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org/step

STEP Support Programme

Assignment 25

Warm-up
1 This assignment is mainly concerned with integration by substitution.
In general, substitution works like this. We are trying to integrate f(x), without success. So
we replace x with some function g(u) that we hope will make the integral easier:
Z Z
  dx
f(x) dx = f g(u) × du (∗)
du

dx dg(u)
where x = g(u). Here, means . We have done two things: we have replaced every x
du du
in the integrand with g(u), as we said we would, and we have also replaced dx with g0 (u) du
dx
(it is more memorable, but a little mathematically uncouth, to have in mind ‘dx = du du’).
If the integral had limits, there would be a third thing to do (see below).
You may have covered this in your A-level (or IB, etc) studies. If you have not, this assign-
ment will take you a little longer, but keep returning to (∗) and it should be fine.

(i) Try these:

Z
x
(a) dx (substitute x = u + 2);
Z x − 2
6x
(b) √ dx (substitute x = 21 (u2 − 1)) .
2x + 1
Once you have everything in terms of u and have integrated, you must remember to
rewrite anything in terms of u in terms of x; to do this, you will need to express u in
terms of x.

Z 1
1
(ii) Use the substitution x = 2 sin θ to evaluate √ dx .
0 4 − x2
We have used θ instead of u, which makes no difference: there is nothing special about
u — you can call the new variable anything you want (except x).
One way of doing the definite integral is to treat it first as an indefinite integral and,
at the very end of the calculation, evaluate at the upper and lower limits.
However, you can instead be a bit clever, and rewrite the integral with new limits
corresponding the values taken by the new variable. Perhaps it is best to do the above
integral this way, since that is what you need to do for the STEP question.
In this case, the lower limit x = 0 corresponds to sin θ = 0 i.e. θ = 0 .1 The upper
limit is a little more interesting.

1
There are lots of values of θ that give sin θ = 0, but we can choose to use the ”principal value”, which in the case
of sin θ is the one that lies in the range − π2 < θ 6 π2 . Note θ must be in radians. (Why?)

Assignment 25 1
 maths.org/step

Preparation

2 (i) Starting from

sin(A − B)
tan(A − B) = ,
cos(A − B)

find an expression for tan(A − B) in terms of tan A and tan B.

Recall that sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B; see Assignment 10 for more on this.

!
1
2 −x
(ii) Simplify ln 1 + 1 .
2 +x

(iii) By starting with sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1, find a relationship between tan θ and sec θ.
1
Note that sec θ is defined by sec θ = .
cos θ

d(tan θ)
(iv) Show that = sec2 θ.
dθ
You can use the product rule for this, if you write tan θ as a product of sin θ and sec θ;
or the quotient2 rule if you prefer. This is a very important result, worth “knowing by
heart”.

1 + sin 2α
(v) Show that = 21 (1 + tan α)2 .
1 + cos 2α
Lots of ways of doing this; you could use 1 = cos2 α + sin2 α in the numerator and, if
you like, in the denominator as well.

(vi) Let
84
x2
Z
I= dx . (†)
0 x2 + (84 − x)2
Use the substitution x = 84 − u to obtain
Z 84
(84 − u)2
I= du .
0 u2 + (84 − u)2
Rb Ra
Remember that in general a f(x) dx = − b f(x) dx
Now make the substitution u = x in this integral and add it to (†) to show that I = 42.

d u v du − u dv
2
The quotient rule is = dx 2 dx and can be derived by using the product rule on uv −1 .
dx v v

Assignment 25 2
 maths.org/step

The STEP question

3 By means of the change of variable θ = 14 π − φ, or otherwise, show that

1
Z
4
π
ln(1 + tan θ) dθ = 81 π ln 2.
0

Evaluate 1
Z 1 Z π  
ln(1 + x) 2 1 + sin x
dx and ln dx.
0 1 + x2 0 1 + cos x

Discussion

Unlike A-Level questions, STEP questions do not tend to tell you what substitution to use. Since
you have found the integral of ln(1 + tan θ) in the first part, trying to get to something of this form
might be a wise approach. You can also look at the limits to get an idea of what sort of substitution
might be helpful.

Try some intelligent guesses first (remember this question is designed to take you 30 minutes or
more!). Also look back at the preparation questions, which might nudge you in the correct direction.

Warm down

4 (i) Let Z a
f(x)
I= dx ,
0 f(x) + f(a − x)
where f(x) is some unspecified function3 .
Show (remembering question 2(vi) of this assignment) that
Z a
f(a − x)
I= dx
0 f(x) + f(a − x)

and deduce that I = 21 a.

Hence evaluate: 1
Z π
2 cos x
dx .
0 cos x + sin x

3
It doesn’t matter what it is, provided the denominator does not become zero for 0 6 x 6 a; that would be bad
news.

Assignment 25 3
 maths.org/step

f 0 (x)
(ii) If we differentiate ln (f(x)) using the chain rule, we get . Therefore,
f(x)

f 0 (x)
Z
dx = ln (f(x)) + c . (‡)
f(x)

We are assuming that f(x) > 0 so that that the logarithm makes sense.4

(a) Use (‡) to find

Z π
2 cos x
dx .
π sin x
4

f 0 (x)
(b) By expressing the integrand in the form , find
f(x)
Z
1
dx .
x ln x

(c) Suppose that

Z Z
cos x sin x
S= dx and T = dx.
cos x + sin x cos x + sin x
By considering S + T and S − T determine S and T .

The result (‡) is another one that is well worth “knowing by heart”!

f 0 (x)
Z
4
In general dx = ln |f(x)| + c.
f(x)

Assignment 25 4