for
genetic disorders and other diseases.

Stem cells are a class of undifferentiated cells with high potential for self-renewal, proliferation, and
mono- or multidirectional differentiation. A totipotent stem cell (a single fertilized egg) can develop
into more than 250 cell types (depending on the definition of cell types) throughout human or animal
life.

Organisms persist as a result of cell-cell renewal and continuous growth through the division of stem
cells. Human stem cells can spontaneously (or be induced to) cause regeneration in the case of injury,
aging, and deletion to maintain the function of tissues and organs and thus maintain the regular
operation of the entire organism.

RLJIT Page 7
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Regenerative medicine using stem cells is one of the most remarkable fields in the life sciences of
the 21st century. Stem cells have great scientific significance and excellent practical application
prospects in medical technology innovation. The study of stem cell proliferation, differentiation,
migration, and signal transduction can contribute to the trauma repair and regeneration of body
tissues, leading to the discovery of new ways to promote the self-repair and renewal of patients.
Ultimately, the use of stem cells to build new tissues and organs for restorative treatment of organ
injury and diseases has been achieved.
The field of regenerative medicine using stem cells needs to be advanced by fundam ental knowledge
of molecular biology, cell biology, developmental biology, information science, and systems
biology.

Stem cells are currently the ideal seeding cells for tissue engineering. Stem cells can theoretically
induce, differentiate, and grow into any kind of human cell, tissue, or organ under artificial
conditions through histological engineering techniques. With the increasing maturity of stem cell
transplantation technology, the use of stem cells in vivo will surely advance regenerative medicine
and the regeneration and repair of tissues and organs.

BIOMOLECULES

Biomolecules, also known as biological molecules, are chemical compounds found in living
organisms that are essential for the survival of living cells and all life processes. They are the
building blocks of life and perform important functions in living organisms, such as reproduction,
growth, and sustenance. Biomolecules include large macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids, and nucleic acids, as well as small molecules such as vitamins and hormones.

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds that serve as essential macronutrients and
biomolecules in living organisms. They consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, typically in
a ratio of 1:2:1, respectively. The term "carbohydrate" originates from the chemical formula
Cn(H 2 O)n, reflecting this composition.

Carbohydrates play diverse roles in biological systems. They serve as a primary source of energy,
providing fuel for cellular processes through processes like glycolysis and cellular respiration.

RLJIT Page 8
 Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Properties of Carbohydrates

Property Description

Chemical Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a ratio of 1:2:1,

Composition respectively.

Structure Consists of chains or rings of sugar molecules.

Divided into three main groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and

Types polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides and disaccharides are generally sweet-tasting, while

Sweetness polysaccharides are not.

nergy Source The primary source of energy for living organisms, providing 4 caloriesper
gram upon digestion.

Structural Act as building blocks for cell walls in plants (cellulose) and exoskeletonsin
Function arthropods (chitin).

Biological Essential for cellular processes such as metabolism, cell signalling, and
Significance immune system functioning.

Functions of Carbohydrates
Function Description

Carbohydrates serve as the primary source of energy for the body, providing
Energy Source fuel for various physiological processes. Glucose, derived from carbohydrates,
is particularly vital for brain function and muscle activity.
In organisms, carbohydrates play a crucial role in providing structuralsupport.
Structural For instance, cellulose, a complex carbohydrate found in plant cell walls,
Support offers rigidity and strength, contributing to the overall structural integrity of
plants.

Carbohydrates are stored in the body as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Storage of When energy demand increases, glycogen is broken down into glucose to
Energy meet the energy requirements, maintaining blood glucose levels within a
normal range.

Dietary fibers, a type of carbohydrate found in plant-based foods, aid in

Facilitate digestion by promoting regular bowel movements, preventing constipation,
Digestion and supporting a healthy digestive system.

RLJIT Page 9
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

NUCLEIC ACIDS:
Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, play diverse and fundamental roles in the functioning of
living organisms. As the carriers of genetic information, DNA molecules encode the instructions
required for the development, growth, and reproduction of organisms, while RNA molecules
participate in protein synthesis and gene expression regulation.
Nucleic acids possess distinctive properties that contribute to their structural stability, functional
specificity, and biochemical behavior. The polarity of nucleic acid molecules, characterized by 5' and
3' ends, influences their orientation and interactions with other molecules.
The double helix structure of DNA provides a stable framework for genetic information storage and
transmission, facilitated by specific base pairing rules and hydrogen bonding between
complementary nucleotide bases. The acidic nature of nucleic acids, stemming from phosphate
groups, affects their overall charge and molecular interactions. Additionally, nucleic acids exhibit
unique absorbance properties in the UV range, allowing for their detection and analysis in
biochemical assays. Understanding these properties is essential for elucidating the structure-function
relationships of nucleic acids and their roles in biological processes.
Properties of Nucleic Acids

Property Description

Nucleic acids exhibit polarity, with distinct 5' (five-prime) and 3' (three-prime) ends.
This polarity arises from the orientation of the sugar-phosphate backbone, where the
Polarity
5' end contains a phosphate group attached to the 5' carbon of the sugar molecule, and
the 3' end terminates with a hydroxyl group on the 3' carbon.

DNA molecules possess a double helix structure, characterized by two

Double complementary polynucleotide strands winding around each other in a right-handed

Fo preliminary reference
manner. T his structure pr ovides stability and protection to the genetic information
Helix
Structure encoded within the DNA molecule and facilitates replication and transcription
processes.

Nucleic acids exhibit specific base pairing rules, where adenine (A) pairs with
Base thymine (T) in DNA or uracil (U) in RNA via hydrogen bonds, and cytosine (C) pairs
Pairing with guanine (G). This complementary base pairing ensures the accurate replication
and transmission of genetic information during cellular processes.

Hydrogen bonding plays a crucial role in stabilizing the structure of nucleic acids.
Within the double helix of DNA, hydrogen bonds form between complementary base
Hydrogen
pairs, contributing to the structural integrity and specificity of the molecule. These
Bonding
bonds are relatively weak individually but collectively provide stability to the DNA
double helix.

RLJIT Page 10
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Functions of Nucleic Acids

Function Description

Nucleic acids, particularly DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), serve as the primary

Genetic carrier of genetic information in living organisms. DNA contains the instructions
Information necessary for the development, growth, functioning, and reproduction of
Storage organisms.

Nucleic acids, specifically RNA (ribonucleic acid), play a crucial role in protein
Protein synthesis. RNA molecules, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA
Synthesis (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), are involved in various stages of protein
production, from transcription to translation.

Nucleic acids participate in the regulation of gene expression, controlling when and
Gene how genes are turned on or off. This regulatory role is essential for orchestrating
Expression the precise timing and levels of protein production required for various cellular
Regulation processes.

Some nucleic acids, such as ribozymes, exhibit catalytic activity, enabling them to
facilitate specific biochemical reactions within cells. Ribozymes participate in
processes such as RNA splicing, peptide bond formation, and RNA cleavage,
Catalysis demonstrating the diverse functional capabilities of nucleic acids beyond their roles
in information storage and transfer.

Nucleic acids, both DNA and RNA, can trigger immune responses when
recognized as foreign molecules by the immune system. This immune recognition
Immune serves as a defense mechanism against viral infections and other pathogens,
Response highlighting the dual role of nucleic acids in both genetic information storage and
host defense.

Certain nucleic acids, such as small non-coding RNAs, are involved in chemical
signalling pathways within cells. These regulatory RNAs modulate gene expression
Chemical
by interacting with specific target molecules, thereby influencing various cellular
Signaling
processes, including development, differentiation, and response to environmental
stimuli.

RLJIT Page 11
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

PROTEINS
Proteins are versatile biomolecules with diverse structural, functional, and chemical properties that
underlie their roles in biological systems. Their hierarchical structure encompasses primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels of organization, dictating their overall shape and function.
Composed of amino acids, proteins exhibit a wide range of functionalities, including enzymatic
catalysis, structural support, molecular recognition, and cellular signaling.
Proteins are indispensable macromolecules that fulfill many essential functions in living organisms.
As enzymes, they catalyze biochemical reactions, driving metabolic processes and maintaining
cellular homeostasis.
In the immune system, proteins contribute to defense mechanisms by recognizing and neutralizing
pathogens. Hormonal proteins and receptors coordinate physiological processes, while contractile
proteins enable muscle contraction and movement. The diverse functions of proteins underscore their
indispensability in biological systems and highlight their significance in health, disease, and
biotechnological applications.

Properties of Proteins

Property Description

Proteins exhibit a hierarchical structure, consisting of primary, secondary, tertiary,

and quaternary levels of organization. The primary structure refers to the linear
sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Secondary structure involves
Structure folding patterns such as alpha helices and beta sheets, while tertiary structure refers
to the three-dimensional arrangement of the entire polypeptide chain. Quaternary
structure arises when multiple polypeptide chains assemble to form a functional
protein complex.

Proteins are composed of amino acids, which are organic molecules containing an
amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain. There are 20 standard
Amino Acid
amino acids, each with a unique side chain that imparts specific chemical and
Composition
structural properties to the protein. The sequence and composition of amino acids
determine the structure and function of the protein molecule.

RLJIT Page 12
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Proteins exhibit remarkable functional diversity, serving as enzymes, structural

components, transporters, receptors, antibodies, hormones, and molecular motors,
among other roles. Enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions, while structural
Functional
proteins provide support and stability to cells and tissues. Transport proteins
Diversity
facilitate the movement of molecules across biological membranes, and receptors
mediate cellular signaling pathways. The diverse functions of proteins reflect their
versatility and importance in biological systems.

Proteins undergo folding into their native three-dimensional structures, driven by

interactions between amino acid side chains and the surrounding environment. The
Folding and folding process is crucial for protein function, as it determines the specific binding
Stability sites and active sites necessary for interactions with other molecules. Proteins can
also exhibit different levels of stability, influenced by factors such as temperature,
pH, and the presence of cofactors or ligands.

Proteins can undergo denaturation, a process in which their native structure is

disrupted, leading to loss of function. Denaturation can be induced by various
factors, including heat, pH extremes, organic solvents, and chaotropic agents.
Denaturation

inary re ence
While denatured proteins may lose their biological activity, they often retain their
Structure allowing for the possibility of renaturation under favorable condition.

The solubility of proteins varies d epending on their a mino acid composition and

the surrounding environment. Some proteins are soluble in water, while others are
insoluble and may form aggregates or precipitates. Protein solubility is influenced
Solubility
by factors such as pH, temperature, ionic strength, and the presence of denaturing
agents or binding partners. Understanding the solubility behavior of proteins is
essential for their purification, characterization, and functional studies.

RLJIT Page 13
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Functions of Proteins
Function Description

Proteins serve as enzymes, catalyzing biochemical reactions within cells and

Enzymatic organisms. Enzymes facilitate the conversion of substrates into products by
Activity lowering the activation energy of reactions, thereby accelerating metabolic
processes essential for life.

Proteins provide structural support to cells, tissues, and organs in living organisms.
Structural Structural proteins such as collagen, elastin, and keratin contribute to the
Support mechanical strength, elasticity, and integrity of various biological structures,
including bones, skin, hair, and connective tissues.

Proteins function as carriers and transporters, facilitating the movement of

molecules across biological membranes and within the circulatory system. Transport
Transport proteins, such as hemoglobin, transport gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
blood, while membrane transporters regulate the passage of ions and molecules
across cell membranes.

Proteins play crucial roles in cellular signaling pathways, transmitting and

modulating signals that regulate various physiological processes. Signaling proteins,
Signaling such as receptors, transducers, and kinases, relay information from extracellular
stimuli to intracellular effectors, controlling cell growth, differentiation, and
responses to environmental cues.

Proteins are essential components of the immune system, participating in the

Immune recognition, response, and defense against pathogens and foreign substances.
Response Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are proteins produced by the immune
system that bind to specific antigens, marking them for destruction by immune cells.

Proteins play a central role in muscle contraction, enabling movement and

locomotion in animals. Contractile proteins, including actin and myosin, interact to
Muscle
generate the force required for muscle contraction and movement. The coordinated
Contraction
action of these proteins underlies processes such as muscle contraction, relaxation,
and control of motor functions.

RLJIT Page 14
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

LIPIDS
Lipids encompass a diverse group of biomolecules with essential roles in cellular structure, energy
metabolism, and signaling pathways. As a concentrated source of energy, lipids serve as a reservoir
of metabolic fuel, providing energy for cellular processes and physical activity.
Lipids also play a critical role in hormone regulation, serving as precursors for steroid hormones
involved in metabolic, reproductive, and stress-related processes. Furthermore, lipids function as
signaling molecules, mediating cellular responses to environmental cues and modulating
inflammatory and immuneresponses.

Properties of Lipids
Property Description

Lipids exhibit structural diversity, encompassing a wide range of molecules

with distinct chemical compositions and functions. Common lipid classes
Structural include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols, and sphingolipids,
Diversity each with unique molecular structures and properties that contribute to their
biological functions.

Some lipids display amphipathic properties, containing both hydrophilic

(water-attracting) and hydrophobic (water-repelling) regions within the same
Amphipathicity molecule. Phospholipids, for example, have hydrophilic phosphate heads and
hydrophobic fatty acid tails, allowing them to form lipid bilayers in aqueous
environments such as cell membranes.

Lipids serve as efficient energy storage molecules, storing energy in the form
of chemical bonds within their hydrocarbon chains. Triglycerides, the primary
Energy Storage storage form of lipids, accumulate in adipose tissue and can be mobilized and
oxidized to generate ATP, providing a long-term reservoir of energy for cellular
metabolism and physical activity.

Lipids act as insulators, helping to maintain body temperature and protect vital
Insulation
organs from temperature fluctuations and mechanical damage. Adipose tissue,

composed primarily of fat cells, serves as an insulating layer beneath the skin,
providing thermal insulation and cushioning for organs.

Certain lipids, such as waxes and oils, possess lubricating properties that
reduce friction and facilitate movement in biological systems. Lipid-based
Lubrication lubricants coat surfaces, preventing them from drying out and reducing wear
and tear caused by friction between tissues, such as in joints or between skin
surfaces.

RLJIT Page 15
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Functions of Lipids

Function Description

Lipids serve as a concentrated energy reserve in the body, providing more than
Energy twice the energy per gram compared to carbohydrates or proteins. Triglycerides,
Storage the most common form of dietary fat, are stored in adipose tissue and can be
mobilized and oxidized to generate ATP, the primary energy currency of cells.

Lipids contribute to the structural integrity of cell membranes, forming a lipid

bilayerthat encloses and protects the contents of cells. Phospholipids, cholesterol,
Structural
and glycolipids are key components of cell membranes, regulating membrane
Role
fluidity.

Lipids act as insulators, helping to maintain body temperature and protect vital
organs from temperature fluctuations and mechanical damage. Adipose tissue,
Insulation
composed primarily of fat cells, serves as an insulating layer beneath the skin,
providing thermal insulation and cushioning for organs.

Lipids play a crucial role in hormone synthesis and regulation, serving as

precursors for steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol. These
Hormone
hormones regulate various physiological processes, including metabolism,
Regulation
growth, reproduction, and stress responses, exerting widespread effects on the
body's functions.

Lipids function as signaling molecules in intercellular communication pathways,

modulating cellular responses to environmental cues and stimuli. Lipid-derived
Cell
signaling molecules, such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and sphingolipids,
Signaling
mediate inflammatory responses, immune function, and neuronal signaling,
influencing diverse physiological processes.

Absorption of Lipids facilitate the absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and
Nutrients K) and other hydrophobic nutrients in the digestive system. Bile acids and lipases
emulsify and break down dietary fats into absorbable forms, allowing for the

efficient uptake of essential nutrients across the intestinal epithelium and into the
bloodstream.

RLJIT Page 16
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

ENZYMES

Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions by lowering the activation
energy required for the conversion of substrates into products. They are classified into six main
classes based on the type of reaction they catalyze and the nature of their substrates. Oxidoreductases
catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions by transferring electrons between substrates, as exemplified
by lactate dehydrogenase, which converts lactate to pyruvate during cellular respiration. Transferases
facilitate the transfer of functional groups between substrates, such as the conversion of alanine to
pyruvate by alanine transaminase (ALT) in amino acid metabolism.

Classification of Enzymes:

Enzyme Class Description Example

Oxidoreductases catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions,

Oxidoreductases involving the transfer of electrons between substrates. These Lactate
enzymes typically utilize cofactors such as NAD+or FAD as dehydrogenase
electron carriers.

Transferases facilitate the transfer of functional groups, such

Transferases
as methyl, acetyl, or phosphate groups, between substrates. Alanine transaminase
These enzymes play essential roles in metabolic pathways (ALT)
and signal transduction.

Hydrolases catalyze hydrolysis reactions, cleaving chemical

Hydrolases bonds by adding water molecules. These enzymes are
involved in the breakdown of macromolecules such as Lipase
proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.

Lyases catalyze the addition or removal of groups to

Lyases Carbonic anhydrase
double bonds or the cleavage of bonds without

hydrolysis or oxidation-reduction. These enzymes participate

in diverse metabolic pathways and biosynthesis.

Isomerases catalyze the rearrangement of atoms within a

molecule, resulting in the conversion between isomeric Triose phosphate
Isomerases forms. These enzymes play crucial roles in maintaining isomerase (TIM)
metabolic equilibrium and generating biological diversity.

RLJIT Page 17
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Properties of Enzymes

Property Description

Enzymes exhibit specificity in substrate recognition and catalytic activity,

interacting with specific substrates to facilitate particular biochemical reactions.
Specificity
This specificity arises from the complementary shapes and chemical properties of
the enzyme's active site and the substrate molecule.

Enzymes are catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions by lowering the

activation energy required for the conversion of substrates into products. By
Catalytic
stabilizing the transition state of the reaction, enzymes facilitate the formation of
product molecules more rapidly and efficiently.

Enzymes are highly efficient catalysts, often capable of increasing reaction rates by
millions to billions of times compared to uncatalyzed reactions. This high efficiency
Efficiency
allows cells to carry out metabolic processes at rates compatible with life despite
relatively mild physiological conditions.

Enzymes are reusable catalysts that can catalyze multiple rounds of substrate
conversion without being consumed in the reaction. After facilitating a reaction,
Reusability
enzymes remain unchanged and available to catalyze subsequent reactions, making
them highly economical and efficient components of cellular metabolism.

Enzyme activity is sensitive to changes in environmental conditions, such as

temperature and pH, which can influence enzyme structure and function. Small
Sensitivity
deviations from optimal conditions can significantly affect enzyme activity, leading
to alterations in metabolic pathways and cellular function.

RLJIT Page 18
 Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Functions of Enzymes
Enzymes are essential biological molecules that perform a wide range of functions critical for life
processes. As catalysts, enzymes accelerate chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy
barrier, enabling reactions to occur at physiological conditions.

Function Description

Enzymes serve as biological catalysts, accelerating chemical reactions by lowering the

activation energy required for the conversion of substrates into products. By facilitating the
Catalysis formation of transition states and stabilizing reaction intermediates, enzymes enhance the
rate of reactions without being consumed in the process.

Enzymes exhibit high specificity for their substrates, recognizing and binding to specific
molecules or chemical groups through complementary interactions at the enzyme's active
Specificity site. This substrate specificity ensures that enzymes selectively catalyze particular
reactions, leading to precise control over metabolic pathways and cellular processes.

Enzymes participate in metabolic pathways, sequences of interconnected biochemical

reactions that convert substrates into products. Within these pathways, enzymes catalyze
Metabolic
specific steps, regulating the flow of metabolites and ensuring the coordinated synthesis,
Pathways
degradation, and interconversion of biomolecules essential for cellular function and
survival.

Enzymes play key roles in signal transduction pathways, transmitting extracellular signals
Signal
into intracellular responses that regulate various cellular processes.
Transduction

Enzymes are involved in DNA replication and repair processes, ensuring the faithful
DNA transmission of genetic information and maintaining genomic stability. DNA polymerases
Replication catalyze the synthesis of new DNA strands during replication, while DNA repair enzymes
and Repair correct errors and lesions in the DNA sequence, minimizing mutations and preserving
genetic integrity.

Enzymes facilitate the breakdown of macromolecules into smaller, more readily

absorbable units during the process of digestion. Digestive enzymes, such as proteases,
Digestion lipases, and carbohydrases, hydrolyze proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, respectively, into
amino acids, fatty acids, and sugars that can be absorbed and utilized by the body for
energy and growth.

RLJIT Page 19
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

VITAMINS
Vitamins are essential micronutrients that play diverse roles in maintaining health and supporting
various physiological functions in the body. They are classified into two categories: fat-soluble
vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and water-soluble vitamins (B vitamins and vitamin C). Fat-soluble
vitamins are absorbed along with fats in the diet and are stored in the body's fatty tissues, while
water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are excreted in urine when consumed in excess. Each
vitamin has a specific chemical name and description, along with plant and animal food sources that
provide significant amounts of the vitamin. Plant sources include fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and
grains, while animal sources include meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, and eggs. Consuming a
balanced diet that includes a variety of foods rich in vitamins is essential for meeting the body's
nutritional needs and maintaining optimal health.

Animal
Vitamin Chemical Name Description Plant Source Source

minary r efe rence

Essential for vision, immune
Liver, fish
Carrots, sweet
oil, eggs,
function, mucous membranes, potatoes, spinach,
Vitamin A Retinol dairy
ol kale, broccoli
maintaining healthy skin, and products
cell growth and differentiation.

Energy metabolism, nerve Whole grains, Pork, beef,

Vitamin B₁ Thiamine function, and carbohydrate legumes, nuts, organ meats,
metabolism. seeds whole grains

Energy production, metabolism

of fats, carbohydrates, and Dairy products, Meat,
leafy greens, poultry, fish,
Vitamin B₂ Riboflavin proteins, and maintenance of
almonds, eggs, dairy
healthy skin and vision; acts as mushrooms products
an antioxidant.

Energy metabolism, DNA repair, Meat, poultry, fish, Legumes,

Vitamin B₃ Niacin and cell signaling. peanuts, whole seeds, nuts,
grains dairy products

Energy metabolism, fatty acid Avocado,

Chicken,
synthesis, and the synthesis of mushrooms,
Vitamin B₅ Pantothenic acid beef, liver,
cholesterol, hormones, & broccoli, sweet
whole grains
neurotransmitters. potatoes

RLJIT Page 20
 Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Amino acid metabolism,

neurotransmitter synthesis, and
the production of red blood cells.
It plays a crucial role in brain
Chickpeas, potatoes, Fish, beef liver,
development and function, bananas,poultry poultry, nuts,
Vitamin B₆ Pyridoxine immune health, and theregulation seeds
of homocysteine levels.

Essential for carbohydrate, fat,and Nuts, seeds, sweet Eggs, liver,

Vitamin B₇ Biotin protein metabolism. potatoes, avocado salmon, pork

Crucial for DNA synthesis, cell

division, and the formation of red
Folate blood cells. It plays a vital role in Leafy greens, Liver, eggs,
Vitamin B₉ asparagus, citrus fortified grains,
Folic fetal development, preventing birth
fruits, beans lentils
acid defects.
Meat,efish,
DNA synthesis, red blood cell
pouletry,
mformatiionn,rneyurologricalfunc dairy products
Vitamin Coblamin tion. It plays a critical role Fortifcied e
B₁₂ cereals,
in maintaining nerve cells' health nutritional
and preventing a type of anemia yeast, algae
called megaloblastic anemia.

Antioxidant that supports immune Citrus fruits,

function, collagen synthesis, Citrus fruits, kiwi,
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid wound healing, and the strawberries, bell strawberries, bell
peppers, broccoli peppers
absorption of iron.

Essential for calcium absorption, Fatty fish

bone health, and immune Sunlight (salmon, tuna,
function. It helps regulate calcium (Uvexposure mackerel), egg
and phosphorus levels in the fortified dairy yolks
Vitamin D Cholecalciferol products
blood

An antioxidant that protects cell Vegetable oils,

Nuts, seeds,
membranes from oxidative nuts,
Vitamin E Tocopherol vegetable oils,
damage. It plays a role in immune seeds, avocado
leafy greens
function, skin health,

Essential for blood clotting, bone

metabolism, and heart health Liver, egg
Leafy greens
yolks, cheese,
Vitamin K Phylloquinone (kale, spinach,
fermented foods
collard greens)

RLJIT Page 21
Biology for Engineers BBOC407

HORMONES
Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands or tissues in the body that
regulate various physiological processes and maintain homeostasis.
Each hormone has specificfunctions and targets, exerting effects on cells and tissues throughout the
body. Insulin, for example, regulates blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake and storage,
while testosterone influences male sexual development and secondary sexual characteristics.
Estrogen plays a central role in female reproductive health and bone metabolism, while thyroxine
regulates metabolism and growth. Cortisol helps the body respond to stress and modulates
metabolism, inflammation, and immune function. Growth hormone stimulates growth and tissue
repair, while progesterone supports pregnancy and embryonic development. Adrenaline triggers the
fight-or-flight response, preparing the body for action during stressful situations. These hormones
work in concert to regulate physiological processes and ensure the body's overall health and well-
being.

Hormone Function Origin Target

Regulates blood glucose levels by facilitating

Pancreas
glucose uptake, promoting glycogen synthesis,
(specifically Liver,
and inhibiting gluconeogenesis. It plays a
Insulin beta cells in muscle,
crucial role in carbohydrate metabolism and
the islets of adipose tissue
helps maintain blood glucose within a narrow
Langerhans)
range.

Development of male reproductive tissues and Testes (in

secondary sexual characteristics. It influences males), Reproductive
libido, muscle mass, bone density, facial hair ovaries and organs,
Testosterone
growth, mood regulation, and energy levels. adrenal muscle, bone,
glands (in brain
females)

RLJIT Page 22
 Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Development and function of female Ovaries

Reproductive
reproductive organs, including the uterus, (mainly),
organs, bone,brain,
ovaries, and breasts. Regulates menstrual adrenal
Estrogen cardiovascular
cycle, maintains bone density, and supports glands,
system
cardiovascular health. Estrogen also affects adipose
mood, cognition, and skin health. tissue

Regulates metabolism, growth, and

development throughout the body. It
influences cellular energy production, Cells throughout
protein synthesis, organs & tissue function. Thyroid the body
Thyroxine Thyroxine levels are crucial for maintaining gland
(T4) metabolic balance and overall health.

Body's stress response, increases blood sugar

levels, suppressing the immune system, and Adrenal
modulating metabolism. It also regulates
inflammation, blood pressure, and the sleep- glands Liver, muscle,
Cortisol wake cycle. Cortisol helps the body cope (specifically immune cells
pwirth estrelssimand mianintain the adrenal
aprhysyiologicral cortex)
equilibrium.

Growth hormone stimulates growth, cell

reproduction, and regeneration. It promotes
the growth of bones, muscles, and other Bones, muscles,
tissues, as well as supporting protein Anterior andtissues
Growth synthesis, fat metabolism, and the utilization
pituitary throughout the
Hormone of nutrients for energy production. Growth
hormone is crucial for growth and gland body.
maintenance of tissues throughout life.

Critical role in the menstrual cycle, Ovaries

Reproductive
pregnancy, and embryonic development. It (mainly),
organs, uterus,
prepares the uterus for implantation and adrenal
placenta (during
Progesterone maintains the uterine lining during glands,
pregnancy)
pregnancy, supporting fetal growth and placenta
development. Progesterone is essential for (during
reproductive health and successful pregnancy)
pregnancy.

RLJIT Page 23
 Biology for Engineers BBOC407

Gibberellins promote stem elongation, seed Shoot apical

germination, and flowering in plants. They also meristems, Stem and leaf
Gibberellins regulate fruit and leaf growth and influence young tissues, seeds,
responses to environmental stimuli such as light leaves, and fruit
and temperature changes. seeds

Cytokinins regulate cell division and Shoot and

Root apical
differentiation in plants, promoting shoot and root
meristems,
root growth, and delaying senescence. They also meristems,
Cytokinins developing
influence apical dominance, leaf expansion, and leaves, and
seeds, young
nutrient uptake. developing
fruits
organs

Abscisic acid (ABA) regulates plant responses to

environmental stressors such as drought, salinity, Leaves, Guard cells,
Abscisic acid and cold temperatures. It promotes stomatal stems, roots, seeds, and
closure, inhibits seed germination and induces and seeds buds
dormancy in buds and seeds.

Ethylene is involved in various aspects of plant Ripening Various plant

growth and development, including fruit ripening, fruits, aging tissues,
Ethylene leaf senescence, and abscission (shedding of leaves, and including
leaves and fruits). It also regulates responses to nodes of fruit, leaves,
mechanical stress. stems and roots

RLJIT Page 24