Lesson Syllabus Topic Assignment
Reference
Sem2 Wk2 Ld3 Meiosis (process HW- Meiosis (15Q)
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Review of Wk1 – Mitosis
What Is a Gene?
• A Gene is a unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent to offspring and
is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring.
• Genes are segments of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that contain the code for
the production of a particular protein that functions in one or more types of cells
in the body.
• Alleles - Different versions of the same gene are called alleles
• Chromosomes are structures within cells that contain a person's genes. Genes
are contained in chromosomes, which are in the cell nucleus.
(Chromosomes are “packets of Genes”)
•
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In humans, each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46.
• Each human body cell contains 46 chromosomes.
• These can be arranged into 23 pairs.
• Each chromosome in a pair carries the same types of genes.
• The 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes:
• In females, the two chromosomes are identical in shape. There are two X
chromosomes. Females are referred to as XX.
• In males, one of the chromosomes is a different in shape. There is an X and also
a Y chromosome. Males are referred to as XY
Vocabulary
chromosome number, precise number of chromosomes typical for a given species
(Humans = 46, dog = 78, earthworm = 18, mosquitos = 6)
Diploid number (2n) - the number of each type of chromosome that an organism has.
Haploid number (n) - The number of chromosomes in a single set. In humans, n = 23.
Gametes – Sex cells (egg & sperm)
Gametes contain half the chromosomes contained in normal diploid cells of the body,
which are also known as somatic cells.
Somatic cells - any cell of a living organism other than the reproductive cells.
DNA - material that is present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of
chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information
Chromosomes – “packets of genes”
Chromatid - A chromatid is one of two identical halves of a replicated chromosome.
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Telomeres - the caps at the end of each strand of DNA that protect our chromosomes.
Centromere - A centromere is a constricted region of a chromosome that
separates it into a short arm (p) and a long arm (q).
The centromere is a region located near the middle of a chromosome to which the
microtubules of the spindle attach, during cell division. Some of the microtubules attach
the poles to the chromosomes by connecting to protein complexes called kinetochores.
Kinetochores are protein formations that develop on each chromosome around the
centromere, which is a region located near the middle of a chromosome. Other
microtubules bind to the chromosome arms or extend to the opposite end of the cell.
During the cell division phase called metaphase, the microtubules pull the
chromosomes back and forth until they align in a plane along the equator of the cell,
which is called the equatorial plane. The cell goes through an important checkpoint to
ensure that all of the chromosomes are attached to the spindle and ready to be divided
before it proceeds with division.
Centrioles - a minute cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in
pairs and involved in the development of spindle fibers in cell division
Centrosome - A centrosome is an organelle located near the nucleus in the cytoplasm
that divides and migrates to opposite poles of the cell during mitosis
Each animal cell has two centrioles located within a centrosome. Both centrioles and
centrosomes are complicated cell structures that are essential for cell division. The
centrosome directs the movements of the chromosomes when a cell divides, and the
centrioles help create the spindle of threads along which the duplicated
chromosomes separate into the two new cells.
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Spindle fiber – these are filaments that form the mitotic spindle in cell division, i.e.
mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis – is a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the
same number (diploid number 2n or 46) and kind of chromosomes as the parent nuclei
Mitosis consists of four basic phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase. ... Cytokinesis typically overlaps with anaphase and/or telophase.
You can remember the order of the phases with the mnemonic:
( I Pee on the MAT Cheerfully) or (I Prefer Milk And Tea or Coffee)
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Meiosis – MUST WATCH THESE VIDEOS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VzDMG7ke69g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zrKdz93WlVk
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Homologous
chromosomes are made
up of chromosome pairs of
approximately the same
length, centromere
position, and staining
pattern, for genes with the
same corresponding loci.
One homologous
chromosome is inherited
from the organism's
mother; the other is
inherited from the
organism's father.
Crossing Over - the point of crossing over is to increase genetic diversity.
During the formation of egg and sperm cells in meiosis, paired chromosomes from each
parent align (arrange themselves) so that similar DNA sequences from the paired
chromosomes cross over one another.
Crossing over is the swapping of genetic material that occurs in the germ line.
During the formation of egg and sperm cells, also known as meiosis, paired
chromosomes from each parent align so that similar DNA sequences from the paired
chromosomes cross over one another.
A sister chromatid refers to the identical copies (chromatids) formed by the DNA
replication of a chromosome, with both copies joined together by a common
centromere. In other words, a sister chromatid may also be said to be 'one-half' of the
duplicated chromosome.
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Mitosis & meiosis (process and purpose).
• The division of a cell occurs once in mitosis but twice in meiosis.
• Two daughter cells are produced after mitosis
• Four daughter cells are produced after meiosis.
• Daughter cells resulting from mitosis are diploid, while those resulting
from meiosis are haploid.
Meiosis
Meiosis -is a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the
number of chromosomes (haploid number n or 23 chromosomes) of the parent cell,
eg. in the production of gametes.
The four daughter cells are different from each other AND different from the parent cell.
(In mitosis, the two daughter cells are identical with each other and identical to the
parent cell. The parent makes two exact copies of itself, each cell contains 2n or 46
chromosomes, 23 chromosome pairs)
Meiosis consists of two divisions, both of which follow the same stages as mitosis
(prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase)
▪ Meiosis is preceded by interphase, in which DNA is replicated to produce
chromosomes consisting of two sister chromatids
▪ A second growth phase called interkinesis may occur between meiosis I and II,
however no DNA replication occurs in this stage
Meiosis I
The first meiotic division is a reduction division (diploid → haploid) in which
homologous chromosomes are separated
▪ P-I: Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, homologous
chromosomes form bivalents, crossing over occurs
▪ M-I: Spindle fibers from opposing centrosomes connect to bivalents (at
centromeres) and align them along the middle of the cell
▪ A-I: Spindle fibers contract and split the bivalent, homologous chromosomes
move to opposite poles of the cell
▪ T-I: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear membrane may reform, cell divides
(cytokinesis) to form two haploid daughter cells
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Meiosis II
The second division separates sister chromatids (these chromatids may not be identical
due to crossing over in prophase I)
▪ P-II: Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, centrosomes move
to opposite poles (perpendicular to before)
▪ M-II: Spindle fibers from opposing centrosomes attach to chromosomes (at
centromere) and align them along the cell equator
▪ A-II: Spindle fibers contract and separate the sister chromatids, chromatids (now
called chromosomes) move to opposite poles
▪ T-II: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear membrane reforms, cells divide
(cytokinesis) to form four haploid daughter cells
The final outcome of meiosis is the production of four haploid daughter cells
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NOTE – CROSSING OVER occurs in Prophase 1
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NOTE – Lined up in TWO Parallel Rows
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STAGE TWO now takes place (This is ordinary Mitosis)
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TEST: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zvb7hyc/test
1. Where are the chromosomes found in the cell?
A. In the nucleus
B. In the cytoplasm
C. In the genes
2. How many different bases are there in a DNA molecule?
A. Several thousand
B. Four
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C. Two
3. Which statement about DNA is correct?
A. Adenine (A) pairs with cytosine (C)
B. Thymine (T) pairs with adenine (A)
C. Cytosine (C) pairs with thymine (T)
4. What are the different forms of a gene called?
A. Genotypes
B. Bases
C. Alleles
5. Which statement about mitosis is correct?
A. It produces daughter cells with fewer chromosomes than the parent cell
B. It produces daughter cells with more chromosomes than the parent cell
C. It produces daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent
cell
6. As a result of mitosis, how many cells are produced?
A. One
B. Two
C. Four
7. As a result of meiosis, how many cells are produced?
A. Two
B. Four
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C. Eight
8. Which type of cell division produces genetically identical daughter cells?
A. Mitosis
B. Meiosis
C. Mitosis and meiosis
9. What happens during meiosis?
A. No copies of the chromosomes are made
B. Gametes are formed, each with a single set of chromosomes
C. The cell divides four times
10. Which statement about human cells is correct?
A. The haploid number of chromosomes is 23 and the diploid number is 46
B. The haploid number of chromosomes is 46 and the diploid number is 23
C. The diploid number of chromosomes is 24 and the triploid number is 36
REVIEW OF MEIOSIS
Meiosis
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-reproduction-and-cell-
division/hs-meiosis/v/comparing-mitosis-and-meiosis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VzDMG7ke69g (7:43 min)
Key Terms in Mitosis and Meiosis
term description
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Nucleus The nucleus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Inside its
fully enclosed nuclear membrane, it contains the majority of
the cell's genetic material. This material is organized as DNA
molecules, along with a variety of proteins, to form chromosomes.
Chromosome A chromosome is a DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule with
part or all of the genetic material (genome) of an organism.
(Chromosomes are packets of genes)
Homologous Set of chromosomes (one from each parent), that are very similar to
chromosomes one another and have the same size / shape
Phase of the cell cycle where the cell grows and makes a copy of its
Interphase DNA
Process in which homologous chromosomes trade parts
During the formation of egg and sperm cells, also known as
Crossing
meiosis, paired chromosomes from each parent align so that
over
similar DNA sequences from the paired chromosomes cross over
one another.
Gene A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are
made up of DNA. Some genes act as instructions to make molecules
called proteins. However, many genes do not code for proteins. In
humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more
than 2 million bases
DNA DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid; DNA) is a nucleic acid that is responsible
for the genetic information of living things. Most DNA is in the form of a
chromosome (chromosome) positioned in the nucleus. DNA has two
important functions.
1. DNA replication
The DNA of an organism Have the ability to create and simulate itself
during the cell division process to create the same DNA in all respects
to the new cell.
2. Transfer of information via RNA. (transcription)
DNA can be decoded to create a RNA (ribonucleic acid (RNA). This
RNA will be responsible for the arrangement of the amino acids in the
process of protein synthesis
Note: There are four different bases (Amino Acids) in DNA:.
adenine, A, thymine, T cytosine C, guanine, G. (RUNGS of the ladder)
Alan TinWin Cool Guy
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The DNA molecule shape is a spiral (corkscrew) Think of it as a
Twisted ladder)
There are two differences that distinguish DNA from RNA: (a) RNA
contains the sugar ribose, while DNA contains the slightly
different sugar deoxyribose (a type of ribose that lacks one
oxygen atom), and (b) RNA has the nucleobase(Amino acid) uracil
while DNA contains thymine
Nuclear A nuclear membrane is a double membrane that encloses the cell
membrane nucleus. It serves to separate the chromosomes from the rest of the
cell.
Chromatid is one-half of two identical copies of a replicated chromosome.
Prior to cell division, chromosomes are copied and identical
chromosome copies join together at their centromeres. Each strand of
one of these chromosomes is a chromatid. Joined chromatids are
known as sister chromatids
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Sister
Two halves of a duplicated chromosome
chromatids
Centromere A centromere is part of the region on the chromosome that links the
two sister chromatids together. (In all cells, plant or animal)
The centromere is the specialized DNA sequence of a chromosome
that links a pair of sister chromatids (a dyad).
The centromere is the central region of the chromosome which
consists of highly constricted DNA.
Centrosome The centrosome is an organelle that serves as the organizing center of
all microtubules in an animal cell. ... It occurs in animal cells. In the
process of cell division called mitosis, the centrosomes migrate to
opposite poles of the cell. The mitotic spindle then forms between the
two centrosomes. Upon division, each daughter cell receives one
centrosome.
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Note: Centrosomes, centrioles and centromeres are associated with
cell cycle and cell division. The spindle fibers are formed with the help
of centriole which attaches to the centromere during the cell division.
Centriole Eukaryotic cells contain two cylindrical, (rod or barrel
Shaped) microtubular structures called centrioles, near the nucleus.
A centriole is a barrel-shaped organelle which lives normally within
the centrosome. ... When the cell is going to divide, those centrioles
go to opposite ends of the nucleus. During mitosis, the centrioles form
spindle fibers that separate chromosomes during cell division.
Telomere A telomere is a region at each end of a chromosome, which protects
the end of the chromosome from deterioration
Spindle fiber Spindle fibers are a network of filaments that collectively form a mitotic
spindle (in mitosis) and meiotic spindle (in meiosis). They are
responsible in moving and segregating the chromosomes during
nuclear division
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Mitosis Mitosis is a type of cell division in which one cell (the mother) divides
to produce two new cells (the daughters) that are genetically identical
to itself.
meiosis A two-step process of cell division that is used to make gametes (sex
cells)
Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four
cells containing half the original amount of genetic information. These
cells are our sex cells – sperm in males, eggs in females.
During meiosis one cell? divides twice to form four daughter cells
Haploid (n) A cell that contains a single set of chromosomes. The term haploid
can also refer to the number of chromosomes in egg or sperm cells,
which are also called gametes. In humans, gametes (sex cells) are
haploid cells that contain 23 chromosomes, each of which a one of a
chromosome pair that exists in diplod cells. The number of
chromosomes in a single set is represented as n, which is also called
the haploid number. In humans, n = 23.
Diploid (2n) Cell that contains two sets of homologous chromosomes
Diploid is a cell or organism that has paired chromosomes, one from
each parent. In humans, cells other than human sex cells,
are diploid and have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Human sex cells (egg
and sperm cells) contain a single set of chromosomes and are known
as haploid.
Gamete A sex cell (in humans: sperm for males, and eggs for females)
A mature haploid male or female germ cell which is able to unite with
another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote.
Gametes are sex cells with 23 chromosomes
Zygote A fertilized egg - a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid
gametes; a fertilized ovum.
embryo an unborn or unhatched offspring in the process of development, in
particular a human offspring during the period from approximately the
second to the eighth week after fertilization (after which it is usually
termed a fetus).
ovum Egg cell - a mature female reproductive cell, especially of a human or
other animal, which can divide to give rise to an embryo usually only
after fertilization by a male cell.
Comparison of the processes of mitosis and meiosis.
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Mitosis produces two diploid (2n) somatic cells that are genetically identical to each
other and the original parent cell, whereas meiosis produces four haploid (n) gametes
that are genetically unique from each other and the original parent (germ) cell. Mitosis
involves one cell division, whereas meiosis involves two cell divisions.
During cell division, the identical copies are joined together at the region of the
chromosome called the centromere. Joined chromatids are known as sister chromatids.
Once the joined sister chromatids separate from one another in anaphase of mitosis,
each is known as a daughter chromosome.
Meiosis
The purpose of meiosis is to produce gametes, or sex cells. During meiosis, four
daughter cells are produced, each of which are haploid (containing half as many
chromosomes as the parent cell).
Stages of meiosis
Meiosis contains two separate cell divisions, meaning that one parent cell can produce
four gametes (eggs in females, sperm in males). In each round of division, cells go
through four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Before entering meiosis I, a cell must first go through interphase. This is the same
interphase that occurs before mitosis. The cell grows, copies its chromosomes
and prepares for division during the G1 phase, S phase, and G2 phase of interphase.
Remember: I Pee on the MAT Cheerfully
Meiosis I
Meiosis I is the first round of cell division, in which the goal is to separate homologous
pairs.
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The phases of meiosis I.
Prophase I ***: The starting cell is diploid, 2n = 4. Homologous chromosomes pair up
and exchange fragments in the process of crossing over. (genes get mixed up,
leading to diversity)
Metaphase I: Homologue pairs line up at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase I: Homologues separate to opposite ends of the cell. Sister chromatids stay
together.
Telophase I: Newly forming cells are haploid, n = 2. Each chromosome still has two
sister chromatids, but the chromatids of each chromosome are no longer identical to
each other.
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Meiosis II - The second round of cell division is meiosis II, in which the goal is to
separate sister chromatids.
Phases of meiosis II
Prophase II: Starting cells are the haploid cells made in meiosis I.
Chromosomes condense.
Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.
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Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate to opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase II: Cell membrane pinches in and divides into (non-identical) cells.
Newly forming gametes are haploid, (eg 23 chromosomes) and each chromosome now
has just one chromatid.(single strand)
Common mistakes and misconceptions
• Interphase is not part of meiosis. Although a cell needs to undergo interphase before
entering meiosis, interphase is technically not part of meiosis.
• Crossing over occurs only during prophase I. The complex that temporarily forms
between homologous chromosomes is only present in prophase I, making this the only
opportunity the cell has to move DNA segments between the homologous pair.
• Meiosis does not occur in all cells. Meiosis only occurs in reproductive cells, as the
goal is to create haploid gametes that will be used in fertilization.
• Meiosis is important to, but not the same as, sexual reproduction. Meiosis is
necessary for sexual reproduction to occur, as it results in the formation of gametes
(sperm and eggs). However, sexual reproduction includes fertilization (the fusion
between gametes), which is not part of the meiotic process.
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