Pakistan Languages and Humanities Review P-ISSN 2708-6453

April-June, 2022, Vol. 6, No. 2[687-694] O-ISSN 2708-6461

RESEARCH PAPER
Language Learning Strategies: An Overview Classification in the
Context and Effectiveness
Sarah Mohammed Alsanousi Alssayah Ahmad 1 Eyman Mosbah Ali
Mohammad 2 Baseer Ahmad Yaad* 3
1. Ph.D. Scholar, Department of English Language Teaching, Cyprus International
University, Turkey (TRNC)
2. Ph.D. Scholar, Department of English Language Teaching, Cyprus International
University, Turkey (TRNC)
3. Ph.D. Scholar, Department of English Language Teaching, Cyprus International
University, Turkey (TRNC)
DOI http://doi.org/10.47205/plhr.2022(6-II)59
PAPER INFO ABSTRACT
Received: Learning strategies are steps taken by learners to enhance their
February 28, 2022 learning. Active use of language learning strategies helps
Accepted: learners in control of their own learning by developing
June 06, 2022 language skills, increasing confidence, and motivation in the
Online:
target language learning process. Strategy instructions improve
June 08 , 2022
learners’ independent learning and autonomous learning and
Keywords:
Classification,
help learners to take responsibility for their own language
Effectiveness learning. The more strategies a learner uses, the more the learner
Self-efficacious, feels confident, motivated, self-efficacious, and successful. More
Strategy, strategic language learners advance along the proficiency
*Corresponding continuum faster than less strategic ones. The study found that
Author the students preferred to use cognitive, metacognitive, memory,
social, and Compensation strategies most, whereas they showed
[email protected]
the least use of affective.
Introduction

The essential idea in this paper is that language learning strategies are
fundamental components of educational modules, as bridges between competence
(what you have got to memorize to do) and handle (what you ought to go through to
reach that result). In today’s world, the global spread of English is “unprecedented
and unparalleled” Seidlhofer. (2011). English has developed to be an important
language for universal communication in different domains, hence picking up the
status as a lingua franca.

The Specific modifications involving general factors will influence the rate
and level of target language achievement. But how does their influence operate? One
possibility is that they affect the nature and the frequency with which individual
learners use learning strategies. According to cognitive learning theories, learners are
active participants in the learning and teaching process rather than passive recipients.

English Language abilities have been recognized nearly all around the
world as basic abilities to be successful in a globalized society. From a young age,
 Language Learning Strategies: An Overview Classification in the Context and Effectiveness

children spend numerous hours each day and weeks learning English and regularly
go to private English foundations and institutes to progress their English language
skills. In current years, studies on language learning strategy training and learner
autonomy have verified that language learning strategies (LLS) can be instructed to
language learners and that learner autonomy together with motivations for language
learning can lead to successful language learning outcomes e.g., Ho, & Crookall.
(1995); Keene, & Zimmermann. (1997); Kim. (2013).

Over the past four decades, researchers have recognized a number of

cognitive, affective, and sociocultural factors as suggestively contributing to this
variation in second language acquisition Brown. (2000). From this body of research,
language learning strategies LLSs consistently have emerged as a particularly
significant variable. Oxford's classification includes six groups of strategies: memory
strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies, metacognitive strategies,
affective strategies, and social strategies.

Review of Literature

Theoretical Background

Language learning strategies can be defined as “strategies that contribute to

the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect
learning directly” (Rubin. 1987, p. 23). O’Malley, and Chamot. (1990) described
learning strategies as “the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help
them comprehend, learn, or retain new information” (p. 1). It has been recognized
that language learning strategies not only endorse language learning and improve
learner-directed learning. Therefore, research on language learning strategies can
produce perceptions that can better monitor language learners.

Many previous studies on LLS were carried out to categorize what kinds of
learning strategies are effective for language learning generally for second language
learning. O’Malley and his colleagues (O’Malley, et al. (1985); O’Malley, & Chamot.
(1990) among others observed the use of strategies by learners of English as a Second
Language (ESL) and categorized these strategies into three groups: metacognitive
strategies, cognitive strategies, and socio-affective strategies. Metacognitive
strategies are used to plan for learning, reflect on the learning process, and monitor
one’s production or comprehension. Cognitive strategies are engaged while learners
carry out explicit learning tasks. Socio-affective strategies are concerned with social
arbitrating activity in communications with others. As such, some of the socio-
affective strategies can also be indicated as communication strategies.

Researchers like O’Malley, and Chamot. (1990), and Oxford, and Ehrman.
(1995) declare that as long as the learners make use of the strategies in a well-
organized way, the strategies will have an effect on their language performance,
accomplishment, proficiency, and autonomy beliefs. Thus, it is necessary for the
learners to use learning strategies in their language learning process. Active and
effective language learners are usually people who know how to operate learning
techniques according to their language needs.” The concept of learner autonomy has
been reiterated by Madrid (2000), who asserts that, “awareness is not enough;
learners need awareness with a purpose.” According to Hsiao, & Oxford. (2002),
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“strategies are the L2 learner’s tool kit for active, conscious, purposeful, and attentive
learning, and they pave the way toward greater proficiency, learner autonomy, and
self-regulation” (p. 372).

Language Learning Strategies Defined

Within English as a second language or English as a foreign language

education, a number of definitions of LLS have been used by authors in the field.
Early on, Tarone. (1983) defined an LLS as "an attempt to develop linguistic and
sociolinguistic competence in the target language -- to incorporate these into one's
interlanguage competence" (p. 67). Rubin. (1987) later wrote that LS "are strategies
which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner
constructs and affect learning directly" (p. 22). In their seminal study, O'Malley, and
Chamot. (1990) defined LLS as "the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use
to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information" (p. 1).

Finally, building on work in her book for teachers Oxford. (1990), Oxford.
(1992/1993) says, “...language learning strategies – specific actions, behaviors, steps,
or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their growth in
developing second language skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization,
storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed
involvement necessary for developing communicative ability”. (Oxford. 1992/1993,
p. 18) From these definitions, a change over time may be noted: from the early focus
on the product of LLS (linguistic or sociolinguistic competence), there is now a
greater emphasis on the processes and the characteristics of LLS. At the same time,
we should note that LLS are distinct from learning styles, which refer more broadly
to a learner's "natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and
retaining new information and skills" Reid. (1995, p. viii), though there appears to be
an obvious relationship between one's language learning style and his or her usual
or preferred language learning strategies.

Classification of Language Learning Strategies

Many classifications of language learning followed the first work on language

learning strategies, which created a lot of interest in the field of second language
learning. Also, there are several alternative taxonomies of language learning have
been used to classify behaviors and actions. The researchers have focused on how
successful or good language learners try to learn and tried to identify what strategies
worked for them to find which strategies are effective for language learning.

Stern. (1975), investigated strategies used by good language learners, and the
identified strategies include: Planning strategy (a personal learning style or positive
learning strategies), active strategy (an active approach to the learning task),
empathic strategy (a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language and
empathy with its speakers), formal strategy (technical know-how about how to tackle
a language), experimental strategy (a methodical but flexible approach, developing
the new language into an ordered system and constantly revising it), semantic
strategy (constant searching for meaning), practice strategy (willingness to practice),
communication strategy (willingness to use the language in real communication),
monitoring strategy (self-monitoring and critical sensitivity to language use), and
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 Language Learning Strategies: An Overview Classification in the Context and Effectiveness

internalization strategy (developing a second language as a separate reference system

and learning to think in it).

Rubin. (1981), investigated the learners’ use of language learning strategies in

both ESL and EFL contexts. She noted two distinct actions by learners. The first was
“actions permitting learning”, which she classified as ‘indirect” strategies. The latter
of the two actions were classified as “actions that contribute directly to learning or
direct strategies”. According to Lan. (2005, p.21), “Rubin’s model was based on her
observation of language learners, particularly the good language learners.” Bialystok.
(1978), as cited in Lan. (2005), classified language learning strategies under four
distinct strategies. Of these, the first called functional practicing relates to performing
a function, such as completing a transaction at a store or asking for directions. The
other two strategies classified as formal practicing and monitoring are utilized by
students in a formal classroom context for practice, verbal drills, and noting errors.
The fourth strategy is inferencing, which as the term implies refers to guessing and
arriving at answers through context clues. Bialystok’s framework encompasses the
cognitive and metacognitive elements of language learning. However, her model
does not take into account social and affective strategies, which play a crucial part in
language learning strategy use.

O’Malley. & Chamot. (1990) developed three types of strategies, namely

metacognitive strategies (selective attention, planning, monitoring and evaluating
learning activity), cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, inferencing,
summarizing, reducing, imagery, transfer, and elaboration), and social/affective
strategies (cooperation, questioning for clarification, and self-talk). The taxonomy is
given by Oxford. (1990), classified second language learning into six categories.
Oxford formulated her taxonomy under two broad heads of direct and indirect
strategies. Direct strategies included memory, cognitive, compensation strategies,
and indirect strategies encompassed metacognitive strategies, affective strategies,
and social strategies.

Wenden. (1991) proposed two main kind of learning strategies: cognitive

strategies (select information, comprehend, store and retrieve information) and self-
management strategies (monitor or manage learning process such as regulatory skills
or self-directed learning skills). Another commonly used language learning strategy
inventory designed by Cohen and Chi (2004) is the Learning Strategy Use Inventory.
The inventory is divided into listening, vocabulary, speaking, reading, writing, and
translation sections to measure strategy use.

Direct Strategies

a. Memory Strategies: These strategies enable the transfer of information to

long-term memory and recalling it for communication.
b. Cognitive Strategies: Used for creating mental models, revising and receiving,
and generating messages in the target language, these are mental strategies
utilized by students for making inferences out of what they have learned.
c. Compensation Strategies: These strategies enable students to overcome the
difficulties of communication by referring to body language and making
logical guesses.

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Indirect Strategies

a. Metacognitive Strategies: These are the strategies that allow the students to
plan, organize and evaluate their own learning process.
b. Affective Strategies: These strategies help learners control their feelings,
motivation, and attitudes associated to learning.
c. Social Strategies: These strategies are helpful for communication with others.

Table 1
Represents the major classifications of language learning strategies.
Researcher Classification
Stern Planning Active Empathic Experimental
Formal strategy
(1975) strategy strategy strategy strategy
Semantic Practice Communication Monitoring Internalization
strategy strategy strategy strategy strategy
Rubin
Direct strategies Indirect Strategies
1987
Communication
Learning strategies Social strategies
strategies
Cognitive
Metacognitive strategies
strategies
O’Malley
& Social/Affective
Cognitive strategies Metacognitive strategies
Chamot strategies
(1990)
Oxford
Direct strategies Indirect strategies
(1990)
Memory Cognitive Compensation Metacognitive Affective Social
Wenden
Cognitive Strategies Self-Management strategies
(1991)

Material and Methodology

Participants

The survey is applied to students who study at Cyprus International

University. Those students have different nationalities. All of them are Ph.D. students
of different years in the ELT department, who have already known six types of
language learning strategies. There are 6 males and 5 females which are 11 in total.

Table 2
Demographic description of participants
Description NO Percentage
Gender
Female 5 45.45%
Male 6 54.54%
Level of Studies
1st year (Ph.D. students of ELT) 7 63.63%
2 year (Ph.D. students of ELT)
nd 4 36.36%
Nationality
Afghanistan 1 9.09%
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 Language Learning Strategies: An Overview Classification in the Context and Effectiveness

Korea 1 9.09%
Libya 5 45.45%
Nigeria 2 18.18%
Pakistan 2 18.18%
Department
English Language Teaching 11 100%

The Research Question

Among the six LLSs, which ones are the most effective in language learning?

In this study quantitative method was employed. It was face to face survey,
the question was written on the whiteboard and the participants wrote the answers
on a separate page. That survey was used to collect quantitative data from the
respondents from students in the classroom. The data from the findings were
descriptively analyzed by using a calculator to find the percentage of language
learning strategies’ effectiveness for the students.

For the eventual determination of the current study LLSs list of six direct and
indirect strategies advanced by Oxford in 1990. There is measuring demographic
characteristics by means of a classification scale and information about such as
gender, level of studies, nationality, and department type are included. The direct
strategies contained the memory strategy, the cognitive strategy, and the
compensation strategy. The indirect strategies contained the metacognitive strategy,
the affective strategy, and the social strategy.

Findings

Table 3. shows the effectiveness of language learning strategies among

graduate-level students. Regarding its percentage of effectiveness, first, the cognitive
strategy used by 10 students which included 90,90%, second, the metacognitive
strategy used by 7 students which included 63.63%, third, the memory strategy used
by 5 students which included 45.45%, next, the social strategy used by 4 students
which included 36.36%, after that, the compensation strategy used by 2 students
which included 18.18%, and finally, the affective strategy used by none of the
students which included 0%.

Table 3
Shows the effectiveness of language learning strategies
Number of
No Strategies Effectiveness Percentage
Students
1 Memory 11 5 45.45%
2 Cognitive 11 10 90.90%
3 Compensation 11 2 18.18%
4 Metacognitive 11 7 63.63%
5 Affective 11 0 0%
6 Social 11 4 36.36%

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Discussion

The aim of this study is to examine the levels of effectiveness of language

learning strategies employed by graduate students of English language teaching. To
find the answers, the levels of effectiveness of language learning strategies used by
graduate students of English language teaching, the difference between the LLSs
among the graduate students were examined. The findings indicated that students
have used memory, metacognitive, cognitive, social, and compensation strategies
were used effectively, but the affective strategy level of effectiveness is below the
average.

Conclusion

This research paper has provided a brief overview of language learning

strategies by investigating their background and brief information about the
classification of relevant works. It has also outlined some ways that LLSs have been
used and offered by graduate students in the class. It has also raised two important
issues, posed questions for further LLSs research, and noted the effectiveness of these
strategies among the high-level students. In my opinion, using of LLSs are not only
encourages learners in their language learning but also helps teachers reflect on and
improve their students of English language learning. The finding that learners at the
graduate level report more strategy use than pupils indicates that learners at different
levels have different needs in terms of teacher interference in the learning process,
and strategy assistance can enhance learners’ self-efficacy and autonomous learning
and support learners to take accountability for their own learning. Finally, English
Language capabilities have been recognized as necessity and usefulness nearly all
around the world as basic abilities to be successful in the universal civilization.

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