A Photographic Atlas

for the

Botany Laboratory
SIXTH EDITION

Samuel R.. Rushforth

Utah Valley University

Robert R. Robbins
Utah Valley University

John L. Crawley
Kent Vil Van Des Graal
Weber State University

a
MORTON
I? AUP Wey Gb Wt Sy deh IE agp te

925 W. Kenyon Avenue, Unit 12

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 To biologists, conservationists,
and concerned people throughout the world
who actively strive to save nature.

Bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) 1s native to the

mountains of the Great Basin of the United States.
Bristlecone pine grows on arid, rocky slopes and ridges between
6,500 and 11,000 feet. Bristlecones are amoung the oldest living
organisms on earth and may live beyond 5,000 years.

Copyright 1994, 1995, 1998, 2004, 2008, 2012 by Morton Publishing Company
ISBN13: 978-0-89582-948-7
OM Sen Oe 4 a Oe ied
All rights reserved. Permission in writing must be obtained from the publisher before any part of
this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying and recording or by any information storage or retrieval system.
Printed in the United States of America
Preface
NN

Botany, a specialty in biology, is the study of plants. More than 95% of the Earth’s biomass is composed of plants. Because
plants
are so abundant, visible, and necessary to life, everyone has some interest in and knowledge of botany.
Plants and flowers, for example, are welcomed into our homes for their beauty. Florists remind us to “Say it with flowers.” Flowers
are easily cared for in a vase of water, where they remain attractive and aromatic for a few days. In contrast, plants are not so easily
cared for, but they can live and grow for more than just a few days. House plants need to be properly potted, watered regularly, and
occasionally fertilized. By providing this care, we learn about the nature and requirements of plants as we become amateur botanists.
Grasses, trees, and shrubs landscaped around our houses provide us with beauty, comfort, shade, and a sense of being connected to
nature.
The existence of all animal species depends on plants. From plants we are supplied with building materials, the oxygen we
breathe, and the food we eat. Through photosynthesis, plants use the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide to sugars,
releasing oxygen as a by-product.
Plants also provide us with materials required for producing medicines and paper. Insights and discoveries in botany are occurring
today at a rapid pace. What students will learn in a basic botany course will be of immeasurable value in understanding and making
decisions about the ecological problems currently facing our world. A basic botany course is essential as a secure foundation for
planning advanced life science study, as well as for basic scientific literacy.
Botany is a visually oriented science. A Photographic Atlas for the Botany Laboratory provides clear photographs and drawings of
tissues and organisms, similar to specimens seen in most botany laboratories. It is designed to accompany any botany (or biology)
text or laboratory manual used in the classroom. In certain courses this atlas may serve as the laboratory manual.
This atlas provides a visual representation of the major groups of botanical organisms. Care has been taken to construct labeled,
informative figures. Parts of organisms are depicted clearly and accurately. The terminology used matches college botany texts.
Several dissections of plants are provided for students who have the opportunity to do similar dissections in the class laboratory.
In addition, photomicrographs, photos of living specimens, and herbarium collections are included. These figures enhance the
student’s understanding of plant structure and plant classification. Plants of significant economic importance for food, shelter, and
medicines are highlighted.

Preface to Sixth Edition

The success of the previous editions of A Photographic Atlas for the Botany Laboratory provided opportunities to make extensive
changes to enhance the value of this new edition. The extensive revision of this atlas presented in its sixth edition required an
inordinate amount of planning, organization, and work. As authors, we have the opportunity and obligation to listen to the critiques
and suggestions from students and faculty who have used this atlas. This constructive input is appreciated and has resulted in a greatly
improved atlas.
One objective in preparing this edition of the atlas was to create an inviting pedagogy. The page layout was improved by careful
selection of new and replacement photographs. New and updated life cycles were added. Each image in this atlas was carefully
evaluated for its quality, effectiveness, and accuracy. In all over 100 images were updated or replaced. Perhaps the most notable change
to this sixth edition was a revision to the taxonomy in chapter three. We are indebted to Douglas Morton and the personnel at
Morton Publishing Company for this opportunity and their encouragement and support.

Photo Credits I SI TI ET NG ESTE EG SEES EEE IDES MII ECL ETL ELE EEE EER,
Ae a SS TRL RIT IS BO OD

Chapter 1: Figure 1.1 Leica Inc., Figure 1.7 B.A. Tait, Figures 1.8-10 Wilford M. Hess
Chapter 3: Figure 3.1 Alison R.Taylor, PLoS Jounals Figure 3.2 NASA Figure 3.23 NEON _ja Figures 3.27-31 A Photographic
Atlas for the Microbiology Laboratory, 4th Edition, by Michael J. Leboffe and Burton E. Pierce. © 2011 Morton Publishing.
Chapter 4: Figure 4.89 Ron Oldfield
Chapter 5: Figures 5.18,19,24,41 JamesV.Allen
Chapter 6: Figures 6.12,38,40,41 JamesV. Allen
Chapter 7: Figure 7.7 James V. Allen
Chapter 8: Figures 8.39,40,64 Champion Paper Co. Figure 8.63 JamesV.Allen |
Paper Co. Figures 9.184-
Chapter 9: Figures 9.9,127,128 Wilford M. Hess Figure 9.98 JamesV. Allen Figure 9.179 Champion
213 Utah Valley University Herbarium
Acknowledgments
Many professionals helped us prepare this atlas and share our enthusiasm for its value for botany students.We especially appreciate
Brigham Young University and The University of Utah for allowing us to photograph specimens in their botanical greenhouses.We
are thankful to Utah Valley University Herbarium for their generosity. Kaye H. Thorne and Thomas G. Black were helpful in selecting
specimens to include. Wilford M. Hess and James V.Allen provided scanning electron micrographs, and we appreciate their generosity.
Dawn Gatherum, Eugene Bozniak, and Rachael Bush in the Department of Botany at Weber State University were generous 1n
providing photographs and access to the university’s botanical greenhouse. The suggestions and assistance of H. Blaine Furniss were
greatly appreciated.
The professional input by reviewers and users has been invaluable. Peggy Rolfsen at Cincinnati State Technical and Community
College, Margaret Olive, Pensacola Junior College, Brenda L. Young, Daemen College and Larry St. Clair, Brigham Young University,
were most generous in their meticulous critique of the manuscript. Others who offered especially helpful input include Neil A.
Harriman, Theodore Esslinger, Frank W. Ewers, Patrick F Fields, Dale M. J. Mueller, John W. Taylor, Brian Speer, Lawrence Virkaitis,
Cecile Bochmer, and Anne S.Viscom1.

Book Team

Publisher: Doug Morton

Managing Editor: David Ferguson
Typography and Design: Focus Design
Cover: Bob Schram, Bookends Publication Design
Illustrations: Imagineering Inc.

Oleanderleaf Protea (Protea neriifolia)

is endemic to South Africa. Due to the variety in the size,
color, and shape of its flowers, the genus Protea is named after
the Greek god Proteus who could change his shape at will.
 Table of Contents
RUGS SSH Oe ere ec tan een Biel

Chapter 2 - Prokaryotes 12
Archaea—methanogens, and thermoacidophiles
Bacteria—bacteria and cyanobacteria
Chapter 3 - Protista 19
Phylum Haptophyta—coccolithophorids
Phylum Dinophyta (=Pyrrhophyta)—dinoflagellates
Phylum Bacillariophyta—diatoms
Phylum Chrysophyta—volden algae
Phylum Rhizopoda—amoebas
Phylum Apicomplexa—sporozoans and Plasmodium
Phylum Euglenophyta—cuglenoids
Phylum Sarcomastigophora—flagellated protozoans
Phylum Ciliophora—ciliates and paramecia

Algae
Phylum Chlorophyta—ereen algae
Phylum Phaeophyta—brown algae and giant kelp
Phylum Rhodophyta—ted algae
Protists Resembling Fungi
Phylum Myxomycota—plasmodial slime molds
Phylum Dictyosteliomycota (=Acrasiomycota)—cellular slime molds
Phylum Oomycota—water molds, white rusts, and downy mildews
Chapter 5 - Fungi, Yeasts, Molds, Mushrooms, Rusts, and Lichens | 61
Phylum Zygomycota—bread molds, fly fungi
Phylum Ascomycota—yeasts, molds, morels, and trufHes
Phylum Basidiomycota—mnushrooms, toadstools, rusts, and smuts
Phylum Deuteromycota—conidial molds
Lichens

_Chapter 6 - Liverworts, Hornworts, and Mosses _ 7

Phylum Hepatophyta—liverworts
Phylum Anthocerophyta—hornworts
Phylum Bryophyta—mosses

Chapter 7 - Seedless Vascular Plants 86

Phylum Psilotophyta (=Psilophyta)—whisk ferns
Phylum Lycophyta (=Lycopodiophyta)—club mosses, quillworts, and spike mosses
Phylum Equisetophyta (=Sphenophyta)—horsetails
Phylum Pteridophyta (=Polypodiophyta)—ferns

Chapter 8 - Gymnosperms: Exposed Seed Plants 104

Phylum Cycadophyta—cycads
Phylum Ginkgophyta— Ginkgo
Phylum Pinophyta (=Coniferophyta)—conifers
Phylum Gnetophyta—gnetophytes ;
Representative Herbarium and Photos of Live Specimens of Conifers

Phylum Magnoliophyta (=Anthophyta)—angiosperms: monocots and dicots

Representative Herbarium and Photos of Live Specimens of Flowering Plants

Glossary : 190

Index 197
Prelude I EE IIIT TEE ETE LTE TE
STS TC TSS ASI EEE TT SS ATE I

Scientists work to determine accuracy in understanding the relationship of organisms even when it requires changing established
concepts. Development, structure, function, DNA sequence, the fossil record and geological dating are used to establish systematics
and classify organisms.Asnew techniques become available, they too aid in our understanding of evolutionary relationships between
groups of organisms and closely related species.
In 1758 Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish naturalist, assigned all known kinds of organisms to two kingdoms-—plants and animals. For
over two centuries, this dichotomy ofplants and animals served biologists well. In 1969, Robert H. Whittaker convincingly made a
case for a five-kingdom system comprised of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The five-kingdom basis of systematics
prevailed for over twenty years, and is now being challenged with a new system that includes three domains (superkingdoms) and
Atlas for the Botany Laboratory, 1s based on
four kingdoms (see exhibit 1). This system, which is used in this edition of A Photographic
criteria used in the past and new techniques in molecular biology. It is important to note, however, that a classification scheme is a
human construct subject to alteration as additional knowledge is obtained.

Exhibit | Domains, Kingdoms, and Representative Examples ie

Bacteria Domain- Cyanobacte- Archaea Domain- Methanogens, Eukarya Domain- Eukarya,
Hla; tam negative and gram-positive halophiles, and thermophiles single-celled and multicelled organisms;
bacteria fungi, protists, plants, and animals

A oot 3 y € ri
‘

Oscillatoria sp., a cyanobacterium that repro- —_Thiothrix sp., a thermophile that oxidizes
duces through fragmentation HS for an energy source

Kingdom Protista. Kingdom Plantae — ~ Kingdom Animalia

ff Nein.

ee He a He that repro- Volvox sp.,a motile green alga Musa sp., the banana, is high in
eas Chamaeleo calyptratus, the veiled
y and sometimes that ae asexually or nutritional value and is one of | chameleon, is known for its ability
sexually sexually
sexually tl
a 1e twelve most i
Se important Z to change
2 ge colors
“0
colors acc ordingg to; its
accordi
quman food plants surroundings
1V
Basic Characteristics of Domains
Domain Characteristics
Bacteria Domain—Bacteria Prokaryotic cell; single circular chromosome; cell wall containing peptidoglycan;
chemosynthetic autotrophs, chlorophyll-based photosynthesis, photosynthetic
autotrophs, and heterotrophs; gram-negative and gram-positive forms; lacking
nuclear envelope; lacking organelles and cytoskeleton
Archaea Domain—Archaea Prokaryotic cell; single circular chromosome; cell wall with peptidoglycan absent;
membrane lipids, unique ribosomal RNA sequences; lacking nuclear envelope; some
with chlorophyll-based photosynthesis; with organelles, and cytoskeleton
Eukarya Domain—Eukarya Single-celled and multicellular organisms; nuclear envelope enclosing more than one
linear chromosome; membrane-bound organelles in most; some with chlorophyll-
based photosynthesis; lack organelles and cytoskeleton

Common Classification System of Selected Living Eukaryotes

Eukarya Domain— eukaryotes
Kingdom Fungi-— fungi
Phylum Zygomycota— bread molds and fly fungi
Phylum Ascomycota yeasts, molds, morels and truffles
Phylum Basidiomycota— mushrooms, rusts and smuts
Phylum Deuteromycota— conidial molds
Lichens
Kingdom Protista— heterotrophic and photosynthetic protists
Phylum Myxomycota— plasmodial slime molds
Phylum Dictyosteliomycota (=Acrasiomycota)— cellular slime molds
Phylum Oomycota— water molds
Phylum Euglenophyta— euglenoids
Phylum Cryptophyta— cryptomonads
Phylum Rhodophyta-— red algae
Phylum Dinophyta (=Pyrrhophyta)— dinoflagellates
Phylum Haptophyta— haptophytes
Phylum Chrysophyta— golden algae
Phylum Bacillariophyta— diatoms (diatoms are often placed in the phylum Chrysophyta)
Phylum Phaeophyta— brown algae
Phylum Chlorophyta— green algae
Kingdom Plantae— bryophytes and vascular plants
Phylum Hepatophyta— liverworts
Phylum Anthocerophyta— hornworts
Phylum Bryophyta— mosses
Phylum Psilotophyta (=Psilophyta)— wisk ferns
Phylum Lycophyta (=Lycopodiophyta)— club moss, ground pines and spike mosses
Phylum Equisetophyta (=Sphenophyta)— horsetails
Phylum Pterophyta (=Polypodiophyta)— ferns
Phylum Cycadophyta— cycads
Phylum Ginkgophyta— Ginkgo
Phylum Pinophyta (=Coniferophyta)— conifers
Phylum Gnetophyta— gnetophytes
Phylum Magnoliophyta (=Anthophyta)— angiosperms (flowering plants)
Kingdom Animalia— invertebrate and vertebrate animals (not discussed in this atlas)
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2023 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/photographicatlaO000unse_mOgO
 All organisms are comprised of one or more cells. Cells are Organs are two or more tissue systems that carry out specific
the basic structural and functional units of organisms. A cell is functions together. Examples of organs include floral parts,
usually minute, is bounded by a differentially permeable cell leaves, stems, and roots.
(plasma) membrane enclosing a protoplasmic mass consisting of The organism is the plant itself, which consists of all the
chromosomes surrounded by cytoplasm. Specific organelles are organs functioning together to keep it alive, allow it to grow,
contained in the cytoplasm that function independently but in and permit it to propagate.
coordination with one another. Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic Cell division and growth is the principle process for the
cells are the two basic types. development, growth, maintenance and repair of tissues in
Eukaryotic cells contain a true nucleus with multiple an organism. Cell division results in the production of two
chromosomes, have several types of specialized organelles. daughter cells that each receives a complete copy of all genetic
Organisms comprised of eukaryotic cells include protozoa, information in the parent cell, and the cytoplasmic substances
fungi, algae, plants, and invertebrate and vertebrate animals. and organelles to carry out hereditary instructions.
The more primitive prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound The term cell cycle refers to the repeated sequence of cell
nucleus; instead they contain a single molecule of DNA.These growth and cell division (mitosis and cytokinesis). Growth is the
cells have few organelles.A rigid or semi-rigid cell wall provides increase in cellular mass resulting from metabolism. Cellular
shape to the cell outside the cell (plasma) membrane. Bacteria are growth and activity is regulated by the production of RNA and
examples of prokaryotic, single-celled organisms. proteins based on the DNA genetic code. The DNA is replicated
The nucleus is the large, spheroid body within a eukaryotic (the chromosomes are duplicated) just prior to mitosis. Mitosis is
cell that contains the genetic material of the cell. The nucleus the exact division and separation of the chromosomes to form
is enclosed by a double membrane called the nuclear membrane, the two identical daughter nuclei. Cytokinesis 1s the division of the
or nuclear envelope. The nucleolus is a dense, nonmembranous cytoplasm that follows mitosis.
body in the nucleus composed of protein and RNA molecules. Unlike animal cells, plant cells have a rigid cell wall that
The chromatin is comprised of DNA molecules and associated does not cleave during cytokinesis. Instead, a new cell wall
proteins. Prior to cellular division, the chromatin shortens and develops between the daughter cells. Furthermore, many land
coils into rod-shaped chromosomes. Chromosomes consist of plants do not have centrioles. The microtubules in these plants
DNA and structural proteins called histones. form a barrel-shaped anastral spindle from each pole. Mitosis
The cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cell is the medium between and cytokinesis in plants occurs in basically the same sequence
the nuclear membrane and the cell membrane. Organelles are as these processes in animal cells.
small membrane-bound structures within the cytoplasm (other Asexual reproduction is propagation of new organisms without
than the nucleus). The structure and functions of the nucleus sex; that is, the production of new individuals by processes
and principal plant organelles are listed in Table 1.1. In order that do not involve gametes. Asexual reproduction occurs in
for cells to remain alive, metabolize, and maintain homeostasis, cells a variety of microorganisms, plants, and animals, wherein a
must have access to nutrients and respiratory gases, be able to single parent produces offspring genetically identical to itself.
eliminate wastes, and be in a constant, protective environment. Asexual reproduction is not dependent on the presence of
Plant cells differ in some ways from other eukaryotic cells other individuals. Neither meiosis or fertilization is required.
in that their cell walls contain cellulose for stiffness. Plant cells In asexual reproduction, all the offspring are genetically
also have vacuoles for water storage and membrane-bound identical (except for mutants). Types of asexual reproduction
chloroplasts with photosynthetic pigments for photosynthesis. and example organisms include:
Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform specific
functions.A flowering plant, for example, is composed of three 1. fission—a single cell divides to form two separate cells
tissue systems: (bacteria, protozoans, and other one-celled organisms);
De
1. The ground tissue system, providing support, regeneration, sporulation—amany cells are formed that may remain separate or
respiration, photosynthesis, and storage; join together in a cyst-like structure (algae, fungi, protozoans);
2. The vascular tissue system, providing conduction of water, 3. budding—buds develop on the parent and then become
nutrients, and sugars through the plant, detached (hydras, yeast, certain plants);
3. The dermal tissue system, providing surface covering 4. fragmentation—organisms break into two or more parts, and
and protection. each part is capable of becoming a complete organism
(flatworms, echinoderms, algae, some plants, and others).
 A Photographic Atlas for the Botany Laboratory

Sexual reproduction is production of new organisms through genetic variation in the offspring. The cells produced by
the union of genetic material from two parents. Sexual meiosis are all genetically different. The combining of gamete
reproduction usually involves meiotic nuclear division of genetic material at fertilization produces offspring that
diploid cells to produce haploid gametes (such as sperm and are genetically different from either parent and contain
egg cells). This is followed by the fusion of the gametes during new combinations of genes. This may increase the ability of
fertilization and the formation of a zygote. the species to survive environmental changes or to reproduce
The major biological difference between sexual and in new habitats. Genetic variation that can arise in asexual
asexual reproduction is that sexual reproduction produces reproduction comes from mutations.

Table 1.1 Structure and Function of Components of Eukaryotic Plant Cells

Component Structure Function
Cell (plasma) membrane Composed of protein and phospholipid Provides form to cell; controls passage
molecules of materials into and out of cell
Cell wall Cellulose fibrils Provides structure and rigidity to
plant cell
Cytoplasm Fluid to jelly-like substance Serves as suspending medium for
organelles and dissolved molecules
Endoplasmic reticulum Interconnecting membrane-lined Enables cell transport and processing of
channels metabolic chemicals
Ribosome Granules of nucleic acid (RNA) and protein Synthesizes protein (translation)
Mitochondrion Double-membraned sac with cristae Assembles ATP (cellular respiration)
(inner membrane folds)
Golgi complex Flattened membrane-lined chambers Synthesize carbohydrates and packages
molecules for secretion
Lysosome Membrane-surrounded sac of enzymes Digests foreign molecules and worn cells
Centrosome Mass of protein that may contain rod-like Organizes spindle fibers and assists
centrioles mitosis and meiosis, centrioles form
flagellar basal bodies
Vacuole Membranous sac Stores and releases substances within the
cytoplasm, regulates cellular turgor
pressure
Microfibril and Protein strands and tubes Forms cytoskeleton, supports cytoplasm
microtubule and transports materials
Cilium and flagellum Cytoplasmic extensions from cell; containing Movement of particles along cell
microtubules surface or cell movement
Nucleus Nuclear envelope (membrane), nucleolus, and Contains genetic code that directs cell
chromatin (DNA) activity; forms ribosomes
Chloroplast Double-membraned sac containing grana Carries out photosynthesis
(thylakoid membranes)
 Cells and Tissues 3

Figure 1.1 (a) A compound

monocular microscope, and (b) a
compound binocular microscope.
1. Eyepiece (ocular)
2. Body
3. Arm
4. Nosepiece
5. Objective
6. Stage clip
7. Focus adjustment knob
8. Fixed stage
9. Condenser with iris
diaphragm
10. Fine focus adjustment knob
11. Collector lens with field
diaphragm
12. Illuminator (inside)
13. Base

(b)
Photograph courtesy of: Leica Inc., Deerfield, IL

Figure 1.2 A prokaryotic cell.

1. Cell wall
2. Cell (plasma) membrane
3. Rubosomes
4. Circular molecule of DNA
5. Thylakoid membranes
 os a — A Photographic Atlas for the Botany Laboratory nia

Figure 1.3 A typical eukaryotic

plant cell.
. Cell wall
. Cell (plasma) membrane
. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
. Nucleus
. Nucleolus
. Nuclear membrane (envelope)
. Lysosome
. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
. Mitochondrion
aneHE
MN
OO. Vacuole
BWN
OND

. Golgi complex
psyNO
oe . Chloroplast

Organ (leaf)
comprised of
tissues

Stem

Leaf tissues
comprised of cells

Figure 1.4 Structural levels of plant organization.

 Cells and Tissues 5

5
8

Se, ‘ E u

@. ee a i * 430X a .
Figure 1.5 Live Elodea sp. leaf cells (a) photographed at the center of the leaf and (b) at the edge of the leaf.
i Cell wall 3. Nucleus 5. Spine-shaped cell on 6. Nucleus 8. Cell wall
2. Chloroplasts 4. Vacuole exposed edge ofleaf 7. Chloroplasts

TOO0OX
Figure 1.6 (a) Cells of a potato, Solanum tuberosum, showing starch grains at a low magnification, and (b) at a high magnification.
Food is stored as starch in potato cells, which is deposited in organelles called amyloplasts.
1. Cell wall 2. Cytoplasm 3. Starch grains 4. Nucleus

vy te ip
Figure 1.8 Electron micrograph of a portion of a sugar
Figure 1.7 Electron micrograph of alfalfa root cells. Gate leat cell,
a4 Ge mbrane
es . cine 1. Cell membrane 5. Grana
2. Immature plastid 6. Nucleus
: é : 2. CellZ wall . 6. Stroma
coe ;
3. Endoplasmic reticulum 7. Nuclear envelope
3. Mitochondrion 7. Thylakoid membrane
4. Cell wall 8 Mitochondrion
aces : 4. Nucleus 8. Chloroplast envelope
 — en

‘ 5

Sa : ~ * 7 es
Be Ai : aoe 2 a ye a ; ates? S. 7

Figure 1.9 Electron micrograph of fractured barley Figure 1.10 Electron micrograph of barley smut spore,
smut spore. fractured through the middle of the cell.
1. Cell wall 2. Cell membrane 1. Cell wall 3. Mitochondrion 5. Nucleus
2. Cell membrane — 4. Nuclear pore 6. Vacuole

|
Z
3
Ce 100X
- 2 ae i Figure 1.12 Transverse section through the leaf of a yucca,
Figure 1.11 Longitudinal section through the xylem Yucca brevifolia. A bundle of leaf fibers (sclerenchyma) is
of pine, Pinus sp., showing tracheid cells with prominent evident at the edge of the leaf.
borceted pits. 1. Epidermis 2. Sclerenchyma tissue
1. Bordered pits 3. Cell wall
2. Tracheid cell

bo

Figure 1.13 Collenchyma tissue from the stem of a

begonia. Collenchyma tissues has unevenly thickened Figure 1.14 Longitudinal section through the xylem of a
primary cell walls that form supportive strands beneath squash stem, Cucurbita maxima.The vessel elements shown
the epidermis in stems and petioles. here have several different patterns of wall thickenings.
: : . Par E 1Cé e
1. Cell lumen 2. Thickened primary cell wall - eeucie tyme St Bene re ne
2. Annular vessel elements 4. Pitted vessel elements
 Cells and Tissues 7

Ore
rt
@: WH
-

Figure 1.16 Su
sp., with individual cells pressed together to form a
parenchyma-like tissue.
1. Epidermis 3. Phloem sieve cells 1. Cells of Enteromorpha
2. Parenchyma 4. Xylem tracheid

as
bo

: ; Sy ‘ } 18
5 aS! ) , d ~ ee ef 8. Su: ahs pier DU b= 180
AA terete tzu Os 0. a Hae HD é ae
ss

Figure 1.17 Transverse section of a stem from Figure 1.18 Transverse section of an oak, Quercus sp., stem
Hoya carnosa, wax plant. through the secondary xylem (wood).
1. Epidermis 3. Sclereids 5. Secondary 1. Vessel elements 2. Sclerenchyma (fibers)
2. Parenchyma 4. Secondary phloem xylem
(cortex)

2 2)

ie
3

: ee ? 430X

Figure 1 AS cieeny of sieve tube elements in the Figure 1.20 Astrosclereid in the petiole of a pond lily, Nuphar sp.
phloem of a grape, Vitis vinifera. Note the sieve areas on the 1. Astrosclereid 3. Crystals in cell wall
sieve tube elements. 2. Parenchyma cell
1. Cell wall 2. Sieve areas
 8 A Photographic Atlas for the Botany Laboratory

in)

: = 0)
BP SRS
5

Figure 1.21 Transverse section through the leaf of a Figure 1.22 Section through the endosperm tissue of a
yucca, Yucca brevifolia, showing a vascular bundle (vein). persimmon, Diospyros virginiana. These thick-walled cells are
Note the prominent sclerenchyma tissue forming caps actually parenchyma cells. Cytoplasmic connections, or
on both sides of the bundle. plasmodesmata, are evident between cells.
1. Leaf parenchyma 4. Phloem 1. Plasmodesmata 2. Cell lumen (interior
2. Bundle sheath 5. Bundle cap space)
3. Xylem

Ape
Figure 1.24 Section through the stem of a wax plant, Hoya
Linum sp. Note the thick-walled fibers as compared to carnosa. Thick-walled sclereids (stone cells) are evident.
the thin-walled parenchyma cells. 1. Parenchyma cell 2. Sclereid (stone cell)
1. Fibers 2. Parenchyma cell containing starch grains

One (duplicated)
chromosome __|
composed of two
identical chromatids

Chromatid

Chromatin strand Centromere

Figure 1.25 Each duplicated chromosome consists of two identical chromatids

attached at the centrally located and constricted centromere.
 Cells and Tissues 9

Interphase Early prophase Late prophase

Late prophase — Mid anaphase

Metaphase

Cytokinesis, forming
Late anaphase Early telophase two new daughter cells

Figure 1.26 Diagram showing the stages of mitosis in an onion root tip.
1. Centromere 4. Nuclear envelope 7. Chromatids
2. Cell wall 5. Nucleolus 8. Cell plate
3. Cytoplasm 6. Chromatin material condenses to form chromatids 9. Phragmoplast

Figure 1 .27 Hyacinthus sp. root tip immediately behind the meristem, showing stages of mitosis (see fio 1228):
 10 A Photographic Atlas for the Botany Laboratory

TED

Early prophase — Chromatin begins Late prophase — Nuclear envelope Early metaphase — Duplicated
to condense to form chromosomes. intact, and chromatin condensing into chromosomes, each made up of two
chromosomes. chromatids, at equatorial plane.

> ws : ue _

Late metaphase — Duplicated Early anaphase — Sister chromatids Late anaphase — Daughter
chromosomes, each made up of two beginning to separate into daughter chromosomes nearing poles.
chromatids, at equatorial plane. chromosomes.

Figure 1.28 Stages of mitosis in

hyacinth, Hyacinthus, root tip.
(all 430X)

Telophase — Daughter Interphase — Two daughter cells

chromosomes at poles, cell result from cytokinesis.
plate forming.
1. Cell plate 2. Phragmoplast
 ___Cells and Tissues _

O tes
Prophase I—Each chromosome consists Metaphase I—Chromosome Anaphase I—No division at the
of two chromatids joined by a centromere. pairs align at the equator. centromeres occurs as the chromosomes
1. Chromatids 1. Chromosome pairs at equator separate, so one entire chromosome
2. Nucleolus 2. Spindle fibers goes to each pole.
1. Chromosomes (two chromatids)

i 4
Telophase I—Chromosomes Prophase Il—Chromosomes condense Metaphase IIl—Chromosomes align
lengthen and become less distinct. as in prophase I. on the equator and spindle fibers attach
The cell plate (in some plants) forms 1. Chromosomes (two chromatids) to the centromeres. This is similar to
between forming cells. metaphase in mitosis.
1. Cell plate (new cell wall) 1. Chromosomes
2. Chromosome

Figure 1.29 Stages of meiosis

in lily microsporocytes to form
microspores. (all 1000X)

Anaphase II—Chromatids Telophase Il—Cell division is

separate and each is pulled to an complete and cell walls of four haploid
opposite pole. cells are formed.
eh tid 1. Chromatids
i bee 2. New cell walls (cell plates)
 Prokaryotes range between 1 and 50 pum in width or diameter. and lack peptidoglycan (characteristic of bacteria). Archaea have
The morphological appearance of bacteria may be spiral distinctive RNAs and RNA polymerase enzymes. They include
(spirillum), spherical (coccus), or rod-shaped (bacillus). Cocci methanogens, typically found in swamps and marshes, and
and bacilli frequently form clusters or linear filaments, and may thermoacidophiles, found in acid hot springs, acidic soil, and
have bacterial flagella. Relatively few species of bacteria cause deep oceanic volcanic vents.
infection. Hundreds of species of non-pathogenic bacteria live Methanogens exist in oxygen-free environments and subsist
on the human body and within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. on simple compounds such as CO,, acetate, or methanol. As
Those in the GI tract constitute a person’s gut fauna, and are their name implies, Methanogens produce methane gas as a
biologically critical to human health. byproduct of metabolism. These organisms are typically found
Photosynthetic bacteria contain chlorophyll and_ release in organic-rich mud and sludge that often contains fecal
oxygen during photosynthesis. Some bacteria are obligate aerobes wastes.
(require O, for metabolism) and others are facultative anaerobes Thermoacidophiles are resistant to hot temperatures and
(indifferent to O, for metabolism). Some are obligate anaerobes high acid concentrations. The cell membrane of these organisms
(oxygen may poison them). Most bacteria are heterotrophic contains high amounts of saturated fats, and their enzymes
saprophytes, which secrete enzymes to break down surrounding and other proteins are able to withstand extreme conditions
organic molecules into absorbable compounds. without denaturation. These microscopic organisms thrive in
Many Archaea are adapted to a limited range of extreme most hot springs and hot, acid soils.
conditions while others are found in soil and oceanic The oldest known fossil cells are prokaryotic and many
plankton. The cell walls of Archaea contain pseudomurein formed deposits called stromatolites.

ine)

Figure 2.2 Thiothrix sp. filament with sulfur granules in

its cytoplasm.
|. Filament 2. Sulfur granules

ine)

Figure 2.1 Thiothrix, a genus of bacteria that forms

sulfur granules in its cytoplasm. These organisms obtain
Figure 2.3 Magnified Thiothrix sp. filament with sulfar granules
energy from oxidation of H.S. in its cytoplasm.
1. Filaments 2. Sulfur granules 1. Cytoplasm 2. Sulfur granules
 Prokaryotes

Figure 2.4 Bacillus megaterium. Figure 2.5 Transverse section Figure 2.6 Spirochete, Borella
Bacillus is a bacterium capable of through the root nodule of clover recurrentis. Spirochetes are flexible
producing endospores. This showing intracellular nitrogen-fixing rods twisted into helical shapes. This
species of Bacillus generally remains bacteria. species causes relapsing fever.
in chains after it divides. 1. Cell with bacteria 1. Red blood cells
2. Epidermis 2. Spirochete
3. White blood cell

s :
on hs
¢

- ¢ ct

» : . .” &,

Jas a 10038
Figure 2.7 Tieponema pallidum is a Figure 2.8 Neisseria gonorrhoeae is a Figure 2.9 Anabaena sp. filament.
spirochete that causes syphilis. diplococcus that causes gonorrhea. This organism is a nitrogen-fixing
1. Treponema pallidum cyanobacterium. Nitrogen fixation
2. White blood cell takes place within the heterocyst cells.
1. Heterocyst 3. Vegetative
2. Spore (akinete) cell

i)

1700.
Figure 2.12 Conjugation of the
bacterium Escherichia coli. By this
a oe AA process of conjugation, genetic
Figure 2.11 Flagellated bacterium, material is transferred through the
Figure 2.10 Anabaena sp. filament. This conjugation tube from one cell to the
is a nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium. Pseudomonas sp.
other allowing genetic recombination.
Nitrogen fixation takes place within 1. Flagellum
|. Bacterium 2. Conjugation tube
the heterocyst cells.
1. Vegetative cell 3. Spore (akinete)
2. Heterocyst
 14 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Table 2.1 Some Representatives of Bacteria and Archaea

Categories Representative Genera
Bacteria
Photosynthetic bacteria
Cyanobacteria Anabaena, Oscillatoria, Spirulina, Nostoc

Green bacteria Chlorobium

Purple bacteria Rhodospirillum
Gram-negative bacteria Proteus, Pseudomonas, Escherichia, Rhizobium, Neisseria

Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Clostridium, Listeria

Spirochetes Spirochaeta, Treponema

Actinomycetes Streptomyces
Rickettsias and Chlamydias Rickettsia, Chlamydia
Mycoplasmas Mycoplasma
Archaea
Methanogens Halobacterium, Methanobacteria

Thermoacidophiles Thermoplasma, Sulfolobus

Nitrogen (N,) in atmosphere

Nitrite

; Organic compounds
(e.g., proteins geen (e.g., proteins Sah Nitrogen
and nucleotides) eee = =oandnucleotides) [i : fixation

rata re et

Nitrates }
in soil

—<
a:*
0

Nitrites ee) Ammonium trogen fixation

insol _———— (NH,*)
in soil

rogen-fixing bacteria within the root nodules of

legumes (and some free living bacteria and cyanobacteria), provide a usable source of nitrogen to plants.
 Prokaryotes 5

Figure 2.14 Colonies of Streptococcus pyogenes cultured Figure 2.15 Cyanobacteria live in hot springs and hot
on a nutrient agar plate. S. pyogenes causes strep throat and streams, such as this 40 meter effluent from a geyser in
theumatic fever in humans. This agar plate is approximately Yellowstone National Park.
10 cm in diameter. 1. Mats of Cyanophyta

= = oe i os

Figure 2.16 Cyanobacteria of several species growing Figure 2.17 Magnified view of the cyanobacterium
in the effluent from a geyser. The different species are Chroococcus sp. shown with a red biological stain.
temperature dependent and form the bands of color.

af M44
168
[A

Soa

The cells are in a single-layer

Figure 2.18 Merismopedia, a genus of cyanobacterium, is characterized by flattened colonies ofcells.
usually aligned into groups of two or four.
16 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Figure 2.19 Colony of Nostoc sp. filaments. Individual Figure 2.20 Oscillatoria sp. filaments. The only way this
filaments secrete mucilage, which forms a gelatinous cyanobacterium can reproduce is through fragmentation
matrix around all filaments. of a filament. Fragments are known as hormogonia.
1. Filaments 2. Gelatinous matrix L. Hormogonium

1 4

3 reersVee a ci SN eb ne Oe
2: a - a — ul

1000X 430%
efi oa) ronan ore einer Mr (Cealiana: Figure 2.22 Oscillatoria sp. filament showing necridia.
sp. This cyanobacterium is common in most aquatic habitats. ened aie ee
2 : 3 eae ° ecridia a. or ¢
1. Filament segment 2. Separation disk (necridium) 4
(hormogonium)

Figure 2.23 Scytonema sp., a cyanobacterium, is common on

Figure 2.24 Stigonema sp., a cyanobacterium, has true-branched
moistened soil. Notice the falsely-branched filament typical of
filaments caused from cell division in two separate planes.
this genus. This species also demonstrates “winged” sheaths.
|. ‘True branching
1. False branching 2. “Winged” sheath
 Prokaryotes 17

TTT

Figure 2.25 Tolypothrix sp., a cyanobacterium with a single Figure 2.26 Longitudinal section of a fossilized stromatolite
false-branched filament. two billion years old. Layering indicates the communities
1. Heterocysts 2. False branching Oa iieatn of bacteria and cyanobacteria mixed with sediments. This
specimen originates from Australia (scale in mm).

tO

1000X% 430X

Figure 2.27 Cyanobacterium, Chamaesisphon sp., growing Figure 2.28 Lyngbya birgeii, a cyanobacterium, is common in
as an epiphyte on green algae, Cladophora sp. eutrophic water throughout North America.
1. Cladophora sp. 2. Chamaesisphon sp. 1. Extended sheath 2. Filament of living cells

a, Fhe g dui
3) eer ae
Py { Kai a Learen ~wiseaah
PST} wore? te *
52 ahr? %¢
otanh? €.ay
x! e
33%

a
RY 240X%

Figure 2.29 Microcystis aeruginosa, a cyanobacterium, that can Figure 2.30 Spirulina sp., a cyanobacterium, showing
cause toxic water “blooms”. characteristic spiral trichomes.
18 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

8'

Figure 2.31 Glaucocystis sp. is a green alga with Figure 2.32 Microcoleus sp. is one of the most common
cyanobacteria as endosymbionts. cyanobacteria in and on soils throughout the world. It is
1. Cyanobacteria endosymbiont characterized by several filaments in a common sheath.

= 430K zt

Figure 2.33 Satellite image of a Figure 2.34 Arthrospira sp., a common Figure 2.35 Aphanizomenon sp., a
large lake. The circular pattern in the cyanobacterium. cyanobacterium common in
water is comprised of dense growths nutrient-rich (often polluted)
of cyanobacteria. waters around the world.
1. Spore (akinete) 2. Filament

% ‘ sip eS ‘ ho ane Sa me j nee. e aa Fs, ¥

Figure 2.36 Spring seep in Zion Figure 2.37 Researcher examining Figure 2.38 Close up photo of
National Park, Utah. cyanobacterial growths on soil in cryptobiotic soil crust. These crusts
1. Mat of cyanobacteria. Canyonlands National Park, Utah. are comprised of cyanobacteria,
fungi, lichens, and other organisms.
 Protists are eukaryotic organisms that range in size from The Dinophyta are single-celled, algae-like organisms,
microscopic unicellular organisms to multicellular giant kelp. the most important of which are the dinoflagellates. In most
Protists are all comprised of eukaryotic cells and therefore have species of dinoflagellates, the cell wall is formed of armor-like
a nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulae, and Golgi plates of cellulose. Dinoflagellates are motile, having two flagella.
complexes. Some contain chloroplasts. Most protists are capable Generally one encircles the organism in a transverse groove, and
of meiosis and sexual reproduction; these processes evolved a the other projects to the posterior.
billion or more years ago and occur in nearly all complex plants The similarity of flagella (whiplash and tinsel) and genetic
and animals. evidence indicates that the Chrysophyta, Bacillariophyta, and
Protists are abundant in aquatic habitats, and are important Phaeophyta, along with the Oomycota, share a common
constituents of plankton. Plankton are communities of organisms ancestor. These four groups are referred to as Heterokonts. The
that drift passively or swim slowly in ponds, lakes, and oceans. Haptophyta produce calcium carbonate scales on their cells are
Plankton are a major source of food for other aquatic organ- the cause of white tides.
isms. Photosynthetic protists are the primary food producers in Protozoa are also protists. They are small (2um — 100pm),
aquatic ecosystems. unicellular eukaryotic organisms that lack a cell wall. Movement
The unicellular algal protists include microscopic aquatic of protozoa is either lacking or due to flagella, cilia, or
organisms within the phyla Chrysophyta, Bacillariophyta, pseudopodia of various sorts. In feeding upon other organisms
Dinophyta, and Haptophyta and several other groups. or organic particles, they use simple diffusion, pinocytosis, active
Chrysophyta are the yellow-green and golden-brown algae, transport, or phagocytosis. Although most protozoa reproduce
usually unicellular while some are colonial, and found mainly asexually, some species may also reproduce sexually during
in freshwater habitats. The cell wall in the Bacillariophyta, the a portion of their life cycle. Most protozoa are harmless,
diatoms, is composed largely of silica rather than cellulose. although some are of immense clinical concern because they are
Some diatoms move in a slow, gliding way as cytoplasm parasitic and may cause human disease, including African
glides through slits in the cell wall to propel the organism. sleeping sickness and malaria.

Table 3.1 Some Representatives of the Protista: Primarily Unicellular Organisms

Taxa and Representative Kinds Characteristics
Haptophyta—coccolithophorids Cells covered with calcium carbonate scales termed coccoliths; significant
marine phytoplankton component
Dinophyta (=Pyrrophyta)—dinoflagellates Two flagella in grooves of wall; brownish-gold plastids; significant marine
phytoplankton component
Bacillariophyta—diatoms Diatom cell walls with silica, often with two halves; significant marine and
Plant-like freshwater phytoplankton component
Chrysophyta—golden algae Mainly freshwater algae; plastids often golden due to chloroplast pigment
composition

Rhizopoda—amoebas Cytoskeleton of microtubules and microfilaments; amoeboid locomotion

Apicomplexa-—sporozoa and Plasmodia Lack locomotor capabilities and contractile vacuoles; mostly parasitic
Sarcomastigophora—protozoa Use flagella or pseudopodia to locomote; mostly parasitic
Animal-like Euglenophyta—euglenoids Flagellates containing chloroplasts, lacking typical cell walls
Ciliophora—ciliates and Paramecium Use cilia to move and feed
 20 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Phylum Haptophyta - coccolithophorids

Figure 3.2 Coccolithophorids are responsible for white tides as

seen in this satalite photo near the English Channel.

Phylum Dinophyta - dinoflagellates

bo

(a)
ca Zl .

Figure 3.3 Dinoflagellates, Peridinium sp. (a) Some organisms are living; (b) others are dead and have lost their cytoplasm and
consist of resistant cell walls.
1. Dead dinoflagellate 2. Living dinoflagellate 3. Cellulose plate 4. Remnant of cytoplasm

ine)

i ce CE Ad 6 eae en a ; 200X
Figure 3.4 Giant clam with bluish coloration due to Figure 3.5 Photomicrograph of Figure 3.6 Ceratium sp.,
endosymbiont dinoflagellates. Peridinium sp. The cell wall of many a common fresh water
dinoflagellates is composed of dinoflagellate.
overlapping plates of cellulose. 1. Transverse groove
|. ‘Transverse groove 2. Trailing flagellum
2. Wall of cellulose plates
 Protista
21

Endospore Mucilage

Germination
Preliminary
wall
Exospore
with spines

Hypnospore
Sexual
cycle he
Cell rounds
up Asexual
Dormant oN
cycle_
(resting cyst)
Zygote
enlarges

Isogametes (n)
Zygote (2n)

|Fertilization |

Figure 3.7 Life cycle of the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium sp.

220 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Phylum Bacillariophyta - diatoms

Gamete
oa
producing cells

Initial cell (2n) Isogametes (n)

Stages in auxospore
germination

Figure 3.8 Life cycle of apennate diatom.

tit

Initial cell

Division of
auxospore
(mitosis)

Mature auxospore
Young auxospore (2n)

Figure 3.9 Life cycle of a centric diatom.

24 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

ie)

: a ae 240K
Figure 3.10 Biddulphia sp., a Figure 3.11 Live specimens of pen- Figure 3.12 Hyalodiscus sp., a centric
diatom forming colonies. These nate (bilaterally symmetrical) diatoms. (radially symmetrical) diatom, from
cells are beginning cell division. (a) Navicula sp., and (b) Cymbella sp. a freshwater spring in Nevada.
1. Chloroplast 2. S\GNE 1. Silica cell wall 2. Chloroplasts

Figure 3.13 Epithemia sp., a Figure 3.14 Stephanodiscus sp., a Figure 3.15 Two common
distinctive pennate freshwater centric diatom. freshwater diatoms.
diatom. 1. Cocconeis sp.
2. Amphora sp.

yyy
qanay

Figure 3.16 Hantzschia sp., one of Figure 3.18 A scanning electron

the most common soil diatoms. micrograph of Cocconeis sp., a micrograph of the diatom
common freshwater diatom. Achnanthes flexella.
1. Striae containing pores, or 1. Raphe 2. Striae
punctae, in the frustule (silicon
cell wall).
 a | Protista |
PROUDEST
SME 2) ESA A ST ERNE NGI ALISA
tap ye

me Phylum Chrysophyta - golden algae |

Compound
zoospore (1)

Germinating
zoospore

multinucleate
filament (n)

Antheridial
Young haploid branch
plant (n) Egg

Sexual cycle

Syngamy
(fertilization)

Figure 3.19 Life cycle of the “water felt alga,” Vaucheria sp.
26 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

as

Figure 3.20 A filament with immature Figure 3.21 Vaucheria sp., with Figure 3.22 Vaucheria sp., with
gametangia of the “water felt” alga, mature gametangia. mature gametangia.
Vaucheria sp. Vaucheria is a chrysophyte that 1. Fertilization pore 1. Oogonium
is widespread in fresh-water and marine 2. Antheridium 2. Fertilization pore
habitats. It is also found in the mud of 3. Chloroplasts 3. Antheridium
brackish areas that periodically become 4. Developing oogonium
submerged and then exposed to aur.
1. Antheridium
2. Developing oogonium

Figure 3.23 Dinobryon sp. commmon in cold well Figure 3.24 Dinobryon sp. showing the cell inside the
aerated streams. silica lorica.
1. Flagellum 2. Lorica oaGell

Phylum Rhizopoda - amoebas

(a) ee 430X (b)

Figure 3.25 Amoeba proteus, is a fresh-water protozoan that moves by forming cytoplasmic extensions called
pseudopodia. (a)
Stained cell, and (b) diagram.
1. Cell membrane 3. Food vacuole 5. Nucleus 7. Pseudopodia
2. Ectoplasm 4. Endoplasm 6. Contractile vacuole
 eee
— =
TSeS
Protista
PSP tt rere

700X (b) 700X

Figure 3.26 Amoeba proteus Figure 3.27 Protozoan Entamoeba histolytica, is the causative agent of amebic
(stained blue). dysentery, a disease most common in areas with poor sanitation.
(a) A trophozoite, and (b) a cyst.

Figure 3.28 Protozoan Plasmodium falciparum causes malaria, which is transmitted by the female Anopheles mosquito.
(a) The ring stage in a red blood cell, (b) a double infection, (c) a developing schizont, and (d) a gametocyte.

Phylum Sarcomastigophora - flagellated protozoans

. : 430K . 100x 2 on.

Figure 3.29 Protozoan Tiichomonas Figure 3.30 Protozoan Leishmania Figure 3.31 Flagellated protozoan
vaginalis is the causative agent of donovani is the causative agent of Trypanosoma brucei is the causative
trichomoniasis. Trichomoniasis 1s an visceral leishmaniasis, or kala-azar agent of African trypanosomiasis, or
inflammation of the genitourinary disease, in humans. The sandfly is African sleeping sickness. The tsetse
mucosal surfaces—the urethra, vulva, the infectious host of this disease. fly is the infectious host of this
vagina, and cervix in females and the disease in humans.
urethra, prostate, and seminal vesicles 1. Trypanosoma brucei
in males. 2. Red blood cell
28 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Phylum Euglenophyta - euglenoids

to

200X
Figure 3.33 Species of Euglena.
1. Paramylon body 2. Eye spot

bo
Figure 3.32 Diagram of Euglena, a genus of flagellates
that contain chloroplasts. They are freshwater organisms that
have a flexible pellicle rather than a rigid cell wall.
1. Long flagellum 6. Chloroplast
2. Photoreceptor 7. Nucleus
3. Eye spot 8. Pellicle
4. Contractile vacuole 9. Cell membrane Figure 3.34 Species of Euglena from a brackish lake in
5. Reservoir 10, Paramylon granule New Mexico.
1. Pellicle 2. Eye spot

Phylum Cillophora - ciliates and paramecia

Figure 3.35 Paramecium caudatum is a ciliated

protozoan. The poisonous trichocysts of these
unicellular organisms are used for defense and
capturing prey.
I, Pellicls 7. Forming food
2. Contractile vacuole vacuole
3. Macronucleus 8. Gullet
4. Cilia 9. Oral cavity
5. Trichocyst LO. Micronucleus
6. Food vacuole
 Protista . 29

iw)

— 430X
Figure 3.36 Paramecium caudatum, a ciliated protozoan. Figure 3.37 Paramecium busaria is a unicellular, slipper-shaped
1. Macronucleus 4. Pellicle organism. Paramecia are usually common in ponds containing
2. Contractile vacuole 5. Cilia decaying organic matter.
3. Micronucleus 1. Cilia 3. Micronucleus
2. Macronucleus 4. Pellicle

i
i
fae ~
oe ; A ?

* PP ats

Lee

y SiR iit niet a

Figure 3.38 Paramecium sp.

in fission.
1. Contractile vacuole
2. Macronucleus
Figure 3.40
balantidiasis. Cysts in sewage-contaminated water are the
3. Micronucleus
infective form.
Chapter 4
Algae, Slime Molds,
and Water Molds
Protists live in nearly all Earth’s habitats, especially in areas brown algae, red algae are commonly called seaweeds. They
that are damp or aquatic. Many symbiont protists inhabit reproduce sexually but lack flagellated stages. Alternation of
the host’s body cells, tissues, or fluids. Some parasitic protists generations is common. High in starch, some rhodophytes are
are pathogens to plants and animals. Most are aerobic, using harvested for food. Agar, used as a culture medium in bacteriology,
mitochondria for cellular respiration. Some protists have is obtained from a species of red algae.
chloroplasts and are phototrophs. Others are heterotrophs, Organisms within the phylum Myxomycota (plasmodial
absorbing or ingesting organic molecules. slime molds), Dictyosteliomycota (cellular slime molds), and
Although protists vary in their mode of reproduction, all Oomycota (water mold, white rusts, downy mildews) resemble
can reproduce asexually. Some only reproduce asexually, while fungi; the similarities, however, are believed to be due to
others may reproduce sexually as well. Certain protists endure convergence.
harsh conditions by forming protective cysts during a portion Many slime molds are yellow, red, or orange. All are
of their life cycle. non-photosynthetic heterotrophs.
The body of amyxomycete 1s a
The three phyla of primarily multicellular algae are multinucleated continuum of cytoplasm undivided by membranes
Chlorophyta (green algae), Phaeophyta (brown algae), and or walls. During the feeding stage, an amoeboid mass called
Rhodophyta (red algae). Most species of these algae are multi- a plasmodium extends through moist organic soil, leaves, or
cellular, aquatic organisms. For example, seaweeds (phaeophytes) decaying logs engulfing food particles by phagocytosis.
are multicellular, mostly marine, brown algae. Included in this Plasmodial slime molds are decomposers in some habitats.
phylum are giant kelp that may exceed 100 meters in length. Dictyosteliomycota have a feeding stage consisting of solitary
Consisting of cellulose and algin, the cell walls of brown algae haploid cells, and an aggregate stage consisting of an amoeboid
can withstand the movements of ocean currents and waves. mass of cells. The aggregate stage is formed from thousands of
These substances give seaweeds their characteristic slimy and individual cells that join at some signal to form a single body.
rubbery feel. Asexual fruiting bodies are produced by the aggregate stage.
Evidence indicates that Chlorophyta are ancestral Most Oomycota are saprophytes on dead plants and animals,
to plants. Most green algae live in fresh water, although and many are important decomposers in fresh-water ecosystems.
marine planktonic and attached forms exist. Chlorophytes are Some Oomycota are parasitic on the skin and gills of fishes.
photoautotrophic, manufacturing their own food. Lichens are fungi Species of white rusts and downy mildews live on land as plant
that live symbiotically with algae forming a single organism. parasites. Distributed by windblown spores, these organisms are of
Most red algae are multicellular, marine forms. Colors other concern in the potato industry (potato blight) and the grape and
than red among Rhodophyta are not uncommon. Similar to wine industry (downy mildew).

Phylum and Represent ative Kinds Characteristics

ae ; ot
Algae

Phylum Chlorophyta—green algae

, giant k
Sd

Phylum Rhodophyta—red algae Multicellular, mostly marine; sexual reproduction but with no
flagellated cells; alternation of generations common
4 rotists
AIS i Rese nbling
ti F ate}

Phylum Myxomycota—plasmodial ine molds Multinucleated continuum of cytoplasm without cell membranes:
amoeboid plasmodium during feeding stage; produce asexual
fruiting bodies; gametes produced by meiosis
asiomycota)—
faveh Pal ee AS =
Is du op

ycota—water molds, white rusts and Decomposers or parasitic forms; walls of cellulose, dispersal by
downy mildews non-motile spores or flagellated zoospores, gametes produced
by meiosis
 Algae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds

L Phylum Chlorophyta - green algae 2)

Asexual
Germunating
“Meiosis | cycle
zoospore produces rhe
haploid (n) cells . =

Zygospore (2n)

Gamete
rain 1 = 5
Stra formation

Strain 2

Zygote (2n)

Fertilization

Figure 4.1 Life cycle of Chlamydomonas sp., a green alga within the class Chlorophyceae.
Figure 4.2 Chlamydomonas sp.,a common unicellular green alga. Figure 4.3 Chlamydomonas nivalis, the common snow alga.

Figure 4.4 Habitat shot of Chlamydomonas nivalis Figure 4.5 Gonium sp. colony. Gonium sp. is a 16-celled
creating “red snow.” flat colony of Chlamydomonas-like cells.
1. Chlamydomonas nivalis 2. Snow

Figure 4.7 Volvox sp. Three separate organisms are shown

64-celled) relative of Chlamydomonas and Volvox. in this photomicrograph, each containing daughter colonies
of various ages.
|. Daughter colony initial 2. Daughter colonies
(gonidium) 3. Vegetative cells
 ae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds

Mature Volvox (n) with

daughter colonies (n)

Young Volvox (n)

Young daughter
colonies

daughter colony (n)

Sperm packet
Sexual cycle

A\ | Fertilization
f a

J \ Sperm packet
0 ! following release

Sperm

Figure 4.8 Life cycle of Volvox sp.,a common freshwater chlorophyte. Volvox is considered by
some to be a colony and by others to be a single, integrated plant.
34 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

eS ee * *
100X oe we OOS oo Bee 11002
Figure 4.9 Volvox sp., a single organism with several large Figure 4.10 Close-up of the surface of Volvox sp. showing
daughter colonies. the interconnections between cells.
1. Daughter colonies 1. Vegetative cells 2. Cytoplasmic connection
between cells

Figure 4.11 Volvox sp., a single mature specimen Figure 4.12 Single mature specimen of Volvox sp. This
with several eggs and zygotes. photomicrograph is a highly magnified view of a single
1. Zygotes 2. Vegetative cells 3. Egg organism showing male gametes. }
1. Sperm packet 3. Vegetative cells

= Eas =

Figure 4.13 Volvox sp., showing a prominent egg at Figure 4.14 Volvox sp., a single mature organism witl
g of the organism.
the edge organism. ThisThis eggegg will will bebe fertilized
fertili to zygospores. ae o. ekae
develop a zygote and then a zygospore.
1.; Zygospore
1. Egg 2. Vegetative cells 2. Vegetative cells
CS
 Algae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds

Asexual cycle Sexual cycle

Zoosporangium pe Ee ea, aaa

yiGametangium

Biflagellate
Isogametes

: ha We aieenne
NE zoospores (1)

Fertilization

Mature filament (”) producing

zoospores () in asexual
Mature filament (n) reproduction or isogametes (1)
in the sexual cycle
Mature filament (n)

Figure 4.15 Life cycle of Ulothrix sp.,a green alga within the class Ulvophyceae.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

¥ ae j ia sg ‘ eae

Figure 4.16 Live specimens of Ulothrix sp., an Figure 4.17 Ulothrix sp.,an unbranched, filamentous green alga.
unbranched, filamentous green alga. 1. Zoospores 2. Individual cells (termed as sporangia
when they produce spores)

Sac
sd
200X paiezy 200K

Vegetative stained filament Stained filament with zoospores Empty filament, after zoospores
have been released
Figure 4.18 Production and release of zoospores in the green alga Ulothrix sp.
1. Filament 2. Young zoospores 3. Mature zoospores 4. Empty cells following zoospore release

s = ah |
Figure 4.19 Stigeocolonium sp., a close relative Figure 4.20 Draparnaldia sp., a Figure 4.21 Oecdogonium sp. has
of Ulothrix, showing a branched thallus. relative of Ulothrix, showing different distinct “apical caps” that accrue
cell sizes in the thallus and a from cell division in this genus.
characteristic branching pattern. 1. Apical caps :
 Algae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds

Zoosporangium

Multiflagellated
zoospore (n)

Germuinating
zoospore (n)
Multiflagellated
Asexual cycle zoospore (i)

mer A, ‘|
" ee
¥ |
fi
te
i

yerminating
Zoospore

Sperm (n)

Germinating
zygospore
Fertilization pore

Oogonium

Oogonium
\ \ Zygote (2n) Antheridia
Zygospore (2n) iV

Fertilization

Antheridium

Figure 4.22 Life cycle of Oedogonium sp., an unbranched, filamentous green alga.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botan Laborato

i)

9
430X (a)
Figure 4.23 Young filament of Figure 4.24 (a) Oedogonium sp.,a filamentous, unbranched, green alga.
Oedogonium sp. (b) Close-up of an oogonium.
1. Basal cell 1. Oogonia 3. Basal holdfast cell
2. Holdfast 2. Antheridium 4. Holdfast

2 4

Figure 4.25 The oogonium of the unbranched, Figure 4.26 Oogonium with mature egg and dwarf
green alga, Oedogonium sp. male filament.
1. Dwarf male filament 3. Developing egg [, Hge
2. Oogonium 4. Vegetative cell 2. Dwarf male filament

{| ————

i
; 2
|
3
2—

Figure 4.27 Filament of the Figure 4.28 Green alga, Figure 4.29 Zoosporangium
green alga, Oedogonium sp. Oedogonium sp., showing antheridia of the unbranched green alga,
denne ee Gorn cll divisien between vegetative cells. Oedogonium sp.
De Natheticia 1. Sperm within antheridia 1. Zoosporangium
3. Sperm 2. Nucleus of vegetative cell 2. Zoospore
3. Vegetative cell
 Algae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds
£ “he oS
2 otal ARS. oy

Conjugation tube

Germination

Mature filaments (1)

Three nuclei are Conjugation

non-functional initiated

Zygote nucleus (2)

Conjugation tube

Zygospore (2n)
Empty cell of
conjugating pair

Non-conjugated cell

Figure 4.30 Life cycle of Spirogyra sp., a common fresh-water green alga.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Figure 4.31 Species of Spirogyra are filamentous green algae commonly found in green Figure 4.32 Filaments of
masses on the surfaces of ponds and streams. Their chloroplasts are arranged as a spiral Spirogyra sp. showing initial
within the cell. (a) Several cells comprise a filament. (b) A magnified view of a single contact of conjugation tubes.
filament composed of several cells. 1. Conjugation tube
1. Single cell 2. Filaments 3. Cell wall 4. Chloroplast 2. Pyernoid in chloroplast

ee
Figure 4.33 Two filaments of Spirogyra sp. with aplanospores.
mags
\ais
Ns ‘ ‘ Zé: . . ¥ '

Figure 4.34 Spirogyra sp. in a small fresh-water pond.

1. Aplanospore 2. Cell wall

: fe)
ae “Gn 8 CRA .

ae +%
a
ia"ete
Figure 4.35 Zyenema sp.
(a) f (b)
Figure 4.36 Zygnema sp. showing two locations of Figure 4.37 Self-fertile species of
filament showing the fertilization, (a) in the conjugation tube and (b) in Spirogyra sp. A gamete has migrated
star-shaped chloroplasts. cells of one of the conjugating filaments. from the upper cell to form a zygote
1. Cell wall |. Fusing gametes 3. Cell wall in the lower cell.
2. Chloroplast 2. Zygote 4. Conjugation tube 1. Upper cell 4. Conjugation
3. Pyrenoid 2. Lower cell tube
3. Chloroplast 5. Zygote
 Algae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds 41

2
I

(a) 100X
Figure 4.38 Zygonema sp. undergoing conjugation. (a) The Figure 4.39 Conjugation in
filament is just forming conjugation tubes; (b) and two Spirogyra sp. :
conjugated filaments. il Cell bearing zygote
1. Developing gametes 3. Zygotes 2. Zygote ‘
2. Developing conjugation tubes 4. Conjugation tube 3. Cell that did not conjugate

i . (
Hi ioe
Ag bo

4,

450X
Figure 4.40 Desmid Closterium sp. Desmids are Figure 4.41 Cosmorium sp., a desmid, soon after cell
unicellular, freshwater chlorophyta, which reproduce division forming a new semi-cell.
sexually by conjugation. 1. New semi-cell 2. Dividing cell

tO

300K

Figure 4.42 Zygospore of the desmid Figure 4.43 Desmid Micrasterias sp. Figure 4.44 Desmidium sp., a
filamentous (colonial) desmid.
Cosmarium sp.
1. Empty cell that has been involved
in conjugation
2. Zygospore
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botan

Zoosporangium

Zoospores (n)

Gametophyte (n)

Sporophyte (2n)

Isogametes

sas (may germinate

to form new gametophytes)

Figure 4.45 Life cycle of Clodophora sp. a common green alga.

 Algae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds

Isogametes

4 Isogametes
|
Fertilization

as Zane
Gametophyte (n)

Gametophyte (n)

Sporophyte (21)

es
Microsporangia
SS \

Figure 4.46 Life cycle of Ulva, sea lettuce, a common marine green alga.
 A Photographic Atlas Laboratory

‘ pak!
Ba aN ew.

Figure 4.47 (a) Sea lettuce, Ulva sp., lives as a flat membranous chlorophyte in Figure 4.48 Magnified view of the
marine environments. (b) Detailed view. surface of Enteromorpha intestinalis.
Enteromorpha is closely related to Ulva.

° ee
Figure 4.49 Filaments of Cladophora Figure 4.50 (a) Hydrodictyon sp. The large, multinucleated cells form net-shaped
sp. This member of class Ulvophyceae colonies. (b) A magnified view Hydrodictyon sp.
is found in both fresh-water and |. Individual cell 2. Nuclei of cell
marine habitats.

(@) AS 100 3 200X

Figure 4.51 (a) Chara sp. inhabits marshes or shallow, temperate lakes, showing characteristic gametangia. (b) A magnified view
of the gametangia.
1. Oogonium 3 » lakers: 5. Sperm-producing cells (filaments)
2. Antheridium 4. Oogonium 6. Antheridium
 Algae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds

Ee Phylum Phaeophyta - brown algae and giant kelp

)
9 Zoospore (2n)

2 Pleurolocular
y vi sporoangium
+

y Unilocular
sporoangium
= ;

i ‘\ ; ye : j ye

‘
|
D2
V7 Tl
Aw.
Unilocular | : (
sporoangium Fe ‘ Meitospores (n)
{

Sporophyte (2n)

Fertilization

" Gametophyte (n)

Isogametes (1) 8
Pleurolocular
gametangium

BK *
Pleurolocular
4
iat XK
gametangium

p-

Figure 4.52 Life cycle of Ectocarpus sp., a common brown alga.

 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laborato

20X e y a ie

Figure 4.53 Thallus of Ectocarpus sp. showing Figure 4.54 Magnified view of thallus of Ectocarpus sp.
branching and pleurolocular sporangia. showing cellular details.
1. Cell wall
2. Nucleus

¥ Re

KC ?.

>

il
a :

Ya... ~ 150X - 400X

Figure 4.55 Ectocarpus sp. showing pleurolocular sporangia. Figure 4.56 Magnified view of Ectocarpus sp. showing
1. Pleurolocular sporangium pleurolocular sporangium.
2. Filament of cells

a a <P Sak Py i * P 400%

Figure 4.57 Ectocarpus sp. showing unilocular sporangia. Figure 4.58 Magnified view of Ectocarpus sp. showing
c = sa oD

unilocular sporangia.
I. Mature unilocular sporangium
2. Immature unilocular sporangium
 Algae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds

Mature meiosporangium
containing melospores (1)

Meiospores(n)

Immature male
gametophyte (n)

Young meiosporangium (2n)

Antheridia

Mature sporophyte (2n)

Sperm (n)

Male gametophyte (1)

Egg (1)

Oogonium

Young 7"
sporophyte (2n) |

Female gametophyte (n)

Figure 4.59 Life cycle of Laminaria, a common kelp.

48 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

—e ae =

Figure 4.60 Rocky coast of southern Alaska showing dense

growths of the brown alga, Fucus sp.

me Bo

Macrocystis sp.

OG ate

Macrocystis sp. Egregia sp.

Figure 4.62 Examples of brown algae, Phaeophyta. These large species are commonly known as kelps.
1. Blade oetpe
2. Float (air-filled bladder)
 Algae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds
49

Figure 4.63 Kelp, Laminaria sp., is one of the common

“sea weeds” found along many rocky coasts.

Figure 4.65 Brown alga, Nereocystis sp., has a long stipe and photosynthetic laminae attached to a large float. The holdfast
anchors the alga to the ocean floor. This alga and others can grow to lengths of several meters.
1. Lamina 2. Floats (air-filled bladders) 3. Stipe 4. Holdfasts

5 : i! Wa 4 wet 3 4

Figure 4.66 Sargassum sp., a brown alga common in Figure 4.67 Mixture of kelps washed onto shore to form
the Sargasso sea. ‘“windrows” of Phaeophyta.
1. Floats 2. Blade Sa Supe
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Receptacle

Transverse section through

receptacle showing
conceptacles

Young diploid Oogonium

plant (2n) Mature diploid
lant (2n)
plant (2
Antheridial
branch

Conceptacle with
antheridia and oogonia

Zygote (2n)

Fertilization

— Sperm (1)

Egg (n)
Antheridia

Eggs (n)

Oogonium Sperm (n)

Sperm release
»_— Ss ~~
7 ios
a Immature
ey
antheridia

Figure 4.68 Life cycle of Fucus sp., a common brown alga.

 Algae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds
51

1 4
3

in ‘ ‘A
a) » oa : ‘ " ae bo aa

Figure 4.69 (a) Fucus sp., a brown alga, commonly called rockweed. (b) An enlargement of a blade supporting
the receptacles.
1. Blade 3. Conceptacles (spots) are chambers imbedded 4. Blade
2. Receptacle in the receptacles

| —seeererenrecsice
ee

soe @ G POOX d Bod

Figure 4.70 Conceptacle of Fucus sp. Figure 4.71 Close-up of antheridial Figure 4.72 Close-up of
1. Sterile paraphyses branch of Fucus sp. antheridium of Fucus sp.
2. Antheridial branches 1. Antheridial branch 1. Sperm within antheridium
2. Antheridium

Figure
i 4.73 Section
‘i through a Fucus sp. receptacle. (. Low magnification
ceptacle. (a) ification showing
s i Roe
i ede
4.74 p close-upp of
Fucus sp.,
three conceptacles and (b) higher magnification of a single conceptacle with oogonia. bisexual conceptacle. fy,
Ostiole
1.. Ostiol ; ace of receptacle
3. Surface 1. Nucleus of egg Ban
4. Antheridium
2. Paraphyses (sterile hairs) 4. Oogonium 2. Oogonium 5. Paraphyses
3. Eggs
eee A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

i Phylum Rhodophyta - red algae ]

Spermatangium

Spermatia

iB Male gametophyte
plant (1)

Spermatium

Trichogyne

Fertilization

——
|
Female gametophyte Carpogonium
Tetrasporangium (21) plant (1)

‘Tetraspores (1)

Carpospore (21) Carposporophyte

plant (2n)

Tetrasporophyte
plant (2n)

Cystocarp

Figure 4.75 Life cycle of the red alga, Polysiphonia sp.

 Algae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds 53

=* es. — hs = } ‘d .
; -. Sie 2
Figure 4.76 Intertidal zone showing a colony of a Figure 4.77 Mature plant of the red alga, Rhodymenia sp.
filamentous red alga, Bangia sp.

ry i
Ve ae ae i 250X
Figure 4.78 Small encrusting colonies of a species of red Figure 4.79 Batrachospermum sp., a common fresh-water
alga on a stone. The colonies shown are bright red and are red alga.
only a few millimeters in size.

270X

Figure 4.80 Audouinella sp. is a fresh-water member of Figure 4.81 Mature plant of the common
RhodophytaThis . organism was collected from a red alga, Polysiphonia sp.
cold-water spring.
 A Photogra

Figure 4.82 Red alga, Polysiphonia sp., has alternation of three generations. (a) Female gametophyte with attached
carposporophyte generation. (b) A closeup of cystocarp containing a carposporophyte.
1. Pericarp 2. Cystocarp 3. Carpospores 4. Carposporophyte

—-

2=

= ‘ fis) Se" rs (eae ie hg 200X

Figure 4.83 Polysiphonia sp., showing the release Figure 4.84 Tetrasporophyte generation of Polysiphonia sp.
of carpospores. showing tetraspores (meiospores).
1. Carpospores (2n) 2. Ruptured cystocarp 1. ‘Tetraspores 2. Cells of tetrasporophyte plant

" il ho " ;
Figure 4.85
:
Lleaieree Close-up
‘los f of tetrasporophyte plant of of
as porophyte te fplant i
Figure 4.86 Male > gametophyte
game . plant of Polysiphonia sp.,
r sp. showing spermatangia (stained green).
|. Tetraspore (meiospore) 1. Spermatangia with spermatia
 Sclerotia

l Mature plasmodium (21)

Young sporangia

Karyogamy i

Zygote (2n)

Karyogamy
Mature sporangium

Arex. |Plasmogamy

Sots
Po ae

(Plasmogamy
Amoeba (n)
(gametes)

Flagellated gametes (1)

(swarm cells) Germinating meiospore Meiospore (1)

Figure 4.87 Life cycle of a plasmodial slime mold.

 A Photoaraphic Atlas For The Botany Laborato

Phylum Dictyosteliomycota (=Acrasiomycota) - plasmodial slime molds

Spores (1)
© (being released)

Sorocarp

Sorocarp
< Macrocyst (2n) | ‘
formation

Sorocarp
formation

Aggregation

Slug (grex)

Figure 4.88 Life cycle of the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium sp.
 Algae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds 57

(b) — on
Figure 4.89 Dictyostelium sp., a cellular slime mold. (a) A filtered image showing a young sorocarp and slug stages and (b) true
color showing mature sorocarps.
|. Developing sorocarp 2. Slug (grex) 3. Mature sorocarps

tia Boat Te 3 RS Pes. 4

Figure 4.90 Acthalium (sporangium) of the plasmodial Figure 4.91 Plasmodial slime mold sporangia on underside
shime mold Fuligo septica, often called the dog vomit fungus of burned log in Yellowstone National Park.
(scale in mm).

Susi

Figure 4.92 Plasmodial slime mold Physarum cinerea showing (a) developing sporangia on blue grass leaves and (b) mature
sporangia with black spores and lime crust at same location.
58 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

bo

| - ee el } r 250X
Sail + Vice pk
Figure 4.93 Sporangia of the slime mold Comatricha typhoides. Figure 4.94 Whole mount of the sporangium of
Stemonitis sp.
1. Cellular filaments (capillitia) 2. Columella

g A a = g to aes

Figure 4.95 Close-up through the sporangium of Figure 4.96 Physarum sp. plasmodium.
Stemonitis sp.
1. Spores 2. Capillitia

om al, EN PMD I, 27 -_ = Poa 2

Figure 4.97 Slime mold sporangia vary considerably in Figure 4.98 Slime mold specimen from a high
size and shape. One species of Lycogala is shown here. mountain locality.
 Algae, Slime Molds, and Water Molds

Phylum Oomycota - water molds, white rusts, and downy mildews re

Mature coenocytic
hypha (2n)

Asexual cycle Sexual cycle

Immature eggs (n)

Immature
antheridia (n)

Zoospore (2n) \ aah

eniizaTion

w
Zoospore
encysts

\ Fertilization tubes

ae
Germination

Zygotes (2n)

econdary
| ZOOSpore Germination
}

Zoosporangium

Oospores (2n)
Secondary
(dormant zygotes)
zoospore encysts

Figure 4.99 Life cycle of the water mold Saprolegnia sp.

 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

bo

3 : i
ts :

a,
>.
is a = a

Figure 4.101 Oogonia of the water mold Saprolegnia sp.

|. Young oogonium 3. Young antheridium
2. Developing oogonium 4. Eges

Figure 4.100 Zoosporangium of the

water mold Saprolegnia sp. , 4
1.. Zoosporangium
Zoosporangiut éi os in he
2. Zoospores 9200
™/
200X%

Figure 4.102 Water mold, Figure 4.103 Oogonia of the

Saprolegnia sp., showing a young water mold Saprolegnia sp.
oogonium before eggs have 1. Empty antheridia
been formed. 2. Zygotes

Figure 4.104 Skin of this brown trout has been infected by the common water mold, Saprolegnia sp.
 About 250,000 species of fungi are currently
extant on Earth. All fungi are heterotrophs; they absorb Table 5.1 Some Representatives of Fungi
nutrients through their cell walls and cell membranes. Phyla and Characteristics
The kingdom Fungi includes the conjugation fungi, Representative Kinds
yeasts, mushrooms, toadstools, rusts, and lichens. Most
Zygomycota—bread molds, Hyphae lack cross walls
are saprobes, absorbing nutrients from dead organic fly fungi along filaments; sexual
material. Some are parasitic, absorbing nutrients from reproduction by conjugation
living hosts. Fungi decompose organic material, helping
Ascomycota—yeasts, molds, Septate hyphae; reproductive
to recycle nutrients essential for plant growth. morels, and truffles structure contains ascospores
Except for the unicellular yeasts, fungi consist of within asci on a fruiting body
elongated filaments called hyphae. Hyphae begin as known as ascoma (ascocarp);
cellular extensions of spores that branch as they grow to asexual reproduction by
form a network of hyphae called a mycelium. Even the budding or conidia
body of a mushroom consists of amass of tightly packed Deuteromycota—conidial Fungi that repoduce only
hyphae attached to an underground mycelium. Fungi are molds by asexual spores (conidia),
nonmotile and reproduce by means of spores, produced sexual stages are lacking or
unknown
sexually or asexually.
Many species of fungi are commercially important. Basidiomycota— Septate hyphae; 4
Some are used as food, such as mushrooms; or mushrooms, toadstools, rusts, meiospores produced
in the production of foods, such as bread, cheese, and smuts externally on cells called
basidia formed on
beer, and wine. Other species are important in
basidioma (basidiocarp)
medicine, for example, in the production of the
antibiotic penicillin. Many other species of fungi are of Lichens—not a phylum, but a Algal component (usually a
symbiotic association of an alga green alga) provides food
medical and economic concern because they cause plant
and a fungus from photosynthesis; fungal
and animal diseases and destroy crops and stored goods. component (usually an
ascomycete) may provide
anchorage, water retention,
and/or nutrient absorption

ascomycete, and (b) oyster mushrooms, Pleurotus sp.

Figure 5.1 Examples of common fungi. (a) A cup fungus, Peziza sp., a common
62 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Phylum Zygomycota - conjugation fungi i

Sporangium
E i Columella

Sporangiophore
Ruptured
sporangium (1)
Sporangiospores

Asexual cycle

Stolon

; Strain 1 no 5
Strain 2
Meiospores (1)

Progametangia

Strain | Strain 2
Sexual cycle

Gametangia

Plasmogamy
Zygosporangium (21) Se
Young zygosporangium
with multiple diploid
nuclei
Figure 5.2 Life cycle of Rhizopus sp.,
the common bread mold.
ee eee FUNG, Yeasts, Molds, Mushrooms, Rusts, and Lichens
63

re e an a “>
ty } ee > h sf * -
®,
* * , <
ro *

bn e % Se ,
id % 7
fx . & & z
1. *
Pt "
EN « E il
LAN ¥ e .
#. \ Ps e &

to

430X
Figure 5.3 Rhizopus sp. growing on Figure 5.5 Mature sporangium in
a slice of bread. bread mold, Rhizopus sp. the asexual reproductive cycle of the
1. Sporangia 1. Sporangium bread mold, Rhizopus sp.
2. Hyphae (stolons) 2. Spores 1. Sporangium
3. Columella 2. Sporangiophore
4. Sporangiophore 3. Spores
5. Hypha 4. Columella

side

264X eo 2Gax 264X

Figure 5.6 Young gametangia of Rhizopus Figure 5.7 Immature Rhizopus sp. Figure 5.8 Mature Rhizopus sp.
sp. contacting prior to plasmoganny. zygospore following plasmogamy. zygospore. |
1. Immature gametangia 1. Immature zygosporangium 1. Zygosporangium
2. Suspensor cell 2.) Suspensor
4 -
cell
64 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Phylum Ascomycota -yeasts, molds, morels, and truffles

Conidia

Mature hypha ()

Trichogyne

Ascogonium
Antheridium

8 celled stage
formation of
ascospores

Plasmogamy

8 nucleate stage

Ascoma with
4 nucleate stage -
ts mature ascl

Sexual cycle

Ascogenous hyphae (n+n)

Formation of
ascogenous
. ; hook (crozier)
Figure 5.9 Life cycle of an ascomycete.
 Fungi, Yeasts, Molds, Mushrooms, Rusts, and Lichens
65

ie3 rl :

r é (G nat
p ‘ ¢ l
a ¢ . ¢ ;
f ; C Ay ‘ & Dy

am
Se)

C
} C 2 e@ MAT of 4
i : . : 5 na 1 Gg ate 7 ¥
i ? é
'
. a ; ee
E1000
rapt tf
aie
We et
{ f d yey & Ae Ae.
rat ite vy " GM
:3 : $ 244)
$

Figure 5.10 Baker's yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The Figure 5.11 Close-up of the parasitic ascomycete,
ascospores of this unicellular ascomycete are characteristically Hypoxylon sp., showing imbedded perithecia.
spheroidal or ellipsoidal in shape. 1. Perithecium 2. Hymenium

i)

, oe *- : 430X
Figure 5.12 Parasitic ascomycete, Dibotryon morbosum, on Figure 5.13 Cleistothecium (ascocarp or ascoma) of the
a branch of a choke cherry, Prunus virginiana. ascomycete Penicillium sp.
1. Fungus
c
2. Choke cherry stem |. Cleistothecitum
2. Hyphae

ina

Peziza repanda Scutellinia scutellata Morchella sp. Helvella sp.

Figure 5.14 Ascoma (ascocarps or fruiting bodies) of common ascomycetes. Peziza repanda is a common woodland cup fungus.
Scutellinia scutellata is commonly called the eyelash cup fungus. Morchella esculenta is a common edible morel. Helvella is sometimes
known as a saddle fungus since the fruiting body is thought by some to resemble a saddle.
66 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

gv. 2ee ie Rie gawe

tly Ge
tb) Fs fees bog Mees bi See ys.
Figure 5.15 Ascomycete, Claviceps purpurea.
(a) Longitudinal section through stroma containing multiple
perithecia. (b) Enlargement of three perithecia. This fungus
causes serious plant diseases and is toxic to humans.
1. Perithecia 3. Perithecia containing
2. Multiple perithecia within ascl
stroma 4. Ostiole

r 2

il -

3 vs)

Paar aL | |
=, Be . ee = yes +h ayes

Figure 5.16 Section through the hymenial layer of the Figure 5.17 Section through an ascoma (ascocarp) of the morel,
apothecium of Peziza sp., showing asci with ascospores. Morchella sp.. True morels are prized for their excellent flavor.
1. Hymenial layer 3. Ascoma (ascocarp) 1. Convoluted fruiting body 3. Hymenium
2. Ascus with ascospores mycelium 2. Hollow “stalk”

ie)

1&
26s OUOKS LY oe CS ee Se BOOK.
Figure 5.18 Scanning electron micrographs of the powdery mildew, Figure 5.19 Scanning electron micrograph
Erysiphe graminis, on the surface of wheat.As the mycelium develops, it of a germinating spore (conidium) of the
produces spores (conidia) that give a powdery appearance to the wheat. powdery mildew, Erysiphe graminis. The spore
1. Conidia 3. Hyphae of the fungus develops into a mycelium that penetrates
2. Wheat host the epidermis and then spreads over the host
plant producing a powdery appearance.
 Fungi, Yeasts, Molds, Mushrooms, Rusts, and Lichens
67

Phylum Deuteromycota - conidial molds

Figure 5.20 Fungus Penicillium sp. causes economic damage as a mold but is also the source of important antibiotics. (a) A
colony of Penicillium sp., and (b) a close-up of aconidiophore with chains of asexual spores (conidia) at the end.
1. Conidia 2. Conidiophore 3. Conidia

‘es ‘ 2
eee FG ae i

Figure 5.21 Common mold, Aspergillus sp. Figure 5.22 Common mold, Aspergillus sp.
1. Conidia (spores) 3. Cleistothecium 1. Conidia 2. Conidiophores
2. Conidiophore 4. Hyphae

ee

Figure 5.23 Close-up of sporangia of the mold, Figure 5.24 Electron micrograph of an Aspergillus sp. spore.
Aspergillus sp. The conidia, or spores, of this genus are Note the rodlet pattern on the spore wall.
produced in a characteristic radiate pattern.
1. Conidia (spores) 3. Developing conidiophore
2. Conidiophore
68 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Phylum Basidiomycota - mushrooms, toadstools, rusts, and smuts

Amanita sp. Nidularia sp.

Boletus sp.

Figure 5.25 Representative basidiomas (basidiocarps or fruiting bodies)

of basidiomycetes.
 Fungi, Yeasts, Molds, Mushrooms, Rusts, and Lichens

Stipe (stalk)

Volva

Secondary hyphae
(n+n)
Diploid Stage

. @, Strain |
< Diploid basidium
Strain 2

Primary hyphae (n)

rminating basidiospores <0 8

:pone F Sterigma

Sterigma
ve a Basidiospores (n)

Basidium

Figure 5.26 Life cycle of a“typical” basidiomycete (mushroom),

70 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Figure 5.27 Structure of a mushroom. (a) An inferior view with partial veil intact, (b) an inferior view with the partial veil
removed to show the gills, (c) a lateral view, and (d) a longitudinal section.
1. Pileus (cap) 4. Stipe (stalk) 7. Pileus
! (cap)
2. Partial veil 5. Annulus 8. Gills
3. Gills 6. Stipe (stalk)

te See,
m
“ eA mee BG, el es
Figure 5.28 Basidiomycete puffballs. Figure 5.29 Herbarium specimen of the wood fungus,
Stropharia semiglobata. Growing on decaying wood and
other organic matter, basidiomycetes are important
decomposers in forest communities.

Figure 5.30 Gills of the mushroom Coprinus sp. (a) A close-up of several gills, and (b) a close-up of a single gill.
1. Hyphae comprising the gills 4. Immature basidia He Basidiospore
2. Gill 5. Gill (comprised of hyphae)
3. Basidiospores 6. Sterigma
 Fungi, Yeasts, Molds, Mushrooms, Rusts, and Lichens
71

Pycnidium (spermagonium)
Basidiospores
with receptive hyphae and
fa germinate on
spermatia
barberry leaf

Barberry plant

Carried to barberry
Basidium
where they germinate

Germuinating
a
teliospore A)
©
Aecium with
: : aeciospores
e (n+n
(n+n)
Telospores (2n) in
telum on wheat
Urediniosporangium
plant

Reinfect
wheat plant
Late season

Teliosporangium or
P 6 Urediniospores (+n)

Wheat stem with

urediniosporangia
LN

Wheat stem with

teliosporangia nee
Close-up of wheat
Ss © plant with contaning
~ urediniospores (uredospores)

Figure 5.31 Life cycle of wheat rust, Puccinia graminis.

72 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

= . e .

Figure 5.32 Wheat rust, Puccinia graminis, pycnidium on Figure 5.33 Puccinia graminis, aectum on barberry leaf.
barberry leaf. 1. Aecium 2. Aeciospores
1. Barberry leaf 2. Pycnidium (spermagonium)

. 20) ea a I & wrens

Figure 5.34 Urediniosporangium of Puccinia sp. on Figure 5.35 Close-up of a wheat leaf sheath showing telia
wheat leaf. of wheat rust, Puccinia graminis,
1. Urediniosporangium 2. Urediniospore 1. Epidermis of leaf 2. Teliospores

ale sox
Figure 5.36 Close-up of telium of Puccinia sp. on wheat leaf.
|
Figure 5.37 May apple rust, Puccinia podophylli, showing
1. Telium aecia on the lower surface of May apple leaves.
2. Teliospores 1. Clusters of aecia
 Fungi, Yeasts, Molds, Mushrooms, Rusts, and Lichens
73

a ce 2 &:

Figure 5.38 Black stem wheat rust, Puccinia graminis, on Figure 5.39 Corn ear, Zea mays, infected by the smut
the lower surface of barberry) leaves. Ustilago
Ig maydis,
) ye the fruit (ear).
which is destroying
1. Clusters of aecia il, Con er
2. Fungus

Saar?

Figure 5.40 Smut-infected brome grass. The grains have Figure 5.41 Scanning electron micrograph of
been destroyed by the smut fungus.
= teliospores of a wheat smut fungus.
> 1 C was sy ‘ T > Cc iz = y >
74 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Lichens (symbiotic associations of fungi and algae)

Figure 5.42 Lichens are often separated informally on the basis of their form. (a) Crustose lichen, (b) foliose lichen, and
(c) fruticose lichen.

Soredium

Upper fungal layer _ Fungal

(upper cortex) hyphae

; - = Algal cells
_Filamentous fungal hyphae :
— (medulla)

—Lower fungal layer

(lower cortex) Soredium

ace (b)
Figure 5.43 Many lichens reproduce by producing soredia, which are small bodies containing both algal and fungal cells.
(a) Lichen thallus, and (b) soredium.

i)

va Sr SS te Ao ~~ a Sees ahs Mee 100%

Figure 5.44 Transverse section through a lichen thallus. Figure 5.45 Ascomycete lichen thallus demonstrating a
1. Algal cells 2. Fungal hyphae surface layer of asci. :
L. Asci 2. Loose fungal filaments
 Fungi, Yeasts, Molds, Mushrooms, Rusts, and Lichens 75

125X
Figure 5.46 Transverse section through a lichen thallus. Figure 5.47 Foliose lichen Xanthoria sp. growing on the
1. Algal cells 3. Lower cortex bark of a tree.
2. Medulla 4. Fungal layer (upper cortex) 1. Lichen 2. Bark

4 ss * ry TOE Orban

Figure 5.48 Crustose lichen Lecanora sp. growing on

sandstone in an arid Southern Utah environment.

ie)

i 5 <4 ¥: et. : :

Figure 5.50 Fruticose lichen, British soldier, Cladonia Figure 5.51 Foliose and fruticose lichens in the Pacific
cristatella, growing in Alaska. Northwest.
1. Foliose lichen Hypogymnia sp.
2. Foliose lichen Evernia sp.
3. Fruticose lichen Usnea sp.
 The bryophytes include the liverworts, hornworts, and Like all true plants, bryophytes have alternation of
mosses. Many bryologists include them in one phylum generations. This means their reproductive cycle has a
with three classes: Hepaticae, Anthocerotae, and Musci haploid (n) phase in which the gametophyte produces gametes.
(mosses only). Others divide this group into three phyla: After fusion in pairs, the gametes form a zygote. The zygote
Hepatophyta, Anthocerophyta, and Bryophyta. These plants germinates, producing a diploid (2) embryo that matures to
generally inhabit damp, shady environments and are found become the sporophyte. Through meiotic division, the spores
worldwide. Though simple plants, bryophytes are ancient and produced by the sporophyte continue the cycle. These spores
successful. Late Silurian to Devonian fossil bryophytes have germinate to give rise to new gametophytes.
been found, some 375 to 400 million years old. Currently, Most bryophytes have separate male and female
some 16,000 extant species are known. Because many gametophytes. The male gametophytes have antheridia
bryophytes are sensitive to sulfur dioxide, they cannot live in which produce flagellated sperm cells. The female
air polluted environments. gametophytes have archegonia in which eggs are produced.
Although most bryophytes are only 1 to 2 cm in height, Water 1s essential for fertilization because sperm
a few species may grow to 15 to 20 cm. The adult, free- produced by the antheridia swim to the archegonia. In some
living plant is haploid, produces gametes, and is referred species of bryophytes, raindrops may disperse the sperm and
to as the gametophyte. Gametophytes of many bryophytes insects may play a limited role in spore dispersal.The diploid
have a thick, waxy cuticle that protects the plant from zygote develops into an embryonic sporophyte within the
desiccation. Lacking roots, gametophytes are attached to the protective jacket of the archegonium.
substrate by elongated single cells or multicellular filaments During sporophyte development a stalk, or seta,
known as rhizoids. Rhizoids of gametophytes often extend forms to free the plant from the archegonium. A spore-
horizontally intertwining with rhizoids of other producing capsule, or sporangium, forms at the tip of the stalk.
gametophytes, forming loose colonies of individual plants The spores, produced through meiosis, are haploid cells that
that are effective in holding moisture. disperse when the sporangium bursts. As the spores
In some liverworts and hornworts the gametophyte germinate, a threadlike protonema is produced that gives rise
is dorsoventrally flattened, while in some liverworts it to a haploid gametophyte, completing the life cycle.
is upright and “leafy”? With the possible exception of
certain mosses, bryophytes lack vascular tissue. Transport
within the stem is through diffusion, capillary action, and
cytoplasmic streaming. Lacking true leaves, some bryophytes
have leaf-like extensions that collect moisture and assist in
reproduction. Stomata (for gas exchange) surrounded by two
guard cells are present on the sporophytes of hornworts and
mosses. Unlike stomata of typical flowering plants, however,
the stomata of some bryophytes are openings surrounded by
a single, doughnut-shaped binucleated guard cell.
Figure 6.1 Marchantia, a common liverwort.

Table
6.1 The Three PhylaofBryophytes
Phyla Characteristics
Hepatophyta — liverworts Flat or leafy gametophytes; single-celled rhizoids; simple sporophytes
and elaters present; stomata and columella absent
Anthocerophyta — hornworts Flat, lobed gametophytes; more complex sporophytes with
stomata, pseudoelaters and columella present
Bryophyta — mosses Leafy gametophytes, multicellular rhizoids; sporophytes with stomata
columella, peristome teeth and/or operculum present
 Liverworts, Hornworts, and Mosses
SDs

Phylum Hepatophyta - liverworts

Lepidozia Blepharostoma Plectocolea

Figure 6.2 [lustration of three genera of leafy liverworts, showing the gametophyte with an attached sporophyte.
The perianth contains the archegonia and the lower portion of the developing sporophyte (yellowish)

Porella sp. Riccia sp.

Figure 6.3 Examples of liverworts (scale in mm).

110X : its r =

Figure 6.4 Sporophyte (capsule) of the leafy Figure 6.5 Capsule from the leafy liverwort, Pellia sp.,
liverwort, Pellia sp.. in longitudinal view.
1. Capsule 2. Sporogenous tissue 1. Spores 2. Elaters
are A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory
AE RS ET REI TN ES a RT LI
DEE NE EI ST

Antheridiophore
Antheridium

Male gametophyte
with receptacles

Longitudinal section
through male receptacle
showing antheridia

Sporophyte ry am
Archegoniophore

‘ as

Female gametophyte Longitudinal section

' with receptacles through female receptacle
showing archegonia

Foot

Seta (stalk) Archegonium

Capsule
Meiospores

Elaters
Young embryo éArchegonium

Mature sporophyte | ae Zygote

Fertilization

PS Sperm

Figure 6.6 Life cycle of the thalloid liverwort, Marchantia sp.

 Liverworts, Hornworts, and Mosses 79

1- |

2 a)

Figure 6.7 Marchantia sp. with prominent male antheridial Figure 6.8 Liverwort Marchantia sp., showing archegonial
receptacles. receptacles.
1. Antheridial receptacles 3. Gametophyte thallus |. Archegonial receptacles
2. Antheridiophore 2. Archegoniophore

,, jf, Se pt a aN
Figure 6.9 Marchantia sp. gametophyte plants with Figure 6.10 Transverse section through a gemma cupule
prominent gemmae cupules. of Marchantia sp.
a : ae Se
1. Gemmae cup with gemmae 1. Gemmae cupule < (ers
2.De Gemmaej

oS ep :
~

Figure 6.12 Scanning electron micrograph of the upper

.

Figure 6.11 Liverwort Marchantia sp. showing rhizoids.

wo - a
e

1.. Rhizoid
Rhizoids surface of the thallus of Marchantia sp.
1. Air pore
: 30 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

j 4 ke “

@. : BoP LLY « ne
Figure 6.13 (a) Archegonial receptacle of a liverwort, Marchantia sp., in a longitudinal Figure 6.14 Young sporophyte of
section. (b) Archegonium with egg. Marchantia sp.
1. Archegonial receptacle 4. Base of archegonium 7. Neck canal 1. Young embryo
2. Eggs 9), Jeike 8. Neck of archegonium
3. Neck of archegonium 6. Venter of archegonium

Figure 6.15 Young sporophyte of Marchantia sp., in Figure 6.16 Immature and mature sporophytes.
longitudinal section. lL. Foot 3. Sporangium (capsule)
1. Sporogenous tissue (21) 4. Foot 2. Seta (stalk) 4+. Spores (n) and elaters (2n)
2. Enlarged archegonium (calyptra) 5. Seta (stalk)
3. Neck of archegonium 6. Capsule

eee ee ee i. De e | Eo
“Se he Pe age tS 7) RO
we i
x =
b) SA Ne Ne €

Figure 6.17 (a) Male receptacle with antheridia of a liverwort, Marchantia sp., in a longitudinal section,
(b) Antheridial head
showing a developing antheridium. ;
1. Antheridia 2. Spermatogenous tissue 3. Antheridium
 Liverworts, Hornworts, and Mosses
81

Female receptacle

Sporophyte

Sporophyte

Gametophyte

Gametophyte -

(b)

Figure 6.18 Comparison of the sporophytes and gametophytes of

(a) the liverwort, Marchantia sp., and (b) the hornwort, Anthoceros sp.

| Phylum Anthocerophyta - hornworts =i

Figure 6.19 Longitudinal section Figure 6.20 Longitudinal section of Figure 6.21 Transverse section through
of a portion of the sporophyte of the sporangium of a sporophyte from the capsule of a sporophyte of the hornwort,
the hornwort, Anthoceros sp. the hornwort, Anthoceros sp. Anthoceros Sp.
1. Meristematic region of 1. Spore tetrads |. Epidermis
sporophyte 2. Elater-like structures 2. Photosynthetic tissue
2. Foot (pseudoelaters) n Saige
3. Gametophyte 3. Capsule 4. Tetrad ae
oe of spores
82 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Phylum Bryophyta - mosses

Dae

Figure 6.22 Sphagnum bog in the high Rocky Mountains. Figure 6.23 Detail of Sphagnum bog showing gametophyte
This lake has nearly been filled in with dense growths of plants.
Sphagnum sp.

Figure 6.24 Detail of gametophyte Figure 6.25 Gametophyte plant of peat moss, Figure 6.26 Longitudinal section
plants of peat moss, Sphagnum sp. Sphagnum sp., showing attached sporophytes of Sphagnum sp. gametophyte
(scale in mm). showing antheridia.
|. Sporophyte 3. Gametophyte eel eat 2. Antheridium
2. Pseudopodium

Figureeee
Signe :
6.27 é Gametophyte
(a) a yte of
of peat
pe moss,3s, Sphagnum
Si sp. (b) A magnified
g if view of } 5a “leaf”,
: 1 5 é fe ce : >* showingg the ed dead
ead c C chambers
ad cell SNe rs that

1. “Leaves” 2. Photosynthetic cells 3. Dead cells

 Liverworts, Hornworts, and Mosses

| Mature sporophyte (2n)

shedding meiospores (n)

Meiospores

Mature
gametophy te(n)
- with attached
sporophyte (2n) L— Mature
gametophyte

Zygote (2n)

\
Fertilization [s Germinating
meiospores

C
am Sperm (n)
Antheridium

Egg (n)

Nf
Archegonium
Mature female
gametophyte
Mature male
gametophyte —

Figure 6.28 Life cycle of amoss (Bryophyta).

 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

bo

Figure 6.30 Moss-covered sandstone. Under dry

wooded environment. conditions, mosses may become dormant and lose
|. Moss their intense green color.
2. Vascular plants 1. Stone 2. Moss

Figure 6.31 Four common mosses often used in course work, (a) Polytrichum sp., (b) Mnium sp., (c) Hypnum sp.
and (d) Dicranum sp.

Ve
| \ ™

2
' a
6d 2s Suv a! ie io YS -
poe Siere een plants with Figure 6.33 Sporophyte plant and capsule. Figure 6.34 Protonemata and Battie
ee plant attached. 1. Operculum of a moss. The bulbils will grow to
. ‘a ie ; 2. Capsule of sporophyte become a new gametophyte plant.
2. Capsule of sporophyte (covered by (with calyptra absent) |. Protonema 2. Bulbil
calyptra) 3. Stalk (seta) . -
3. Stalk (seta) 4. Gametophyte
4. Gametophyte
EES Liverworts, Hornworts, and Mosses

I Ki |
=

3 —

/,

re 1 hy a i

Figure 6.35 Longitudinal section of the Figure 6.36 Longitudinal section of the antheridial head of the
archegonial head of the moss Mnium sp. moss Mnium sp.
The paraphyses are non-reproductive |. Spermatogenous tissue 4. Male gametophyte (n)
filaments that support the archegonia. 2. Sterile jacket layer 5. Paraphyses (sterile filaments)
(ly Lelpoges 3. Paraphyses 5. Stalk 3. Stalk 6. Antheridium (1)
2. Neck 4. Venter

Figure 6.37 Close up of Mnium sp. antheridial head. Figure 6.38 Scanning electron micrograph of the
1. Antheridium (n) 3. Stalk sporophyte capsule of the moss Mnium sp.
2. Spermatogenous tissue — 4. Paraphyses 1. Capsule 2. Operculum

2 u
oF D a
30X a 7 | Seas
Figure 6.40 Scanning electron Figu e 6.41 ae ee Heke ete
Figure 6.39 Capsule of the moss
Mnhium sp. micrograph of the peristome of the of the peristome of the moss Mnium sp.
1. Operculum 3. Spores moss Mnium sp. The operculum is I. Outer teeth — 3. Inner teeth
2. Columella 4. Seta absent in the specimen. of peristome of peristome
1. Peristome 2. Capsule 2. Capsule
 Four extant phyla of vascular plants do not produce seeds. eleven occur in the United States and Canada. Horsetails
These are: Psilotophyta (=Psilophyta)—the whisk ferns; have jointed stems and scale-like leaves. The stems are further
Lycophyta (=Lycopodiophyta)—club mosses and quillworts; characterized by prominent nodes and elevated siliceous ribs.
Equisetophyta (=Sphenophyta)—horsetails; and Pteridophyta Horsetails are homosporous, and sporangia develop in a cone at
(=Polypodiophyta)—-ferns (Table 7.1). Recent evidence from the apex of the stem.
DNA analysis indicates the wisk ferns, horse tails, and ferns About 12,000 living species of ferns are known. Many have
are closely related and some botanists place them in a single large, “feathery” leaves, called fronds. Both roots and fronds grow
group, the monilophytes. These plants often inhabit damp, shady out of an underground rhizome. As fronds develop, they appear
environments and are found worldwide. Such plants were to be rolled-up and hence are called fiddleheads. Spores produced
particularly abundant during the Carboniferous Period, 290 to by sporangia on the underside ofthe frond ofa fern are dispersed
350 million years ago. At that time, many species were large and by the wind to suitable, moist habitats for germination. Spores
treelike. Their remains, along with other plants, were compacted germinate, to become a small gametophyte, or prothallus. A
to form coal beds. Several thousand species of seedless vascular gametophyte has antheridia that produce sperm and archegonia
plants are extant. that produce eggs. Spiral-shaped sperm swim from the
Psilopsids are homosporous vascular plants represented antheridia to an archegonium, where fertilization occurs. A
by only two living genera, Psilotum and Tmmesipteris, and several zygote forms within the archegonium and becomes an embryo.
species. Psilotum is a tropical or subtropical plant. In the United The young sporophyte soon grows through the gametophyte,
States it occurs in Arizona, Texas, Louisiana, Florida, and takes root, and becomes a mature sporophyte fern plant.
Hawaii. It grows readily in greenhouses and may be considered
a greenhouse weed. Tmesipteris occurs in Australia and islands
of the South Pacific, including New Zealand and New
Caledonia. Both genera have simple sporophytes, and have no
histological distinction between the rhizomes and_ stems
(subterranean and aerial). Tmesipteris is an epiphyte on tree ferns and
other plants.
Lycophytes are represented by five living genera and about
1,000 species. The most familiar lycophyte is the club moss,
Lycopodium. The nearly 200 species of this genus are found
worldwide in tropical to Arctic regions. All species of Lycopodium are
homosporous. Species of the closely-related Selaginella and Isoetes
are heterosporous.
The 15 living species of horsetails are included in the single
Figure 7.1 Button fern, Pellaea rotundifolia.
genus, Equisetum. Three species of Equisetum are tropical, and

Table 7.1 The Seedless Vascular Plants

Phyla and Representative Kinds Characteristics
Phylum Psilotophyta (=Psilophyta)— whisk ferns Plants small; true roots and leaves absent; rhizome and
rhizoids present; homosporous
Phylum Lycophyta (=Lycopodiophyta)— club mosses, Homosporous and heterosporous; many are epiphytes,
quillworts, and spike mosses mostly tropical, but some in temperate climates
Phylum Equisetophyta (=Sphenophyta)— horsetails Epidermis embedded with silica; tips of stems bear
cone-like structures containing sporangia; homosporous
Phylum Pteridophyta (=Polypodiophyta)— ferns Plants often large and conspicuous; leaves complex,
rhizome common; mostly homosporous, a few
heterosporous
 Seedless Vascular Plants 87

Phylum Psilotophyta (=Psilophyta) - whisk ferns |

Synangia (3 fused
sporangia)

Young
sporophyte Mature synangium
Ah)

Gametophyte

Mature sporophyte (2n)

Meitospores ©

Rhizome

Rhizoid

Antheridium

Mature
gametophyte (1)

Egg (n)

Archegonium

Figure 7.2 Life cycle of the whisk fern, Psilotum sp.

88 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Figure
1
7.4 Whisk fern, Psilotum
es (se eee you
nudum, is: a simple eervascular
~ular
Figure 7.3 Timesipteris sp., growing as an epiphyte on a tree
:

fern in Australia plant lacking true leaves and roots.

#
4

eile
I 3
EEE
SE=
SS ==
Sa

na
maa

Figure 7.5 Branches (axes) of Psilotum Figure 7.6 Sporophyte of the whisk fern, Psilotum nudum.The axes of the
nudum (scale in mm). sporophyte support sporangia (synangia), which produce spores (scale in mm).
1. Aerial axis 2. Rhizome 1. Branch (axis) 2. Sporangia (synangia)

Lif

Figure 7.8 Longitudinal section through an axis and

synangium (3 fused sporangia) of Psilotum sp., which is sporangium (synangium) of Psilotum sp.
spilling spores. II, Abus 3. Spores
|. Sporangium (often 2. Axis 3. Spores 2. Sporangia (synangium)
called synangia)
 Seedless Vascular Plants 89

ieee
~
4 &

ce
A are
Wid
As
%
Ake
4: as00 vi
ose,
C
|
Yet Le ad
ton
ei 5)
A Oat
arid ES IN
i)

Figure 7.9 Aerial axis of the whisk fern, Psilotum nudum. (a) Transverse section and (b) a magnified view of the
vascular cylinder (stele).
i. Stele 2. Cortex 3. Epidermis 4. Phloem 5. Xylem

;
6

ye :

2 ar.
3, ATA RI OR 8
ERAN EEO
&i 5 STORES4 OA

40X
Figure 7.10 Photomicrograph of a scale-like outgrowth Figure 7.11 Young aerial axis of the whisk fern, Tmesipteris sp.
from the axis of the whisk fern Psilotum nudum. leGortex 4. Xylem 7. Epidermis
1. Stoma 2. Epidermis 3. Ground tissue 2. Endodermis 5. Phloem 8. Protostele
3» Pericycle 6. Cuticle

A IE

ia

e eee se tires

:
Figure 7.12 Older aerial axis of the whisk fern, Tmesipterts sp. The genus Tmmesipteris is restri cted to distribution in Australia, New
islands. (a) Axis arising from the aerial axis and (b) a magnified view of the stele.
Zealand, New Caledonia, and other South Pacific
1. Epidermis 2. Cortex Bmstele 4. Endodermis 5. Xylem 6. Phloem
 90 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Lycophyta (=Lycopodiophyta) - club mosses, quillworts, and spike mosses |

Strobilus

Longitudinal section
through strobilus

Older : : Sporangium
embryo (2n)
Sporophyll

Young
embryo (2n)

Mature sporophyte (2n) rete ern

Zygote (2n)

Sperm (n) Sporangium

aN
@
Q
® Meiospores (n)
@ Pe

Antheridia

Mature gametophyte (n)

(often underground)

Longitudinal section through

gametophyte with gametangia
Figure 7.13 Life cycle of the homosporous club moss, Lycopodium sp.
 Seedless Vascular Plants 91

aneree
eerie
Ramo
oct
sa
pesmeesie:
nese wy
omen
tomate
wusomes 5
Cues
Mane
Dc all

4 a

Figure 7.14 Specimen of a lycopod, Lycopodium clavatum, (a) plant Figure 7.15 Enlargement of a specimen of
and (b) strobilus. Lycopodium occurs from the arctic to the tropics Lycopodium sp., showing branch tip with sporangia
(scale in mm). on the upper surface of sporophylls (scale in mm).
1. Strobilus 2. Stem 1. Sporangia
2. Sporophylls (leaves with attached sporangia)

Figure 7.16 (a) Transverse view of an aerial stem of the club moss, Lycopodium sp. (b) A magnified view of the stele.
1. Leaves (microphylls) 3, Cortex 5. Leaf trace 7. Phloem 9. Endodernus
Pestle 4. Epidermis 6. Xylem 8. Pericycle

(8) Figure 7.18 Transverse section of a rhizome

Figure 7.17 (a) Longitudinal section of the strobilus (cone) of the club moss
Lycopodium sp., and (b) a magnified view of the strobilus showing sporangia. of Lycopodium sp. The rhizome of Lycopodium
1. Sporangia 3. Sporangium is similar to an aerial stem, but it lacks the
2. Sporophyll 4. Sporophyll microphylls (leaves).
1. Xylem 3. Endodermis 5. Cortex
2. Epidermis 4. Phloem
 92 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Strobilus

Mature sporophyte :
(2n) plant S 5:

Embryo (2n)
growing from
megagametophyte (1)
(which develops
partially within the
megaspore wall)
megasporophyll
Microsporophyll

Longitudinal section
through strobilus

Microsporophyll

Megasporophyll

tae
ae
Microsporangium

Endosporic microgametophyte
with sperm (1)
Archegonium
with egg (n) Rhizoids

Archegonia Megaspore (n)

Megaspore wall

“Germinating” to form
rhizoids and gametangia
Spore wall

Megagametophyte

Figure 7.19 Life cycle of Selaginella sp. which is heterosporous.

 Seedless Vascular Plants

ihe)

ee
Figure 7.20 Spike moss, Selaginella kraussiana (a) growth habit and (b) strobili (cones). Figure 7.21 Spike moss, Selaginella
1. Strobili (cones) 2. Sporaphyll with sporangium pulcherrima.

ips :
———5
—_—6
———7
ay
==49)

: Cho
——
Sai= a
ea See
a =e. 4 —

200X 100X
Figure 7.22 Transverse section through stem of Selaginella sp. Figure 7.23 Longitudinal section through the
immediately above dichotomous branching. strobilus of Selaginella sp.
1. Epidermis 4. Air cavity 1. Ligule 5. Microsporophyll
2. Protostele (surrounded by pa @onrex 2. Megasporophyll 6. Microsporangium
endodermis) 6. Leaf base 3. Megasporangium 7. Microspore
3. Root trace 4. Megaspore 8. Cone axis

te + lle Dt ai Se J
RS

Figure 7.24 Longitudinal view of the surface of the fossil Figure

lycophyte Lepidodendron sp.,a common lycopod from the of the lycophyte Lepidostrobus sp., from the Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian period, approximately 300 million years ago. period, approximately 300 million years ago.
1. Sporangium 2. Sporogenous tissue
94 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Phylum Sphenophyta (=Equisetophyta) - horsetail |

Strobilus
Sporangiophore

Sporangia

Spores (n)
Node
Mature

pees Rubbed stem

2n
Elater
Leaf sheath (perispore)

Spore (n)

Rhizome

Sperm (1)

E gg (n) Antheridium

Gametophyte (n)
Archegonium
with egg (n)

Figure 7.26 Life cycle of the horsetail, Equisetum sp.

 Seedless Vascular Plants

Terre
FF
RRR bo

St : ES oe i 3 = ; cE a = sa 2
Figure UPS Equisetum telmateia Figure 7.28 Close-up of Equisetum Figure 7.29 Stems of Equisetum sp. without lateral
showing lateral branching. telmateia showing lateral branches branching and showing a prominent leaf sheath at the node.
growing through leaf sheath. 1. Stem 2. Leaf sheath

(a)
Figure 7.30 Horsetail, Equisetum sp. Numerous species of Equisetophyta were abundant throughout tropical regions during the Paleozoic
Era, some 300 million years ago. Currently, Equisetophyta is represented by this single genus. The meadow horsetail, Equisetum sp., showing
(a) an immature strobilus, (b) mature strobilus, shedding spores, (c) an open strobilus, and (d) a sporangiophore with its spores released.
1. Sporangiophores 3. Sporangiophores after spores are shed
2. Separated sporangiophores revealing sporangia 4. Open sporangia with spores shed
—
oy iw
owe
gt

ou

tO ~~
@
“ei
torewall
; *e™

Yet
Oy

we

Les a =Tia
mo eda ieee eye ar \-
Veeioss
20X% fates) | GES a Ad)Cee
Figure 7.31 Equisetum sp., young gametophyte. Figure 7.32 Longitudinal section of Equisetum sp.
ae 4: shoot apex.
1. Rhizoids ; 2. Antheridium
et 3 1. Apical
E cell 2. Leaf primordium
96 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

———1

£
th \ ce

Pas 1 “i
Co ene CIES (20x BO ES 8 PAB MERON
Figure 7.33 Longitu sp. strobilus. Figure 7.34 Longitudinal section through Equisetum sp. strobilus.
1. Sporangium 2. Sporangiophore —_ 3. Strobilus axis 1. Axis of the strobilus 2. Sporangiophore 3. Sporangium

Figure 7.35 Transverse section of the Figure 7.36 Transverse section of the stem of Figure 7.37 Meiospores
strobilus of Equisetum sp. Equisetum sp. just above a node. of Equisetum sp.
1. Sporangium 3. Strobilus axis 1. Leaf sheath 2. Main stem 3. Branch |. Perispore (elater)
2. Sporangiophore 4. Vascular bundle 2. Meiospore

msced ais
Figure 7.38 Transverse section of Equisetum sp. young stem. Figure 7.39 Transverse section of Equisetum sp. older stem.
1. Vascular tissue 3. Future air canal See batia 1. Air canals 3. Vascular tissue 5. Eustele
2. Air canal 4. Cortex 2. Endodermis 4. Stomate
 Seedless Vascular Plants 97

Phylum Pteridophyta (=Polypodiophyta) - ferns

Portion ofleaf
showing sori

Sori

Leaf vein

Pinna (frond)

Fiddlehead

Sporangium

Root

Mature sporophyte (2n)

Young sporophyte
(embryo)
Young
gametophyte (1)
Gametophyte

Young sporophyte (2n)

growing from gametophyte
Rhizoids

Mature
gametophyte

Embryo (2n)

Fertilization
Sperm (n)

Antheridium

Figure 7.40 Life cycle of a fern.

98 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

i? sd ro a eS OF )
Figure 7.41 Water fern, Azolla sp., is a floating fresh-water Figure 742 View ofa new (a) compound and (b) simple
plant found throughout Europe and the United States. Azolla fern leaf showing circinate vernation forming a fiddlehead.
may become bright orange or red during fall.

I ~~

bo
Vice
ses
ar

SS)

Figure 7.43 Fronds of the staghorn fern, Platycerium alcicorne. Figure 7.44 Pinnate leaf showing dichotomous venation
in the leaflets of a fern.
1. Leaf 2. Pinnae 3. Venation

: dies i? ss Be i" ‘ wi g heute dea

Figure 7.45 Leaf of the fern Figure 7.46 Underside of the leaf of Figure 7.47 Close-up of the
Phanerophlebia sp., or holly fern. the fern Phanerophlebia sp., showing fern leaf of Phanerophlebia sp.
sori (groups of sporangia). (scale in mm).
1. Pinna |. Sorus with indusium
ZeeS Oni 2. Sorus with indusium shed
 Seedless Vascular Plants 99

\ = : =

Figure 7.48 Leaf of the fern Figure 7.49 Underside of the leaf of Figure 7.50 Close-up of the fern
Polypodium virginianum. the fern Polypodium virginianum, showing pinna of Polypodium virginianum
sori (groups of sporangia). (scale in mm).
1. Pinna 2. Sori 1. Sorus

; es
Figure 7.51 Fern Polypodium sp. (a) Sori on the undersurface of the pinnae, and Figure 7.52 Magnified view of the
(b) a scanning electron micrograph of a sorus. fern pinna of Preridium sp. showing
1. Pinna 2. Sori 3. Annulus 4. Sporangium numerous scattered sporangia.
1. Sporangia

= ; i %

= |," ; .
. — See
=— (b) A 39x (c) 150X
Figure 7.53 Maidenhair fern Adiantum sp. (a) Pinnae and sori. (b) Magnified view of the tip of a pinna folded under to form a
false indusium that encloses the sorus. (c) Sorus with sporangia containing spores (scale in mm).
1. False indusium 3. Pinna 5. False indusium enfolding: a sorus 7. Sporangium 9. Annulus
2, Sorell 4. Sporangia with spores 6. Vascular tissue (veins)of the pinna 8. Spores
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Figure 7.54 Sorus of a fern, Cyrtomium falcatum. Figure 7.55 Sporangium of the fern Cyrtomium sp.,
1. Sporangium (2n) 3. Indusium (2n) 5. Spores (1) discharging spores.
2. Annulus 4. Pinna tissue 1. Spore (1) 3. Annulus
2. Lip cell

40X Pm VEN 100X

Figure 7.56 Young fern Figure 7.57 Fern gametophyte with archegonia. Figure 7.58 Fern gametophyte
gametophyte. 1. Archegonia showing archegonium.
1. Gametophyte 3. Rhizoid 1. Egg
2. Spore cell wall 2. Archegonium

ie)

Figure 7.59 Fern gametophyte showing antheridia. Figure 7.60 Fern gametophyte with a young
1. Gametophyte (prothallus) 3. Rhizoids sporophyte attached.
2. Antheridium with sperm |. Expanded archegonium 2. Young sporophyte
 Seedless Vascular Plants
101

Figure 7.61 Transverse section through the stem of a fern,

Dicksonia sp. showing a siphonostele.
1. Phloem 3. Sclerified pith 5» Pith
2. Xylem 4. Cortex

Pecopteris sp. Mariopteris sp. Osmundacaulis sp.

Figure 7.63 Fossil impressions of fern leaves (a) and (b), from the Pennsylvanian period, approximately 300 million years
old. and a transverse section of vascular tissue (c) of a fern from the Cretaceous period, approximately 70 million years old.

HOITIVVROTUVPLUUQVDOUVPO NUOVO YUU TP

2 ha 2
: sce . we: ae eS Me ‘] “a eS

Figure 7.64 Heterosporous water fern, Salvinia sp. (scale in mm.). Figure 7.65 Heterosporous water fern, Salvinia molesta, a
highly invasive plant clogging waterways in warm climates.
102 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Mature sporophyte (21)

Germinated sporocarp

Fertile pinnae

Sporocarp Microsporangia
Megasporangium

Megaspore
Embryonic leaf

Megaspore wall

Rhizoids
Microgametophyte
vi

Calyptera
Megagametophyte
Embryo (n)

Archegonium

Figure 7.66 Life cycle of the heterosporous water fern, Marsilea sp.
 Seedless Vascular Plants

K
Figure 7.67 Water fern, Marsilea sp., growing in a pond. Figure 7.68 Water fern, Marsilea sp., showing detail
of pinnae. 3

Figure 7.69 Water fern, Marsilea sp., fiddlehead.

10X
Figure 7.71 Transverse section of a sporocarp of the water Figure 7.72 Magnified view transverse section of a
fern, Marsilea sp., which is in one of the two living orders of sporocarp of Marsilea sp.
heterosporous ferns. 1. Microsporangium with microspores
1. Microsporangium with microspores 2. Megasporangium showing | megaspore
2. Megasporangia with megaspores 3. Sporocarp wall
 Extant gymnosperms (exposed seed plants) include plants in four Pinophyta (=Coniferophyta). Conifers lack flowers and their seeds
phyla: Cycadophyta (cycads); Ginkgophyta (ginkgos); Coniferophyta are exposed on the surface of cone scales. Conifers often have
(=Pinophyta) (conifers); and Gnetophyta (gnetophytes) (Table needle-like leaves and stomata are sunken. Conifers supply much
8.1). Gymnospermis arose in the late Devonian period, about 375 of the lumber for building and wood for the manufacture of
to 400 million years ago. They dominated land floras throughout paper, turpentine, and many other products. Conifers are also a
most of the Mesozoic Era until the late Cretaceous Period, some 70 major source of wood for fuel.
million years ago. Currently, about 65 genera and 720 extant species Three genera of gnetophytes exist—Gnetum, Ephedra,
are known. and Welwitschia—with about 70 living species. An interesting
Reproduction in seed plants is well adapted to a land feature of gnetophytes is the presence of vessel elements in their
existence. Seeds develop from protective structures known as xylem tissue. Most flowering plants contain vessels elements
ovules, which mature to produce protective and nutritive layers as well, providing evidence to some botanists that Gnetophyta
around the embryo. Most gymnosperms produce seeds in might have been ancestral to angiosperms. Each of the three
protective cones. In the life cycle of agymnosperm, such as a pine, genera of gnetophytes is very different. Gnetum is a vine or small
the mature sporophyte (tree) has cones that produce megaspores tree resembling a flowering plant in physical appearance. It occurs
that develop into female gametophyte generations, and cones in tropical rain forests. Ephedra is a highly branched shrub
that produce microspores that develop into male gametophyte occurring in dry or arid habitats including the southwest deserts
generations—mature pollen grains. Following fertilization, of the United States. Welwitschia does not resemble any other
immature sporophyte generations are present in seeds located plant on earth. Found in Southwestern African coastal deserts, it
in the female cones. The cone opens at maturity or following has a short, thick, disk-shaped stem with two long leaves attached
an environmental signal and the seeds disperse and germinate at its edge.
if conditions are favorable. Reproduction in flowering plants
(chapter 9) is similar to gymnosperms except that angiosperm
pollen and ovules are produced in flowers, rather than in cones Table 8.1 Gymnosperms within the Kingdom
and seeds develop within protective fruits, and the life cycle is Plantae
faster.
Phyla and
Cycads are gymnosperms superficially resembling palm trees. Characteristics
Representative Kinds
They are represented by 10 extant genera and about 100 species.
They are all tropical or subtropical in distribution. Ovules and Phylum Cycadophyta— Gymnosperms with pollen and
cycads seed cones borne on different
seeds of cycads are exposed, and sperm are flagellated and motile.
plants; motile sperm; plants
Most cycads have short stems, with large pinnate leaves attached mostly with single short, stout
at the crown. The leaves are thick with sunken stomata. Most stems or small trees; leaves
cycads are less than 3 meters tall, although one species reaches large, palm-like
20 meters in height. Phylum Ginkgophyta— Gymnosperm with deciduous,
A single living species, Ginkgo biloba, comprises the phylum Ginkgo fan-shaped leaves; motile
Ginkgophyta. Ginkgo biloba is native to China, but has been sperm; large tree
cultivated extensively throughout the world in temperate climates.
Phylum Pinophyta Woody gymnosperms,
Ginkgophyta is an ancient phylum in existence since late producing seeds in cones;
(=Coniferophyta)—
Carboniferous times, some 290 million years ago. The Ginkgo, or conifers motile sperm absent; most
maidenhair tree, grows to 35 meters tall. The leaves of ginkgos with needle-like leaves; stomata
are fan-shaped, with long petioles. Because it is slow-growing and sunken; often large trees
because the wood is brittle, Ginkgo is not a good source of lumber. Phylum Gnetophyta—
Conifers are mostly evergreen woody shrubs and _ trees. gnetophyt es Gymnosperms that contain
vessel elements; motile sperm
About 50 genera, with perhaps 550 living species comprise absent; mostly shrub-like
 Gymnosperms: Exposed Seed Plants 105

Phylum Cycadophyta - cycads

Mature female
sporophyte
Ovule

Seed

Microsporangium

Mature male
sporophyte Microsporophyll
with microsporangia

Germinating seed

Immature
pollen grain

Sperm (n)
Seed coat
Germinated pollen
Embryo (2n : :
yo (2n) grain with two sperm
> 4
eg
— A
Female
4 fi vrametophyte :
wt eamcopoy Eggs in
tissue (1) ;
archegonium

Sperm

Megagametophyte
within ovule

Fertilization

Figure 8.1 Life cycle of a cycad.

106 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

£ ‘%

Figure 8.2 Cycas revoluta. Cycads were abundant during Figure 8.3 Cycas revoluta showing a female cone.
the Mesozoic Era. Currently, there are 10 living genera, 1§ Gone
with about 100 species, that are mainly found in tropical
and subtropical areas. The trunk of many cycads is densely
covered with petioles of shed leaves.
-

ths so: < & ;

7 ¢ .
rs ~ f

Figure 8.4 Cycas revoluta showing a close up view of a Figure 8.5 Cycas revoluta showing a close up view of a
female cone with developing seeds. female cone during seed dispersal.
Seeds 2. Megasporophyll il, Seeks

fa *

Figure 8.7 Male cone of Cycas revoluta after

1. Cone release of pollen.
 Gymnosperms: Exposed Seed Plants 107

nae we
a fe See mf; f ia AW 4a EG he re
Figure 8.8 Young plant of the cycad Zamia pumila. Found Figure 8.9 Microsporangiate cones of the cycad Zamia sp.
in Florida, this cycad is the only species native to the
United States. The rootstocks and stems of this plant were
an important source of food for some Native Americans.

r Lhe a : \
aneey N
: ‘4 “ s a 3 ; : i Be

Figure 8.10 Encephalartos villosus, a non-threatened species Figure 8.11 Maturing female cone of Encephalartos villosus.
of cycad native to southeastern Africa.

Panett te. nade 3s f eae Ses ug 8

Figure 8.12 Transverse section of the leaf of the Figure 8.13 Transverse section of the stem of the
cycad Zamia sp. cycad Zamia sp.
1. Upper epidermis 1. Cortex — 3. Pith
2. Palisade mesophyll 2. Vascular tissue
3. Vascular bundle (vein)
 A Photographic Atk as For The Botany Laboratory
108

tree
4
4
Rata

w a

Figure 8.14 (a) Microsporangiate cone of the Figure 8.15 Microsporangiate cone of a cycad showing microsporangia
cycad, Zamia sp. The cone on the right (b) 1s on microsporophylls.
2. Microsporophyll
a Ni

1. Microsporangium
0 ot 7 M . 2) ah Bt

longitudinally sectioned and magnified.

% . . . “7

1. Microsporangia 2. Microsporophyll

| free,
So ek,
ee) ee 7. “- 7: 2 oes 7 a
SO fm Ee « «et ‘ “
¥A Le GEaot rt ¥% > &
G : me z

bo

Figure 8.17 Longitudinal section of a

nucrosporophyll of the cycad Cycas sp.
Note the microsporangia develop on the
undersurface of the microsporophyll.
1. Microsporophyll
Figure 8.16 Transverse sections of a microsporangiate cone of the cycad Zamia 2. Microsporangia
sp. (a) A low magnification, and (b) a magnified view. to)

I; Gone axis 2. Microsporangia 3. Microsporophyll

Figure 8.18
Megasporangiate
cone of
Cycas revoluta
showing ovules
on leaf-like
megasporophylls
near the time of
i)
pollination.

Figure 8.19 Megasporophyll and ovules of Cycas revoluta.

|. Megasporophyll 2. Ovules
 Gymnosperms: Exposed Seed Plants
— 109

Figure 8.20 Transverse sections of a megasporangiate cone of the es Zamia sp. (a) A low magnification
, and (b) a
magnified view.
1. Cone axis 2. Ovule 3. Megasporophyll 4. Megasporocyte

Lf
oy
Ei 8 ‘
: y Pa

Figure 8.21 Ovule of the cycad Zamia sp. The ovule has Figure 8.22 Nee acd view of the ovule of the cycad
two archegonia and is ready to be fertilized. Zamia sp. showing eggs in archegonia.
1. Archegonium 1. Integument 4. Micropyle area
2. Megasporangium (nucellus) 2. Egs 5. Megasporangium
3. Integument (will become seed coat) 3. Archegonium

Figure 8.23 Ovule of the cycad Zamia sp. The ovule Figure 8.24 Magnified view of the ovule of the cycad
has been fertilized and contains an embryo. The seed Zamia sp. showing the embryo.
coat has been removed from this specimen. 1. Leaf primordium 4. Cotyledon
1. Female gametophyte 2. Embryo 2. Root apex 5. Female gametophyte
3. Shoot apex
110 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Phylum Ginkgophyta - Ginkgo

Figure 8.26 Leaf from the Ginkgo biloba tree. The

fan-shaped leaf is characteristic of this species.

Figure 8.25 Ginkgo biloba, or maidenhair tree.

Consisting of a central trunk with lateral branches, a
mature Ginkgo grows to 100 feet tall. Native to China,
Ginkgo biloba has been introduced into countries with
temperate climates throughout the world as an interest-
ing and hardy ornamental tree.

Figure 8.28 As the sole member of the phylum

Ginkgophyta, Ginkgo biloba is able to withstand air
pollution. Ginkgos are often used as ornamental trees
within city parks. Ginkgo biloba may have the longest
genetic lineage among seed plants.

Figure 8.27 Fossil Ginkgo biloba leaf impression from

Paleocene sediment. This specimen was found in Morton County,
North Dakota.

7X
Figure 8.29 Branch of a Ginkgo biloba tree supporting Figure 8.30 Transverse section of a short branch
a mature seed. from Ginkgo biloba.
1. Short shoot (spur) 3. Mature seeds im Contex Se eith
2. Long shoot 2. Vascular tissue 4. Mucilage duct
 Gymnosperms: Exposed Seed Plants 111

|
1

4 —5 ; :
Figure 8.31 Leaves and immature ovules on a short 34
shoot of the ginkgo tree, Ginkgo biloba.
il, leane 3. Short shoot f 8 8 gt : eh
2. Immature ovules 4. Long shoot Figure 8.32 Pollen strobili of the ginkgo tree, Ginkgo biloba.
ih, Weer 3. Long shoot
2. Pollen strobilus

in)

Figure 8.33 Microsporangiate strobilus of Ginkgo biloba. (a) A longitudinal section and (b) a magnified view showing a microsporangium.
1. Sporophyll 2. Microsporangium 3. Pollen

1
1
2

2
4 —

Figure 8.34 Longitudinal Figure 8.35 Transverse and Figure 8.36 Longitudinal Figure 8.37 Magnified
section of an ovule of Ginkgo _ longitudinal sections through a living section of a seed of Ginkgo, view of the ovule of
biloba prior to fertilization. immature seed of Ginkgo biloba showing — biloba with the seed coat Ginkgo biloba showing
1. Megagametophyte the green megagametophyte. removed. the embryo.
2. Integument 1. Fleshy layer of integument 1. Megagametophyte 1. Leaf primordium
3. Pollen chamber 2. Megagametophyte 2. Developing embryo 2. Shoot apex
4. Nucellus 3. Stoney layer of integument 3. Root apex
4. Megagametophyte
5. Micropyle
 112 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Phylum Pinophyta - conifers a

Microsporangiate
(male) cones

Young sporophyte (2n) ey

(seedling) Atay - D Longitudinal section
WMEGEIOS TORR DK NCD) through microsporangiate
cone

Seed coat

Embryo (2n)

Megagametophyte (n)

Ovulate
(female) cone

Fertilized egg
(zygote) (2n) Microsporophyll

Microsporangium
<——
ae Ovule with
Fertilization Functional megasporocyte (2)
megaspore (/)

Germunating pollen
grain (mature male é = GS.
gametophyte) eae
tetrad (

Sperm (n) Mature pollen grain (n)

(immature male
gametophyte)

Figure 8.38 Life cycle of the pine, Pinus sp.

Gymnosperms: Exposed Seed Plants
113

Figure 8.39 Diagram of

the tissues in the stem (trunk)
of a conifer. The periderm
and dead secondary phloem
(outer bark) protects the tree
against water lost and the
infestation of insects and fungi.
The cells of the phloem (inner
bark) compress and become
nonfunctional after a relatively
short period. The vascular
cambium annually produces
new phloem and xylem and
accounts for the growth rings
in the wood. The secondary
xylem is a water transporting
i layer of the stem and provides
structural support to the tree.
1. Outer bark
2. Phloem
3. Vascular cambium
4. Secondary xylem

Figure 8.40 Stem (trunk) of a pine tree

that was harvested in the year 2000 when
the tree was 62 years old. The growth rings of
a tree indicate environmental conditions that
occurred during the tree’s life.
1. 1939—A pine seedling.
2. 1944—Healthy, undisturbed
growth indicated by broad
and evenly spaced rings.
3. 1949—Growth disparity probably
due to the falling of a dead tree
onto the young healthy six-year
old tree. The wider “reaction
rings” on the lower side help
support the tree.
4. 1959—The tree is growing straight
again, but the narrow rings
indicate competition for
sunlight and moisture from
neighboring trees.
5. 1962—The surrounding trees are
harvested, thus permitting
rapid growth once again.
6. 1965—A burn scar from a fire that
quickly scorched the forest.
7. 1977—Narrow growth rings resulting
from a prolonged drought.
8. 1992—Narrow growth rings, resulting
from a sawfly insect infestation,
whose larvae eat the needles and
buds of many kinds ofconifers.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory
114

ii)

5X

Figure 8.41 Transverse section through the stem of a Figure 8.42 Transverse section through the stem of Pinus sp.,
young conifer showing the arrangement of the tissue layers. showing secondary stem growth.
1. Epidermis 5. Cambium 1. Bark (cortex, and 4. Pith
2, (CKOTAHOr 6. Primary xylem periderm) 5. Secondary xylem
3. Resin duct 7. Spring wood of secondary xylem 2. Secondary phloem 6. Resin duct
4. Pith 8. Primary phloem 3. Vascular cambium 7. Epidermis

Oe

eee
¢ *, ©) o%, ey: ‘2

2 we

o
5

4 6

=o fo es . ‘ A, . J ’ _ ia ; SG RaRHARE aituhosnes nth ath

Figure 8.43 Enlarged view of the stem of Pinus sp. Figure 8.44 Transverse section of mature wood of Pinus sp.
showing tissues following secondary growth. showing three growth rings.
1. Late secondary xylem (wood) 4. Vascular cambium 1. Ray 4. Resin duct
2. Early secondary xylem (wood) 5. Resin duct 2. Late secondary xylem (wood) 5. One ring
3. Secondary phloem 6. Periderm 3. Early secondary xylem (wood)

-1 1

2
2
~3 ce

j As 4
i L 7 de
\ a j ¥~ ;
al
Gi it
‘ Land > a am +
Py Brat 3)
Figure 8.45 Radial longitudinal section through the Figure 8.46 Radial longitudinal section through a
phloem of Pinus sp. stem of Pinus sp., cut through the xylem tissue.
1. Sieve areas on a sieve cell Smslevercelll |. Ray parenchyma 3. Vascular cambium
2. Storage parenchyma 2. Tracheids 4. Sieve cells
 Gymnosperms: Exposed Seed Plants 115

i)

et PBBGtiiiiiik shaw vw7 arGg

‘Ses
i ::
%
Y
ae if

Figure 8.47 Growth rings in Pinus sp. (a) Transverse section through a stem; and (b) radial longitudinal section
through a stem.
1. Early wood 2. Late wood

OF
OND

Figure 8.48 Transverse section of a leaf (needle) of Pinus sp. Figure 8.49 Transverse section through the leaf
1. Stoma 5. Epidermis (needle) of Pinus sp.
2. Endodermis 6. Phloem 1. Endodermis 5. Resin duct
3. Resin duct 7. Xylem 2. Phloem 6. Sub-stomatal chamber
4. Photosynthetic mesophyll 8. Transfusion tissue 3. Xylem 7. Sunken stoma
4. Transfusion tissue (surrounding
vascular tissue)

Figure 8.50 Transverse section of a leaf (needle) of Pinus sp. Figure 8.51 Transverse section through the leaf
1. Mesophyll cell 4. Epidermis (needle) of Pinus sp.
2. Epithelium 5. Hypodermis 1. Endodermis 5. Sunken stoma
3. Resin duct 6. Tannins in vacuole 2. Casparian strip 6. Hypodermis
3. Mesophyll cell 7. Epidermis
4. Sub-stomatal chamber
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory
116 ea

Picea sp.

:
Pinus sp. Thuja sp.

Taxodium sp. Taxus sp.

Figure 8.52 Megasporangiate (seed) cones from various species of conifers.

 Gymnosperms: E xOosed oeed Plants
117

lqW
——-

-2
2

Le Aes
Fiigure
‘: 8.53 First-year
8 yeal oSovulate cone inin Pinus
ulate cone Pinus s sp. i
Figure Surface
8.54 Surface vi
view itudi
and longitudinal section
. Pollen cones 2. First-year ovulate cone through a first-year ovulate cone in Pseudotsuga sp.
1. Cone scale bracts 2. Immature ovules

4 3
(a) 20X (b) ~ & : Pes ee
Figure 8.55 Ovulate cones of a Pinus sp. (a) Transverse section, and Figure 8.56 Magnified view of a
(b) longitudinal section. Pinus sp. ovulate cone (longitudinal view).
1. Ovuliferous scale 2. Ovule 3. Cone axis 1. Ovuliferous scale 3. Cone axis
2. Ovule

i I,
ain teRn

eee &

Figure 8.58 Magnific

4, Integument with pollen grains in the pollen chamber.
1. Megaspore mother cell
2. Nucellus 5. Cone scale |. Nucellus 3. Pollen chamber
3. Ovule 2. Pollen grain 4. Integument
118 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

pungens after pollen has

Figure 8.59 Microsporangiate (pollen) cones of (a) Pinus sp. prior to the release of pollen and (b) Picea
been released. The pollen cones are at the end of a branch,
1. Needle-like leaves 2. Microsporophylls 3. Pollen cone

(a) fo 20X
Figure 8.60 (a) Longitudinal section through the tip of a microsporangiate cone of Pinus sp. and (b) a transverse section.
1. Sporophyll 2 Cone asds 3. Microsporangium

oe
* Ye < ae @ ‘\e. an %y
Se!
* he cevete te tees re ys

Figure 8.61: Close

y up of ;a microsporangi:
sporangiate i aor . Breer Saas :
scale and eA
cone tame ofPi ae Figure 8.62 Microgy aph Figure 8.63 Scanning electron micrograph
Sjoronalale, THUS Sp. of stained pollen grains of — of a Pinus sp. pollen grain with inflated
1. Microsporangium 2. Microsporophyll Pinus sp. showingg wings.
z bladder-like wingsfetes
with pollen grains 1. Pollen body Pe2. Wingsgs
 Gymnosperms: Exposed Seed Plants 119

rz)
NON-SKID

-18

at
§-2
Figure 8.64 Diagram ofpinyon pine seed germination producing a young sporophyte. (a) The seeds Figure 8.65 Young sporophyte
are protected inside the cone, two seeds formed on each scale. (b) A sectioned seed showing an embryo (seedling) of a pine Pinus sp
embedded in the female gametophyte tissue. (c) The growing embryo splits the shell of tho sgeal 1 Seciin eee ot
enabling the root to grow toward the soil. (d) As soon as the tiny root tip penetrates and anchors into gecaiss
the soil, water, and nutrients are absorbed. (e) The cotyledons emerge from the seed coat and create a 2. Young AUST
supply ofchlorophyll. Now the sporophyte can manufacture its own food from water and nutrients in 3, vanee on
the soil and carbon dioxide in the air. (f) Growth occurs at the terminal buds at the base of the leaves.

Figure 8.66 Close up of an ovulate cone scale in Pinus sp. Figure 8.67 Young ovule of Pinus sp. showing the
1. Wings on mature seeds 3. Seed (containing embryo megagametophyte.
2. Ovulate cone scale within seed coat) 1. Ovule 3. Archegonium
2. Micropyle 4. Megagametophyte

ik)

A =e
Figure 8.68 Young ovule of Pinus sp. showing the egg Figure 8.69 Magnified view of the ovule of Pinus sp.
in archegonium. showing the embryo.
2. Nucleus 1. Integument 3. Root primordium
1. Egg
2. Leaf primordium
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory
120

Figure 8.70 Monkey puzzle pine, Araucaria auracana, is a primitive conifer native to South America characterized by sharp, thick
spine-like leaves. (a) Tree, (b) stems and (c) trunk.

Figure 8.71 Leaves of most species of conifers are needle-shaped such as those of the blue spruce, Picea pungens (a). Araucaria

Figure 8.72 Conifer fossils from the Mesozoic Era. (a) Two small branches from the genus Taxodium; and

1. Ovules
 Gymnosperms: Exposed Seed Plants 121

Phylum Gnetophyta - gnetophytes

». BS aS

Figure 8.73 Ephedra sp. shrubs in Capitol Reef National Figure 8.74 Ephedra sp. is one of three genera of shrubs
Park. within the phylum Gnetophyta. Although found throughout
most arid or semiarid regions of the world, Ephedra sp. is
the only one of the three genera of gnetophytes found in
the United States. It is a highly branched shrub with very
small leaves.

2
} y 2 2 ee
3 Pe ie %

Figure 8.75 Mormon tea, Ephedra sp., is a small shrub within Figure 8.76 Stems and scale-like leaf of Ephedra sp.
the family Ephedraceae. Its common name comes from its use 1. Leaf D Sena
by pioneers in the American West to make a hot beverage.

ii)

- : abt Sia oa Se a

Figure me SS
ste Ephedra sp
ofF Ephedra porang ate
sp. with several microsporangi
Figure
i I : giate cones of Ephedra sp.
388.77 Microsporan i
. cones attached.
1. Stem 2. Microsporangiate cone
Se Sa
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory
122

bo

in)

Figure 8.79 Ephedra sp. with Figure 8.80 Ephedra sp. with Figure 8.81 Stem of Ephedra sp. with five attached
attached megasporangiate attached megasporangiate megasporangiate cones.
(ovulate) cones about the (ovulate) cones at time of seed 1. Cones 2. Stem
time of pollination. release.
ea @ones 2stenm il, Comes 2, Sieeinal

“1

LS

Wie? vf]
Ness W y
S97
Arey ie ara fd

20x
Figure 8.82 Longitudinal section Figure 8.83 Transverse section through a stem of Ephedra sp. Note that unlike most other
through a microsporangiate cone gymnosperms, Ephedra has vessel elements in the xylem similar to those found in
of Ephedra sp. angiosperms.
1. Microsporangia 1. Epidermis 3. Cuticle 5. Phloem
2. Pith 4. Cortex 6. Xylem

:
ee A.
Geter
parts + i
nara
OES Ik
oe Fal tet wt wy

Figure 8.84 Young plant of Welwitschia mirabilis. a Figure 8.85 Transverse section through a young stem of
gnetophyte that grows in the coastal desert of Welwitschia mirabilis. Cone-bearing branches arise from
southwestern Africa. Most of this unusual plant is meristematic tissue on the margin of the disk.
buried in sandy soil. The exposed portion consists of a
woody disk that produces two strap-shaped leaves.
 Gymnosperms, Exposed Seed Plants 123

Representative Herbarium Specimens of Conifers

Figure 8.86 Herbarium specimen of Figure 8.87 Herbarium specimen of Figure 8.88 Herbarium specimen
Phyllocladus aspleniifolius. Found in New Thuja orientalis. Acultivated tree of Old of Pinus flexilis. This species is a high
Zealand and Australia, Phyllocladus is a World origin, this tree provides seeds for altitude tree from the Western United
primitive conifer. Though Phyllocladus many species of birds. Thuja orientalis is a States within the family Pinaceae.
superficially resembles some angiosperms, member of family Cupressaceae.
it is actually a cone-bearing species.

Figure 8.89 Herbarium specimen of Figure 8.90 Herbarium specimen of Figure 8.91 Herbarium specimen of
the giant sequoia (or Sierra redwood), a juniper, Juniperus. Within the family a larch, Larix dahurica, family Pinaceae.
Sequoiadendron giganteum. The giant Cupressaceae, this tree along with the This larch occurs in high latitude near
sequoia is within the family Taxodiaceae. pinyon pine, comprises the dominant the Arctic Circle. The leaves of the larch
Once widespread throughout temper- vegetation type within the pinyon- are deciduous and spirally arranged.
ate climates of North America, the giant juniper forest in semiarid environments
sequoia occurs now in isolated groves of the Western United States. Juniper
in the Sierra Nevada mountain range berries are used to flavor gin.
of Northern California. Many trees of
the Sequoia National Park are over two
thousand years old.
124 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Conifers of Commercial Value as Wood Products

Cedar
Western red cedar (Western arborvitae)—Thuja plicata.
Distribution western North America. Size 150 to 200 feet in height.
Commercially important for home construction. Excellent wood for
shingles, house siding, frames and doors, cabinets, caskets, boat trimming,
and fence posts.

Fir
Douglas fir—Pseudotsuga menziesii.
Distribution in the mountainous areas of western North America,
comprises more than 50% of many western forest species. Size 150 to
200 feet in height. Commercially important for construction of homes
(framing and plywood), boat building, railroad ties and mining timber,
pulp for paper, pallets and crates, and wooden boxes.

Hemlock
Eastern hemlock—Tsuga canadensis.
Distribution eastern North America. Size 80 to 100 feet in height.
Commercially important for construction of homes—doors and door frames,
cabinets, and boxes; tannins used for tanning animal hides for leather.

Redwood
California redwood—Sequoia sempervirens.
Distribution California and parts of northwestern United States. Size
300 to 379 feet in height (the tallest species of tree). Commercially
important for construction of decks and outdoor furniture, shingles,
caskets, and supporting lumber for homes.

Lodgepole pine—Pinus contorta

Pine
Loblolly pine—Pinus taeda.
Distribution eastern United States. Size 60 to 90 feet in height; grows in a wide variety of soils, but thrives in wet, acidic soil. One
of the leading commercial timber species in the United States; used in construction of homes interior wood finishing, flooring
and wainscoting.

Ponderosa pine—Pinus ponderosa.

Distribution mountainous regions of western United States. Size 150 to 225 feet in height. Intolerant of shade; resistant to
drought; tolerates alkaline soils. Commercially important for construction of caskets, fences, railroad ties, heavy timber, and log
homes.

Slash pine—Pinus elliottii.

Distribution United States. Size 60 to 90 feet in height. Commercially important for pulpwood and construction of heavy
timber, railroad ties and veneer; baskets, boxes, and crates.

Lodgepole pine—Pinus contorta

Distribution northern Rocky mountains and parts of northwestern United States. Size 60 to 100 feet in height. Commercially
important for construction of utility poles and log homes.

Sugar pine—Pinus lambertiana.

Distribution Cascade mountain range in western United States. Size 180 to 220 feet in height. Commercially important for
construction of pallets, boxes and crates, doors and cabinets, organ pipes and piano keys.

Western white pine— Pinus monticola.

Distribution western North America. Size 150 to 170 feet in height. Commercially important for construction of homes and
home products—plywood, door frames, tabletops; matches and boxes.

Spruce
Red spruce—Picea rubens.
Distribution eastern North America. Size 60 to 75 feet in height. Commercially important for pulp for paper, musical sounding
boards, ladders, crates; and boat building and oars.
3
 Gymnosperms: E xoOSed Seed Plants 125

Photos of Live Specimens of Conifers

Figure 8.92 Bald cypress (Taxodium

distichum) (a). Native to southeastern
United States, the bald cypress grows
in wet areas along rivers or in
swamps. The height of a mature tree
frequently ranges from 100 to 130
feet. The flattened and spiraled leaves
are deciduous and become copper-
colored in autumn. Prominent
buttresses, called cypress knees
(c), frequently grow from the roots
of a tree. These may function
as pneumatophores to utilize
atmospheric oxygen. The cone (d)
is rounded and changes color from
green to brown upon ripening.

Figure 8.93 Norfolk Island pine

(Araucaria heterophylla). Native to
Norfolk Island in the southern Pacific
Ocean, is found in moist habitats.
Narrowly conical and symmetrical in
shape (a). The height of a mature tree
ranges from 100 to 200 feet. The
bark (b) is gray-brown, exfoliating
in fine scales. Male cones are in
clusters, and approximately 1.5
inches long. Female cones (c) are
broader than long, ranging in length
from 4-6 inches.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory
126

Figure 8.94 Colorado blue

spruce (Picea pungens). Native to
Rocky Mountains in the United
States on dry slopes and stream
banks. The height of a mature tree
ranges from 100 to 150 feet. It
is a hardy medium-growing tree,
narrowly conical in _ shape
(a). Bark is gray-brown (b),
and branches droop. Trees are
bluish-grey in coloration (c).

Figure 8.95 Giant sequoia

(Sequoiadendron giganteum). Native
to California on moist west facing
mountain slopes. Narrowly conical in
shape (a) Bark is reddish-brown and
fibrous (b).The height ofa mature tree
ranges from 260 to 300 feet. The
leaves are awl-shaped and are 1 to
2.5 inches long. They are arranged
spirally on the shoots (c).
 Gymnosperms Exposed Seed P| cants
127

Figure 8.96 Limber pine (Pinus

flexilis). Native to Rocky Mountains
of Western Northern America,
limber pine is adapted to cold, harsh
winters. It obtains heights of 30
to 50 feet and 15 to 35 feet in
spread. This specimen was damaged
by lightning (b) and is atypical
in form. The needles are 2 to 4
inches long and are arranged in
fascicles of5 (c).

Figure 8.97 Monterey pine (Pinus

radiata) is native to the western
United States. Found in dry coastal
habitats, it is broadly conical,
becoming rounded to flat in
shape. The bark is reddish brown
to gray and furrowed (b). The
needles are arranged 2 or 3 per
fascicle. Seed cones (c) require
2 years to mature. The height
of a mature tree ranges from 85
to 100 feet.
Chapter 9
Angiosperms Enclosed Seed Plants
Flowering Plants
Angiosperms are plants that produce flowers and fruits. They Angiosperms are divided into the class Monocotyledonae
range in size from the minute duckweed (1 mm in total size) to (monocots), including the grasses, palms, lilies, and orchids;
Eucalyptus trees (100 m tall). A few are saprophytic or parasitic, and class Dicotyledonae (dicots), including most other familiar
but most are free-living. Angiosperms, because of their rapid flowers, shrubs, and trees (except conifers). An estimated 65,000
life cycles, proliferate in all major habitats, including terrestrial, species of monocots and 170,000 species of dicots have been
marsh, fresh water, and marine. identified, although many botanists believe the actual number of
Magnoliophyta (=Anthophyta) is the most recent plant species will turn out to be much higher.
phylum to have evolved. Flowering plants have only existed Like most plants, angiosperms consist of a vegetative
since the late Jurassic or early Cretaceous, perhaps 130 million portion and a_ germinative portion. The vegetative
years ago, but currently dominate the Earth’s terrestrial flora in portion includes the roots, stems, and leaves, which
terms of variety and biomass. Most flowering plants produce a crop are involved primarily with the manufacture and
of mature seeds in a single year, and many species are able to transfer of food and plant growth. The germinative portion
pass from a seed to a mature seed-producing plant in a matter includes the flowers and is involved primarily with sexual
of a few weeks. This rapid cycle has allowed these plants to reproduction and the formation ofseeds.
be efficient in occupying new territory. Many gymnosperms,
require two or more years to complete their life cycle.

Classes and Characteristics

5 cad

Class Dic otyledonae— Two cotyledons; leaf veins usually net-like; vascular bundles within stem arranged
dicots in ring; taproot usually present; floral parts usually in multiples of four or five

Terminal bud The apical meristem

Apical of the shoot produces
meristem linear growth and
of shoot gives rise to new
foliage, branches, and
Internode flowers.
Leaf:
Veins Epidermis
Margin hem
Lamina Mesophyll
(blade)
Stem: Midrib
Cortex
Pith
Xylem
Phloem

Root:
Primary root
Cortex
Secondary root

Epidermis
Xylem
Root cap Phloem
= Root hairs Cortex
Root apex (or apical meristem of root)
Root cap Root

Figure 9.1 A diagram illustrating the Figure 9.2 A diagram illustrating the principal
anatomy of a typical dicot. organs and tissues of a typical dicot.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—-Flowering Plants 129

Phylum Magnoliophyta (=Anthophyta) - angiosperms: monocots and dicots

Monocots Dicots

— One cotyledon Two cotyledons

Flower parts in Flower parts

threes or multiples in fours or fives
of threes or multiples of
four or five

Leaf veins
Leaf veins parallel form a net pattern

Vascular bundles = Vascular bundles

scattered i arranged in a ring

Some examples of dicots

Wheat Water lily Columbine

Vy

Rose Sunflower
Cattail Iris
Figure 9.3 Comparison and examples of monocots and dicots.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Roots of Angiosperms

Plants are only as healthy as are their root systems. The Root cap—A root cap region is a cluster of cells at the tip of
root system of an angiosperm is the descending, usually the root. It protects the root during growth through
underground portion of the plant. The roots can make up the soil.
more than half the plant body. Roots anchor the plant.
Water and nutrients are absorbed, stored, and conducted Meristematic region—The meristematic region of the
by the roots. The root system of a plant is influenced by root, covered by the root cap, is where new cells are
soil type and mineral content and the amount and timing added to the growing root by active cell division.
of moisture.
Monocots, such as grasses, generally have fibrous, or Elongation region—The elongation region of the root is
diffuse, root systems. Dicots, such as shrubs and most where newly added cells increase in size.
woody plants, generally have taproot systems. Specialized
supporting root systems include aerial roots and prop Maturation region—The maturation region of the root is
roots. Taproots, such as found in carrots and turnips, are where cells differentiate into epidermal and cortex
capable of storing large amounts of food. layers and vascular tissues (xylem and phloem).
The root
The active root system of most angiosperms consists of hairs formed in the epidermis of this region greatly
four main regions: increase the surface area for absorption. The cortex
stores reserve food.

Fibrous root system Taproot Modified taproot Prop roots Aerial roots
(grasses) (shrubs) (carrot) (corn) (orchid)

Figure 9.4 Root systems of angiosperms.

Figure 9.5 Root system of an orchid (monocot) (a) showing aerial roots and corn (dicot)
(b) showing prop roots. Monocot
roots are fibrous, with many roots of more or less equal size. Dicots usually have a taproot
system, consisting of a long central
root with smaller, secondary roots branching from it.
 Angiosperms : Enclosed Seed Plants—-Flowering Plants

100X
ee”
‘ a = Y p<] *

Figure 9.6 Transverse section of the root of Figure 9.7 Close up of a root of the monocot Smilax sp.
the monocot Smilax sp. Cortex 3. Xylem
1. Epidermis 4. Xylem 2. Endodermis 4. Phloem
2. Cortex 5. Phloem
3. Endodermis

Figure 9.9 Scanning electron micrograph of a

root, Ipomaea sp. young root of wheat, Triticum sp., showing root hairs.
1. Remnants of epidermis 4. Phloem 1. Root hair 5. Endodermis
De ortex 5. Xylem 2. Epidermis 6. Primary xylem
3. Endodermis Oiotele 7. Primary phloem
4. Cortex

iw)

ae Sd
sa n = eid . |
Figure 9.10 Longitudinal section of a willow, Figure 9.11 Transverse section of branch root
Salix sp., species showing lateral root formation. formation of Phaseolus sp.
1. Lateral root Dp ecortex 1. Epidermis 3. Branch root
2. Epidermis 4. Vascular tissue 2@ ontex 4. Vascular tissue (stele)
 A Photographic Atlas For Th e Botany Laboratory

Ps
ve
9:
a
—

» @ ae -

ws Figure 9.13 Transverse section of an older root of Salix sp.,

Figure 9.12 Transverse section of ayoung root showing early secondary growth. .
of Salix sp. 1. Epidermis 3. Vascular tissue
, : eae saree
1. Epidermis 3, Sule Pn OOnex
2a Cortex

100X
Figure 9.14 Transverse section of the root of Figure 9.15 Transverse section of Figure 9.1 6 Transverse section of a
Salix sp. showing branch root development. an older root of Salix sp., showing young root of Pyrus sp.
1. Epidermis 3. Vascular tissue secondary growth. |. Epidermis 4. Primary xylem
2, (Crier 4. Branch root 1. Periderm 3. Secondary 2a Contex 5. Endodermis
2. Secondary xylem 3. Primary phloem
phloem

Maturation
region portion
where cells are
differentiating into
epidermal and
Root hair cortex layers and
xylem and phloem
Epidermis — tissues

Elongation region
~ portion where
newly added cells
increase in size

Meristematic region
~ portion undergoing mitosis
Figure 9.17 Transverse section of the root, Figure 9.18 Diagram y ERoot cn
Pyrus sp., showingg secondary ggrowth. of a root tip. ey Sa y
portion protecting the
1. Periderm 3. Secondary xylem
root during growth
2. Secondary phloem 4. Vascular cambium :
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants

bo

Sa EN Fay ae
ae as A ho Ye( ‘ ") i /E
| BT Pes 4
Figure 9.19 Photomicrograph of the root tip Figure 9.20 Longitudinal section of a root of corn, Zea mays, showing
of a pear, Pyrus sp., seen in longitudinal section. primary meristems: protderm gives rise to the epidermis, ground meristem
1. Elongation region 3. Apical meristem to cortex, and procambium to primary vascular tissue. The root cap has a
2. Root cap separate meristem.
1. Procambium 3. Protoderm 5. Root cap
Primary phloem 2. Ground meristem 4. Root cap meristem
Vascular cambium

+ Stele

Endodermis _ Pericycle
rigs at 4
ot al <2
LPR SER Pg Fe
Figure 9.21 (a) Diagram of a transverse section of a dicot root. (b) A photomicrograph showing a transverse section of the stele.
1. Starch grains within parenchyma cells 3. Primary xylem De Rericyicle
2. Primary phloem 4. Endodermis

DX
Figure 9.23 Transverse section of the root of basswood,
Figure 9.22 Root of a buttercup, Ranunculus sp..
1. Epidermis 3. Stele Tilia sp., showing secondary growth.
2. Parenchyma cells of cortex 4. Cortex 1. Secondary xylem 3. Vessel element
2. Secondary phloem 4. Periderm
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Stems of Angiosperms

The stem of an angiosperm is usually the ascending

portion of the plant. It produces and supports leaves
and flowers; transports and stores water and nutrients;
and provides growth through cell division. Branches and
twigs, smaller extensions and/or branches of the stem of
¥ Adventitious (b)
certain plants, directly support leaves and flowers.
roots
Herbaceous stems are often soft and succulent. The Stolon
herbaceous stems of monocots have scattered vascular
bundles, while herbaceous stems of dicots have vascular
bundles arranged in a ring. Some species of monocots
have stems reinforced with secondary fibrous strands and Node
appear woody (e.g. Joshua tree). iy,
PP y (e-8:J ) ; : Adventitious
ody stems are hardened and often larger in oe
diameter. They usually increase in diameter by secondary
growth originating from a lateral cork cambium and a
vascular cambium.
d
(c) Axillary ©
Woody stems of dicots often have three parts: bad
Rhizome Papery
1. Bark, which contains periderm and phloem; Iseilercs
/ leaves
2. Wood, which contains the annual rings of secondary bud | Branch

xylem;
3. Pith, a primary tissue composed of loosely packed
parenchyma cells at the center of the vascular tissue.

Linear growth of woody dicot stems occurs at terminal buds,

where mitosis occurs at the apical meristem. Buds also contain Adventitious
roots
developing leaves and, in certain locations, developing flowers.
Nodes of branches or twigs are the points ofleaf attachment, and
internodes are the spaces between the nodes. Lenticels are pores in
the bark which facilitate gas exchange.
People use stems for products including paper, building
materials, furniture, and fuel. In addition, food is obtained from
the stems of potatoes, onions, asparagus, and other plants. Bulb
(onion)
(g)

Cladophyll
Tendril (asparagus)
(grape)

Figure 9.25 Examples of the variety and specialization

of angiosperm stems, (a) runners, (b) rhizomes, (c) tubers,
(d) corms, (@) bulbs, (f) tendrils, and (g) cladophyll. The
stem of an angiosperm is often the ascending portion
of the plant specialized to produce and support leaves and
flowers, transport and store water and nutrients, and provide
growth through cell division. Stems of plants are utilized
extensively by humans in products including paper, building
Figure 9.24 Ta eo Oe as materials, furniture, and fuel. In addition, the stems of
;

and (b) an onion (bulb). pee onions, cabbage, and other plants are important
DY 2 3S 1 RS ~<s + > ‘ - ‘ c 4 ’

ood crops.
1. Node (eye) bearing
a minute scale leaf and stem bud
ie). Bulb scales (modified leaves)
ic). Short stem
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants

Figure 9.26 Woody stem of a Figure 9.27

dicot seen in early spring just Terminal bud of a
as the buds are beginning to woody stem that has
swell. Branches and twigs are been longitudinally
small extensions of the stems sectioned to show
of angiosperms and often developing leaves.
support leaves and flowers.
1. Lateral bud
1. Terminal bud 2. Stem
2. Internode 3. Leaf primordia
3. Terminal bud scale scars 4. Bud scale
4. Lenticel |
5. Lateral bud
6. Node
7. Leaf scar

bo

ac Seeeaen reas BM0x a 40X

Figure 9.28 (a) Longitudinal section of the stem tip of the common houseplant Figure 9.29 Transverse section through the
Coleus sp. (b) Magnified view of apical meristem. stem of amonocot, Triticum sp., wheat.
1. Procambium 4. Trichome 7. Leaf primordium 1. Vascular bundles 3. Ground tissue cavity
2. Ground meristem 5. Apical meristem 8. Axillary bud 2. Epidermis 4. Parenchyma cells
3. Leaf gap 6. Developing leaf primordia 9. Developing vascular tissue

Figure 9.30 (a) Transverse section from the stem of amonocot, Zea mays Figure 9.31 Vascular bundle of
(corn). (b) Magnified view. a fossil palm plant.
1. Vascular bundles with 3. Epidermis 5. Parenchyma cells 1. Bundle cap (fibers)
| primary xylem and phloem — 4. Vessel elements of 6. Vascular bundle z pee
é cul: imary xylem 7. Primary phloem 3. Vessel elements
eA ne
bundles anne 1s
in a monocot are : 4. Ground tissue (parenchyma)
known as an atactostele
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

2}

—_—4
——)

100X
Figure 9.32 Transverse section through a dicot Figure 9.33 Diagram of vascular bundles from the stem
stem, Trifolium sp., clover, showing an custele. of a dicot showing the eustele.
1. Epidermis 4. Interfascicular region 1. Epidermis 5. Phloem .
Ze Cortex 5. Vascular bundles with caps 2. Early periderm 6. Vascular cambium
om bith of phloem fibers 3h, (Coiaier 7. Xylem
4. Phloem fibers 8. Pith

|=

=3
2 —

-4

s 5
100X : Ds ee : Js]\ Fm atk _

Figure 9.34 Transverse section through the Figure 9.35 Tranverse section through an older stem of a
stem of a young sunflower, Helianthus sp. sunflower, Helianthus sp.
1. Vascular bundles 3, (Croratiiers |. Collenchyma 4. “Original” vascular bundle
2, Pilot 4. Epidermis 2. “New” vascular bundle with secondary growth
3. Cortex 5. Pith

Figure 9.37 Tangential section through the secondary

1. Epidermis and developing 4. Vascular cambium xylem and phloem of Juglans sp. (walnut).
periderm 5. Xylem 1. Secondary phloem 4. Vessel element
Da Cortex 6. Pith 2. Ray Deailoens
3. Phloem 3. Secondary xylem
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants

it Ai Hint
iT illUG
Figure 9. 387Transverse section through a stem of Cercis Figure Mi
Tangential section through the ae
canadensis, showing the pattern of fibers and vessel elements. xylem (wood) of Cercis canadensis.
E Late (Summer) wood 3. Vessel element 1. Vessel elements 3. Fibers
. Early (spring) wood 4. Fibers Oe Nay)

Figure 9.40 Transverse section through the Deis: Figure 9. 41 Rcadial section cen the stem at the
xylem (wood) of the stem of Populus sp., showing the less cambium of Populus sp., showing both phloem and xylem.
seasonal distribution of vessel elements. 1. Ray in xylem 4. Cambium
1. Late wood 3. Vessel elements 2. Vessel element 5. Ray in phloem
2. Early (spring) wood 4. Fibers 3. Xylem fibers 6. Phloem fibers

Figure 9.42 eee section aie a Fe phlo- Figure 9.43 Radial section through the secondary
em of the stem of Populus sp., showing the caren of xylem (wood) of the stem of Populus sp., showing the
the fibers and phloem tissue (sieve tube elements). distribution pattern of the fibers and vessel elements.
1. Phloem fibers 3. Sieve tube elements 1. Vessel element 3. Xylem ray
2. Phloem ray 2. Xylem fiber
 138 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

20) ,

ed

FS

ue
x . :

“Woody” monocot Woody dicot

Figure 9.44 Comparison of the transverse sections of stems of a“woody” monocot (palm tree) and a woody dicot (hickory tee):
The stem of the “woody” monocot is rigid because of the fibrous nature of the numerous vascular bundles. The stem of the woody
dicot is rigid because of the compact xylem cells impregnated with lignin forming the dense, hardened wood, seen as annual rings.
1. Annual rings 2. Bark

5
oe

| oe 4 H

Figure 9.45 Transverse section ofa grape, Vitis sp., Figure 9.46 Transverse section of a grape, Vitis sp., stem.
stem showing secondary tissues. |. Sieve tube element 4. Vascular cambium
1. Outer bark 4. Sieve tube elements 2. Phloem fibers 5. Secondary phloem
2. Secondary phloem 5. Vessel member 3. Parenchyma cells 6. Secondary xylem
3. Secondary xylem

os

3
4
5 =

6
es BE Ar B Me OA Aa
Figure 9.47 Transverse section through one-year-old ash, Figure 9.48 Pipevione, Aristolochia sp., stem with healing
Fraxinus sp., stem showing secondary growth. wound.
1. Periderm 4. Secondary phloem 1. Callus tissue 3. Vascular bundle
eC oritexs 5. Secondary xylem 2. Wound
3. Phloem fibers 6. Pith
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants 139

bo

in)

Figure 9.50 Tangential section through the secondary

(wood) of Ulmus sp. showing a ring porous arrangement of phloem of Ulmus sp.
the vessel elements. 1. Parenchyma 3. Ray
1. Early (spring) wood with 2. Late (summer) wood with 2. Sieve tube element
large vessel elements smaller vessel elements

ai | i ha \ | h 3 \) . f

Beat || || a ae
i 4 i i i : id | \ ae | Bi Al sandal
Figure 9.51 Tangential section through the secondary
xylem (wood) of Ulmus sp. (wood) and secondary phloem of Tilia sp. Note the diffuse
1. Vessel elements 3. Ray porous vessel elements in the wood.
2. Xylem fibers 1. Secondary xylem from 3. Secondary phloem from
the previous year the present year
2. Secondary xylem from 4. Secondary phloem from
the present year the previous year(s)

1
A Oa Mialan Mil)
» y
5
WM aN

oy 6

-7
44

L Be: ae ; Ml i Bk W VASAT
Figure 9.53 Radial section through the secondary xylem Figure 9.54 Tangentia ] section through t
and phloem of Tilia sp. xylem (wood) of Tilia sp.
1. Phloem fibers 5. Vessel element 1. Vessel element 3. Xylem fibers
2. Sieve tube elements 6. Xylem ray 2. Xylem ray
3. Vascular cambium 7. Xylem fibers
4. Phloem ray
140 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

(a
b
(C

used by Indians in Eastern United States for making canoes. ; <a

(d) Sycamore—The mottled color of the sycamore bark is due to a tendency for large, thin, brittle plates to peel off,
revealing lighter areas beneath. These areas grow darker with exposure, until they, too, peel off. . .
(ce) Mangrove—The leathery bark of amangrove tree is adaptive to brackish water in tropical or semi-tropical regions.
(f) Shagbark hickory—The strips of bark in a mature shagbark hickory tree gives this tree its common name.

(es)

oe ii if 5
rs a ae; | Z Z Z ¥ ae

Figure 9.56 Angiosperm, Ruscus aculeatus, is characterized by stems (a) that resemble leaves in form and function (cladophylls). Note
the true leaf (b) arising from the leaf-like stem.
1. Stem (cladophyll) Dralbcatr 3. Flower bud

Figure 9.57 Bark of a birch tree, Figure 9.58 Transverse section Figure 9.59 Gall on an oak, Quercus sp., stem.
Betula occidentalis, showing lenticels. of a dicot stem showing a lenticel The feeding of a gall wasp larva causes abnormal
T
Lenticels are spongy areas in the cork and stem tissues. growth and the formation of a gall. The wasp
surfaces that permit gas exchange 1. Lenticel 3. Periderm larva feeds upon the gall tissue, pupates within
between the internal tissues and the 2. Cortex 4. Vascular tissue this enclosure, and then chews an exit to emerge.
atmosphere.
1. Gall 2. Stem
1. Lenticels
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants 141

Leaves of Angiosperms

The leaf of an angiosperm manufactures food by epidermis, a lower epidermis and the centrally located mesophyll.
photosynthesis, which is the production of sugar from carbon The cells of the mesophyll contain chloroplasts, which are
dioxide and water, in the presence of chlorophyll, with sunlight necessary for photosynthesis. Mesophyll is often divided
as the source of energy. into palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll. Veins within the
Leaves are attached at nodes of a stem by _ petioles. mesophyll conduct material through the leaf. Atmospheric
The leaf midrib is vascular tissue (a vein) continuous with the gases containing carbon dioxide enter the leaf through stomata,
vascular tissue of the petiole through the leaf lamina (blade) the shape and opening of which is regulated by guard cells.
and gives rise to numerous branching secondary veins. Leaves comprise the foliage of plants. Leaves provide
Leaves may be classified on the basis of arrangement on habitat and food sources for many animals, including
a petiole, the arrangement of the veins, and the appearance humans. They also provide protective ground cover and
of the margins. A deciduous leaf is one that is shed during are the portion of the plant most responsible for oxygen
the autumn season as the petiole detaches from the stem. replenishment into the atmosphere.
The typical tissue arrangement of a leaf includes an upper

Fraxinus sp. Populus sp.

Cercidiphyllum sp.
Allophylus sp.
leavs fr
from :
the Eocene Epoch, approximatel
-h, approxim ately y 50 million years
. old.
ion
Figure 9.60 Compression fossils f
of four
fossils of angiosp erms leaves
iosperms
142 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Arrangement
Margin Complexity on pea
Venation z
i
i 4
at

Rr

Entire Opposite

Simple Alternate

Palmate Serrate Pinnately compound Whorled

Figure 9.61 Several representative angiosperm leaf types. Leaves comprise the foliage of plants, which provide habitat and a
food source for many animals including humans. Leaves also provide protective ground cover and are the portion of the plant
most responsible for oxygen replenishment into the atmosphere.

Figure 9.62 Shape of

the leaf (a) is of adaptive
value to withstand wind.
As the speed of the wind
increases (b) and (c), the
leaf rolls into a tight cone
shape, avoiding damage.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants
143

oS MESS
SiS
Bees:
a Tee

6S ea C7

is LY
ine)
Coe
eras FS
th co
ei

= BaSser E) &
ee) es ZO 79)

‘: pee
Recrats ex
s
ae ;
Teg
Se se ays
cao ne
| —— eteeecen
lee
Ee
$77
i mags SS ay cA
PEO SN SAL ot |
Figure 9.63 Angiosperm leaf showing Figure 9.64 Undersurface of Figure 9.65 Organic decomposition of a
characteristic surface features. Leaves are an angiosperm leaf showing the leaf is a gradual process beginning with the
organs modified to carry out photosyn- vascular tissue lacing through the softer tissues of the lamina, leaving only
thesis. Photosynthesis is the manufacture lamina, or blade, of the leaf. the vascular tissues of the midrib and the
of food (sugar) from carbon dioxide and 1. Midrib veins, as seen in this photograph. With
water, with sunlight providing energy. 2. Secondary veins time, these will also decompose.
1. Lamina (blade) 4. Veins
2. Serrate margin 5. Petiole
3. Midrib

Figure 9.67 Examples of specialized leaves for flotation. (a) Leaves from a Figure 9.68 As seen on the leaflets in the
giant water lily. (b) Water hyacinths, Eichhornia sp., have modified leaves that upper right of this photograph, the leaves of
buoy the plants on the water surface. Water hyacinths are common in New the sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica, droop upon
World tropical fresh-water habitats, where they may become so thick that being touched. The drooping results from
they choke out bottom-dwelling plants and clog waterways. differential changes in turgor of the leaf cells in
the pulvinus, a thickened area at the base
of the leaflet.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

AAT

— 4

3 a

— ae - 200X
Figure 9.69 Oleander, Nerium oleander, is a xerophyte Figure 9.70 Transverse section of tomato leaf, Lycopersicon sp.
(adapted to arid conditions), as reflected by rather thick, 1. Upper epidermis 4. Leaf vein (vascular bundle)
waxy leaves. Commonly, oleander plants in the American 2. Palisade mesophyll 5. Xylem
Southwest have brilliantly colored flowers. Oleander is 3. Spongy mesophyll 6. Phloem
native to Old World subtropics.
ee
& ‘efi: Net cpa ooo ae x ‘
Secon Intros ae i 4

sere

ae 5

6
7

n = a " 3

ieee 100X , 0d
Figure 9.71 Transverse section of Yucca sp. leaf. Figure 9.72 Section though a leaf of the venus flytrap,
|. Bundle caps (fibers) 4. Epidermis 7. Phloem Dionaea muscipula, showing epidermal cells with an attached
2. Ground tissue 5. Vascular bundle digestive gland. The gland is comprised of secretory
3. Cuticle 6. Xylem parenchyma cells.
|. Epidermis 3. Mesophyll cell
2. Multicellular secretory gland

Figure 9.73 Transverse section through the leaf of the common

hedge privet Ligustrum sp. The typical tissue arrangement of a leaf
includes an upper epidermis, a lower epidermis, and the centrally
located mesophyll. Containing chloroplasts, the cells of the mesophyll
are often divided into palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll. Veins
within the mesophyll conduct material through the leaf.

1. Upper epidermis 5. Xylem.

2. Palisade mesophyll 6. Phloem
3. Gland 7. Spongy mesophyll
BN . Bundle sheath 8. Lower epidermis
 A ngiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants-Flowering Plants

Pe tee a

Figure 9.74 Longitudinal section of privet, Ligustrum sp.,

through the stem and petiole at the abscission layer. wild carrot, Daucus sp., showing the leaf traces.
1. Leaf petiole 2. Abscission layer 1. Ground tissue 3. Bundle of collenchyma
2. Leaf trace

to

5 _ e a3 3 we ag ee Aa “ . ;

Figure 9.76 Paradermal leaf section of ivy, Glechoma sp., Figure 9.77 Paradermal leaf section of privet, Ligustrum sp.,
showing all leaf tissues. showing leaf tissues from lower epidermis through the
1. Lower epidermis 4. Palisade mesophyll spongy mesophyll.
2. Spongy mesophyll 5. Upper epidermis 1. Lower epidermis 2. Spongy mesophyll
3. Leaf vein

mere oe
at “a

2 3
r= Py) PS : EG BY)

Figure 9.78 Transverse section of bearberry, Arctostaphylos sp., Figure 9.79 Transverse section of common garden flower,
through leaf. Dianthus sp., through leaf.
1. Upper epidermis 4. Lower epidermis 1. Upper epidermis 4. Lower palisade mesophyll
2. Palisade mesophyll 5. Cuticle 2. Upper palisade 5. Lower epidermis
3. Spongy mesophyll 6. Leaf vein mesophyll 6. Cuticle
caval io 3. Spongy mesophyll 7. Leaf vein
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Labor atory

40X
Figure 9.80 Lower magnification of transverse section of Figure 9.81 Higher magnifications of transverse section
leaf of corn, Zea mays, a plant that has Cy photosynthesis of leaf of corn, Zea mays. The distinctive appearance of the
(Calvin cycle plus Cy pathway). This is an adaptation to bundle sheath is termed Kranz anatomy.
photorespiration. im @uticle 5. Bundle sheath extension
1. Cuticle 3. Vascular bundle 2. Epidermis 6. Xylem
2. Epidermis 4. Mesophyll 3. Mesophyll 7. Phloem
4. Bundle sheath 8. Stomate

20X
Figure 9.82 Transverse sections of leaf of blue grass, Poa Figure 9.83 Transverse sections of leaf of blue grass, Poa
pratensis, a Cz grass (Calvin cycle only), showing an entire pratensis. When under water stress, the motor (bulliform)
unfolded leaf. cells contract to fold the leaf upward.
dAir space 3. Leaf vein (midrib) 1. Epidermis 6. Bundle sheath
2. Vascular bundles De Nites pace 7. Stomate
3. Vascular bundle 8. Xylem
4. Mesophyll 9. Phloem
5. Motor (bulliform) cells

CLS S Se

Figure 9.84 Transverse section through the leaf of Figure 9.85 Transverse section through the leaf of elderberry,
elderberry, Sambucus growing in the sun. Sambucus growing in the shade. Note the less dense photosyn-
thetic tissue in comparison to the sun leaf (fig. 9.84)
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants

100X 100X
Figure 9.86 Transverse section through the leaf of Figure 9.87 Transverse section through the leaf of
basswood, Tilia sp. cucumber, Cucurbita sp.
1. Upper epidermis 4. Leaf vein (midrib) 1. Palisade mesophyll 3. Leaf vein (midrib)
2. Mesophyll 5. Phloem 2. Spongy mesophyll 4. Trichome
3. Lower epidermis 6. Xylem

100X

Figure 9.88 Transverse section through leaf of hemp, Figure 9.89 Transverse section through the leaf of
Cannabis sp. barberry, Berberis sp.
1. Upper epidermis 4. Lower epidermis 1. Upper epidermis 4. Lower epidermis
2. Palisade mesophyll 5. Trichome 2. Palisade mesophyll 5. Leaf vein (midrib)
3. Spongy mesophyll 6. Leaf vein (midrib) 3. Spongy mesophyll

100X
Figure 9.91 Face view of the epidermis of onion, Allium sp.
Figure 9.90 Transverse section through the leaf of sunflower,
Note the twin guard cells with the stoma opened.
Helianthus sp.
1. Upper epidermis 4. Major leaf veins 1. Epidermal cell 3. Stomate
2. Palisade mesophyll 5. Leaf hair (trichome) 2. Guard cell
3. Spongy mesophyll 6. Lower epidermis
148 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

High humidity
Light

Via NN
Stomz High Water Moderate
a Stoma
closed loss open

Darkness Pa
High CO2
Low humidity

Figure 9.92 Guard cells in many plants regulate the opening of the stomata according to the environmental factors, as
indicated in this diagram. (a) Face view of a closed stoma of a geranium, and (b) an open stoma.

Figure 9.93 Surface view of the Figure 9.94 Leaves and glands of a sundew, Figure 9.95 Specialized leaves
leaf epidermis of Tiadescantia sp. Drosera capensis. of the carnivorous pitcher plant,
1. Epidermal cells [Paleats Sarracenia sp.
2. Guard cells surrounding stomata 2. Digestive glands
3. Subsidiary cells

ee z
Sa NS
Figure 9.96 Leaves of the purple Figure 9.97 Leaves of the venus flytrap, Figure 9.98 Scanning electron
pitcher plant, Sarracenia purpurea, are Dionaea muscipula, are adapted to entrap micrograph of a geranium leaf
adapted to entrap insects. The leaves insects. An insect is attracted by nectar showing the prominent and
are funnel-shaped and have epidermal secreted on the surface of the leaf. The abundant epidermal hairs.
hairs pointed toward the base of the movement of the insect upon the leaves |. Epidermal hairs
leaf. Insects are attracted to the funnel stimulates the sensitive trichomes on the 2. Epidermis
where they are entrapped, die, and are upper surface of the leaves, triggering the
digested by the plant. leaves to close, entrapping the insect.
1. Leaf 2. Epidermal hairs
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants
149

Figure 9.99 Joshua tree, Yucca f of Yiscca sp. Figure 9.101 Euphorbia sp.,a mem-
brevifolia, is native to the Mojave shows a thick cuticle covering the ber of the spurge family, is specialized
Desert. Its common name was epidermis of the leaf. The cuticle to survive arid environments in Africa.
derived from its resemblance to a protects against excessive water loss. Euphorbs have undergone convergent
bearded kneeling patriarch. 1. Cuticle 2. Epidermis evolution to the cacti of the Western
Hemisphere.

ESS ee ee
Figure 9.102 Saguaro cactus, Figure 9.103 Prickly pear, Opuntia Figure 9.104 Fruit of the prickly
Carnegiea gigantea, is the largest ofall sp., cacti have several modifications pear, Opuntia sp.
North American cacti. Arms begin to withstand drought.’ They have
to develop on the saguaro when the spine-like leaves to prevent water
plant is about 75 years old. A saguaro loss through transpiration; they have
cactus may live over 250 years and developed tissue that stores water
reach a height of more than 50 feet. after rain; and their stems are coated
with a waxy substance to aid in
water retention.

Figure 9.105 Crown of thorns, Figure 9.106 Flowers from Figure 9.107 Fishhook barrel
Euphorbia milii, is native to Africa crown of thorns, Euphorbia milii. cactus, Ferocactus wislizeni, expands
but is commonly cultivated in in size during the rainy season in
the American Southwest desert as
xeriscaped gardens.
it stores water.
150 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

= “f? : ASL.
5 RES:
wai
Se ES
ae:
sae a

Figure 9.108 Jumping cholla cactus, Opuntia sp., is well Figure 9.109 Cholla cacti, Opuntia sp., comprise many of the
protected by dense spines. It is native to the American cacti species. Of the nearly 1,000 kinds of cacti, more than half
Southwest. are native to Mexico and the Southwestern United States.
pet
fr ¥

ie NY : gi Ls i ae La Bsn ie :
Figure 9.110 Ocotillo, Fouquiera sp., in blossom during Figure 9.111 Flowers of the Ocotillo, Fouquiera sp. Bats
the rainy season in the Lower Sonoran desert. Small leaves fertilize the blossoms of these flowers as they feed on the
extend from the stems during wet periods, but are quickly nectar. Ocotillo is often confused as being a cactus, however,
shed during arid periods. it is a Woody shrub.

NaNF iS
SSN

LC iat
Figure 9.112 Ball “mosses”, Tillandsia recurvata, are not Figure 9.113 (a) Spanish “moss”, Tillandsia usneoides, is
actually mosses, but flowering plants within the bromeliad actually a flowering plant related to the pineapple. (b) Detail
family which are epiphytes (non-parasitic plants) that of Spanish “moss”, Tillandsia usneoides.
frequently grow on branches of various oak trees.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants

E Flowers of Angiosperms

The angiosperm flower is composed of sepal petals, stamens,

s, by bees and other insects. The flowers of these plants are
and a carpel or carpels (gynoecium).The sepals are the outermost generally brightly colored and sweet smelling. Flowers
circle of protective leaf-like structures. They are green and pollinated by hummingbirds often have nectar deep in slender
are collectively called the calyx. The petals generally form floral tubes where most other animals cannot reach.
a whorl inside of the calyx and are collectively called the When a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of the same
corolla. Petals are often brightly colored and may secrete species of plant, it swells and splits its outer coat.A tube cell
aromatic substances and nectar to attract pollinating insects. grows and digests a tube down the style toward an ovule
The stamens and the carpels are the reproductive parts of in the ovary. Directed by chemical attraction, the tip of the
a flower. A stamen consists of the filament (stalk) and the pollen tube enters the ovule and discharges two sperm cells
anther, where pollen is produced. The centrally positioned into the embryo sac. One sperm fertilizes the egg, and the
pistil consists of a stigma at the tip that receives pollen and other combines with the two polar nuclei to form a triploid
a style that leads to the ovary. The ovary is composed of (3n) nucleus. The fusion of the egg with one sperm and the
one or more modified leaves known as carpels.A carpel is a polar nuclei cell with the second sperm nucleus is called
megasporophyll upon which ovules are produced. The carpel double fertilization and is unique to flowering plants. After
encloses the ovules so that seeds are produced within a fertilization, the other cells of the embryo sac degenerate and
protective layer that matures to form a fruit. Most flowers the ovule begins developing into a seed,
contain both stamens and a pistil, although some species Flowers have contributed greatly to the success of
produce unisexual flowers. angiosperms because they enhance the efficiency of plant
On the basis of position of the ovaries, flowers are reproduction by attracting and rewarding pollen-carrying
classified as hypogynous (with flower parts below the ovary), animals. The beauty and fragrance of flowers have always
epigynous (with flower parts above the ovary), or perigynous appealed to humans. Even many perfumes have chemicals
(centrally-positioned ovary with floral parts on a cup- extracted from flowers as an important ingredient.
shaped receptacle). Regardless of the position of the ovary,
most angiosperms rely on wind or animals for pollination. Position of ovaries
Pollination is the placement of pollen from the anther onto
the stigma of the pistil by wind or animal vectors and is a
prerequisite to fertilization. Wind is the primary pollinating
agent for grasses and many trees. Because of this random
dispersal, enormous quantities of pollen grains are released by
the anthers of the flowers. Many angiosperms are pollinated Hypogynous
(superior ovary)
Structure of a flower

Anther
Filament [ Stamen
Pistil
Perigynous
(centrally-positioned ovary)

Sepal

y Receptacle

Pedicel

Epigynous
(inferior ovary)

Figure 9.114 Diagram of angiosperm flowers showing the Ovary

structure and relative position of the ovaries.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Figure 9.115 Floral bud of Coleus, Coleus sp. Figure 9.116 Ovary of tomato, Lycopersicon sp., with
1. Apical meristem 3. Floral bud developing ovules
2, HACE 1. Ovary wall 3. Placenta
2. Ovules

eS SLE at
Figure 9.117 Nightshade, Solanum sp., floral bud Figure 9.118 Floral bud of tobacco,
showing ovary with developing ovules. Nicotiana sp., showing the ovary and ovules.
1. Ovary wall 3. Placenta 1. Ovary wall 3. Placenta
2. Ovules 2. Ovules 4. Vascular tissue

ine)

Ve aoe

Figure 9.119 Floral bud of a currant, Figure 9.120 Floral bud of sunflower, Helianthus sp., with
Ribes sp., showing an inferior ovary with several immature flowers.
developing ovules. 1. Individual flower 3. Ovary of individual flower
1. Style 3. Ovary 2. Receptacle
Pealeetall 4, Ovules
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants 153

2
a5

Figure 9.121 Floral structure of a Figure 9.122 Structure of a dissected cherry,

tulip, Tulipa sp. Prunus sp., showing a perigynous flower.
1. Petal 4. Filament [Peeral 4. Anther 7. Floral tube
2 Anther 5. Ovary 2. Filaments 5. Stigma
3. Stigma Seepal 6. Style

a
|
Ne

_~
Wy,
6-
RR

Figure 9.124 Dissected quince, Chaenomeles japonica,

showing an epigynous flower. showing an epigynous flower.
lee eral 3. Filament Sse pal 1. sell 2 RSarin 5 Siva
2. Anthet 4. Style 6. Ovary 2. Anther 4. Filament 6. Ovules

Figure 9.125 (a) The floral structure

of Gladiolus sp. (b) The anthers and stigma
16 and (c) the ovary.
1. Anther 10. Stigma
2. Filament 11. Style
3. Ovules 12. Filament
4. Receptacle 13. Ovules
5. Stigma (immature seeds)
6. Style 14. Receptacle
7. Ovary 15. Style
8. Anther 16. Ovary
9. Pollen
 154 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Crown of Thorns Foxglove Morning Glory

Wild Rose Hibiscus

Chinese evergreen Columbine Orchid

Sunflower Daisy Dandelion

Figure 9.126 Flowers of representative angiosperms.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants 155

Figure 9.127 Scanning electron micrograph of the stigma Figure 9.128 Scanning electron micrograph of
of an angiosperm pistil. The stigma is the location where the anther of candy tuft, Lobularia sp. The anther
pollen grains adhere and germinate to produce a pollen has ruptured, resulting in the release of pollen grains.
tube. 1. Filament 3. Pollen grains
2. Anther

Anther

Filament

Stigma
Palea
Lemma
Ovary
First glume Lodicule
Second glume
Peduncle

Spikelet 4 Figure 9.130 Floral parts

of a grass, Elymus flavescens,
Figure 9.129 Floral structure of grasses. showing spikelets with six
florets.

Figure 9.131 Three economically important grasses. (a) Wheat, Tirticum sp. 1s one of the most important human staple foods.
Bamboo is important in commerce and in
(b) Corn, Zea mays is a New World native important as human and livestock food. (c)
many natural ecosystems.
156 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Stigma
Anther

“oroll Fused
oui filaments
; pe _stvle (inside
oe filament tube) bo
Inferior
ovary Pappus scale
"i (modified sepal)
‘sit Ovule ———4))
Ray flower ‘| Disk flower

Receptacle

Si;
Figure 9.133 Dissected
; : ane oy 3 inflorescence of a member of the
Figure 9.132 Flowers of the family Asteraceae are usually produced in tight Asteraceae, Balsamorhiza sagittata.
heads resembling single large flowers. One of these inflorescences can contain
1. Ray flower 3. Receptacle
hundreds of individual flowers. Examples of this family include dandelions,
2. Disk flower
sunflowers, asters, and marigolds.

Flowers

Tendril § Sepal
Standard ¢
y \ Fruit
(mature
Keel ovary)

Seed

Flowering (mature
branch ovule)

Stipules Style
Stigma

Figure 9.135 Flower and fruit of the pea, Pisum sp. Figure 9.136 Fruits on the
receptacle of the giant sunflower.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants 157

Figure 9.137 Lady slipper orchid, Paphiopedilum sp. The Figure 9.138 Pollination of a flower by a hummingbird.
flower of the lady slipper orchid fills with rain and drops to
the ground, allowing ants to enter and fertilize the flower.

(d).
Figure 9.139 Flowers of many angiosperms are adapted for insect pollination, (a) through
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Angiosperm Reproductive Cycle

Petal

A Style

Stigma

Anther

Receptacle

Seeding Filament
sporophyte (2n) Section through
anther

@
a
J
COL

Mature sporophyte (2n) ery

with
1
flower agit

Seed coat (2n)

Microsporangium with
Endosperm (5) (in lily) developing pollen grains

Young embryo (2n)

‘Double Fertilization cae

Female gametophyte

a Pollen grains (1) Microsporangia

Pollination shedding pollen grains
Pollen tube

Young ovule in 4-nucleate

stage of development
Pollen tube

Ovary

Ovule Young ovule

with megasporocyte
Mature 8-nucleate
megagametophyte within ovule

Figure 9.140 Life cycle of an angiosperm.

 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants

430X
Figure 9.141 Pollen grains of Figure 9.142 Pollen grains of
the dicot pigweed, Amaranthus sp. a lilac, Syringa sp.

430X ik e RU At, oo: 0

Figure 9.143 Pollen grains of the Figure 9.144 Pollen grain of Figure 9.145 Pollen grains of a lily. The
dicot arrowroot, Balsamorhiza sp. hibiscus, Hibiscus sp. pollen grain at the top of the photo has
germinated to produce a pollen tube.
1. Pollen grain 2. Pollen tube

Intact
Anther splits pollen
open freeing 2
pollen grains Sue

Pollen tube

Sperm cells trave

ee
;es Capua
Tube nucleus
Anther
Style
Generative cell
I
Pollen grains
Bee
Style

Ajlament
Ovule
Ovary Antipodals
Polar nuclei
Synergid fee

Figure 9.146 Diagram showing the process of pollination.

 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

30X :
Figure 9.147 Transverse section of a flower bud from a Figure 9.148 Transverse section of an anther from a lily,
lily, Lilium sp. Lilium sp.
1. Sepal 3. Anther 1. Sporogenous tissue 2. Filament
2. Ovary 4. Petal

Sis es aa eS, ODa te > 600X

Figure 9.149 Transverse section of an anther from a lily, Figure 9.150 Transverse section of an anther from a lily,
Lilium sp. Lilium sp., magnified view.
1. Young microsporocytes 2. Tapetum 3. Anther wall 1. Tapetum 2. Tetrad of microspores

Sasey Wola
Ss ee
at dent

Fa

Figure 9.151 Transverse section of an anther from a lily,

ae sp., showing mature pollen. lily, Lilium sp., ovary showing ovules.
1. Pollen grains with two cells 2. Anther wall 1. Placenta 3. Ovule
2. Ovary wall 4. Megasporocyte (2n)
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants

TL
Reuere7ae OSE UES
eae Ena OTR
ee a afoa iia’, RT Nut Ay" fap
EY
SEN
tT Roy, Pepatte
ce.
CfA
a} Ered
Be
are BS aN
arte RAS 3
/ YG
ae
i VN Fae ee ky sted fei
9,
eae,
ae
?

ee
j ; : 300K
Figure 9.153 Transverse section of a lily, Figure 9.154 Transverse section ofa
Lilium sp., ovary showing megaspore. lily, Lilium sp., ovary showing ovule with
1. Ovule developing embryo sac.
2. Linear tetrad of megaspore nuclei 1. Integuments 3. Embryo sac
3. Integument 2. Micropyle 4. Ovule

‘bh, z + al iy

Figure 9.155 Longitudinal section of an eight-nucleate Figure 1.156 Photomicrograph of a mature

embryo sac in an ovule from a lily, Lilium sp. grain, or kernel, of wheat, Triticum aestivum.
1. Ovary locule 7. Polar nuclei (1 and 3n) 1. Pericarp 5. Shoot apex
2. Megagametophyte 8. Outer integument (2n) 2. Starchy endosperm 6. Radicle
(embryo sac) 9. Inner integument (2n) 3. Scutellum (cotyledon) 7. Coleorhiza
3. Funiculus 10. Synergid cells () 4. Coleoptile 8. Embryo
4. Wall of ovary 11. Egg (n)
Dac nalaza 12. Micropyle (pollen tube
6. Antipodal cells (3n) entrance)
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Fieger
e:

120X
Figure 9.158 Photomicrograph ofa developing
embryo from a shepherd’s purse, Capsella bursa-pastoris. dicot embryo from a shepherd’s purse, Capsella
1. Endothelium 4. Developing embryo bursa-pastoris, showing young embryo.
2. Seed coat 5. Basal cell 1. Seed coat 4. Suspensor
3. Endosperm 2. Cotyledon 5. Basal cell
3. Hypocotyl

ine)

c
y 4h
eA edie Mm
F
hese
Se

Figure 9.159 Photomicrograph of a developing dicot Figure 9.160 Photomicrograph of amature

embryo from a shepherd’s purse, Capsella bursa-pastoris, dicot embryo from a shepherd’s purse, Capsella
showing a nearly mature embryo. bursa-pastoris, showing a mature embryo..
IL. Cellular endosperm 4. Radicle 1: Seed coat 4. Radicle
2. Epicotyl DeSeedicoat 2. Epicotyl 5. Hypocotyl
3. Cotyledon 6. Hypocotyl 3. Cotyledons
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants

Seeds, Fruits and Seed Germination of Angiosperms

Seeds are the reproductive structures of gymnosperms Fruits are classified on the basis of development and
and angiosperms. The seeds of gymnosperms (see Chapter mature structure into three principal groups (see Figures
8) develop on the exposed surface of the scales of cones, 9.165-9.168): simple, aggregate, and multiple. Simple fruits
whereas the seeds of angiosperms usually develop within a develop from single ovaries and may be fleshy, such as
fruit produced from the ovary of a flower. cherries, or dry, such as legumes (beans and peas). Aggregate
A typical seed of an angiosperm consists of a protective fruits develop from single flowers that have several separate
seed coat, a sporophyte embryo, and a layer of nutritive carpels, such as strawberries and blackberries. Multiple fruits
tissue called the endosperm. The endosperm, consisting of develop from groups of separate flowers clustered tightly, such
cells rich in proteins, fats, oils, and starch, is absorbed by as pineapples.
the embryo during development, or seed germination. The Seed germination occurs when appropriate environ-
embryo consists of cotyledons, epicotyl, hypocotyl, and radicle. mental conditions are present. Some seeds must be exposed
During germination, the cotyledons become the embryonic to extended cold; others must undergo a drying period
leaves, the epicotyl becomes the shoot from which derives followed by adequate moisture. Many seeds with hardened
the first plant foliage, the hypocotyl is the point of coats must be physically or chemically scarified before they
attachment of the epicotyl, and the radicle becomes the can germinate. Imbibition, or the absorption of water, is the
primary root. When fully developed and prior to germination, first step in the germination of most seeds. This hydration causes
some seeds dry out and become dormant with only a seed to expand and rupture its coat. Once the germination
5 to 20% water content. A fruit develops around the process is initiated, the radicle, or root of the embryo, emerges
angiosperm seed as it matures. Seeds and fruit are a source of from the seed and grows downward into the soil. In
food for many kinds of animals, including humans. monocots, the shoot of the seedling grows upward through
Although each species of angiosperm has evolved the tube of the coleoptile. In dicots, the hypocotyl of the seed
specific mechanisms for seed dispersal, three basic methods grows upward, pulling the shoot and cotyledons from the
are used (see Figure 9.179). soil.As leaves emerge from the seedling, the cotyledons die
and wither, or may persist for weeks or months.
1. Animal-dispersed seeds generally are produced in
fleshy fruits (berries, grapes, cherries, apples) eaten by
vertebrates. Seeds are dispersed unharmed as they are
passed through the digestive tract. The enticing flavor and
color of fruits are examples of coevolution of animals and
flowering plants. Many other plants have fruits or seeds that
have hooks, spines, or sticky coverings and are dispersed by
adhering to fur or feathers.
2. Water-dispersed seeds include those from plants that
grow near or in water and have seeds or fruit adapted for
floating. In these species, either the seed or the fruit is
buoyant. Nearly all Pacific islands have coconut trees that
were seeded by buoyant coconuts. Rainfall is important in
seed dispersal of some species.
3. Wind-dispersed seeds include those that are ightweight
and buoyant in the air. The fruits of dandelions, for example,
have dry, plume-like structures attached that carry the
wind-borne fruits great distances. Each dandelion fruit Figure 9.161 Mature seeds in the fruit of the tomato,
contains one seed. Other plants, such’ as_ maples, develop Lycopersicon esculentum.
fruits that dry into winglike structures. Tambleweeds scatter il, sya!
2. Placenta
their seeds as the detached plant blows along the ground.
3. Fruit wall
Other plants, such as the poppy, disperse their seeds aloft
into the wind.
 raphic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory
A Photoges

Fruit

\ Aa Ovaries mature
as achenes

Sepal

Receptacle

Ovary

Figure 9.162 Flower and fruit of the strawberry, Fragaria sp. The strawberry is both an aggregate and accessory fruit.

Stigma

Anther

Seed
Style (mature ovule)

Petal

Ovary Ovule
Pruit
(mature ovary)

Receptacle

Figure 9.163 Illustration of aflower and fruit of a tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum. A tomato fruit is a berry.

Sepal

2: :
\/ Seed
tf i |
Stigma
] h
Spite =—— Anther
ra : Pruit
Filament (pericarp)

Ovary
Sepal

Floral tube

Pedicel Pedicel

Figure 9.164 Flower and fruit of the pear Pyrus sp. The pear fruit develops from the floral tube (fused
perianth) as well as the ovary.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants-Flowering Plants

Figure 9.165 Examples of simple fruits: (a) peach, (b) grapes, (c) apple, (d) lily, and (e) pea.
166 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Figure 9.167 Example of accessory fruit (a) strawberry and aggregate

c fruit (b) blackberry.

Figure 9.168 Examples of multiple fruits: (a) pineapple and (b) fig.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants 167

Figure 9.169 Flower (a) and the fruits (b and c) of the dandelion, Taraxacum sp.The dandelion has a composite flower.
The wind-borne fruit (containing one seed) of a dandelion, and many other members of the family Asteraceae, develop
a plumelike pappus, which enables the light fruit to float in the air.
1. Pappus 2. Ovary wall, with one seed inside

Figure 9.170 Dissected legume, garden bean, Figure 9.171 Lima bean. (a) The entire bean
Phaseolus sp. seed and (b) a longitudinally sectioned seed
1. Pedicel 3. Fruit 1. Integument (seed coat) 4. Hypocotyl
2. Seeds 4. Style 2. Hilum 5. Epicotyl (plumule)
3. Radicle 6. Cotyledon

Figure 9.172 Photomicrograph of the seed coat of the

garden bean, Phaseolus sp., showing the sclerified epidermis
1. Macrosclereids 2. Subepidermal sclereids
168 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Figure 9.173 Cob of corn from Zea mays. Corn Figure 9.174 Fruit and seed of a peanut plant.
was domesticated approximately 7,000 years ago 1. Cotyledon 6. Mesocarp
from a Mexican grass, family Poaceae. 2. Integument (seed coat) 7. Radicle
3. Plumule 8. Cotyledon
4. Embryo axis 9. Fruit wall
5. Interior of fruit (pericarp)

Figure 9.175 Longitudinal section of an apple fruit.

lm Redicel 5. Ovary wall
2. Mature floral tube 6. Mature ovary (2 & 6 Figure 9.176 Transverse section through
3. Seed (mature ovule) comprise the fruit) a grapefruit fruit (hesperidium),.
4. Remnants of floral parts Ime Ocal 4. Pericarp
2: Mesocarp 5. Seed
3. Endocarp

Figure 9.178 Longitudinal section of a

tomato fruit (berry).
: 1. Pedicel 5. Seed
Figure 9.177 Longitudinal section of a pineapple fruit. 2. Pericarp 6. Sepals
1. Shoot apex 2a @entraleasas 3. Floral parts 3. Locule 7. Mature ovary
4. Placenta (fruit)
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants 169

(g) (h) (i) 0) (k) (1)

Figure 9.179 Examples of seed dispersal.
(a) Maple—The winged fruit of amaple fall with a spinning (g) Pecan—The fruit husk of a pecan provides buoyancy and
motion that may carry it hundreds of yards from the parent tree. protection as it 1s dispersed by water.
(b) White pine—The second-year cones of awhite pine open (h) Black walnut—The encapsulated seed of the black walnut
to expose the winged seeds to the wind. is dispersed through burial by a squirrel or floating in a stream.
(c) Willow—The airborne seeds of a willow may be (i) Apple—The seeds of an apple tree may be dispersed by
dispersed over long distances. animals that ingest the fruit and pass the undigested seeds hours
(d) Witch hazel—Mature seeds of the witch hazel tree are later in their feces.
dispersed up to 10 feet by forceful discharge. (j) Cherry—Moderate-sized birds, such as robins, may carry a
(e) Mangrove—The fruits of this tropical tree begin to ripe cherry to an eating site where the juicy pulp is eaten and
germinate while still on the branch, forming pointed roots. the hard seed is discarded.
When the seeds drop from the tree, they may float to a (k) Beech—Seeds from a beech tree are dispersed by mammals
muddy area where the roots take hold. as the spiny husks adhere to their hair. In addition, many
(f) Coconut—The buoyant, fibrous husk of a coconut mammals ingest these seeds and disperse them in their feces.
permits dispersal from one island or land mass to another (1) Oak—An oak seed may be dispersed through burial of the
by ocean currents. acorn fruit by a squirrel orjay.

dispersal.
Figure 9.180 (a) Mature milkweed, Asclepias sp.; (b) milkweed pods; and (c) seeds ready for airborne
170 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Forcible discharge dispersal Water dispersal

Touch-me-not Coconut

Animal dispersal Wind dispersal

a © oF j
Cocklebur Dandelion Poppy

Bine kberries

Figure 9.181 Several fruits and seeds to illustrate seed dispersal.

 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants 171

a,
es FT as ae . Sees Ps ee 2 ee : ’ s : ss
Figure 9.182 The duckweed, Lemna sp., is a small free-floating Figure 9.183 Eucalyptus sp. evolved in Australia
fresh-water plant found throughout the United States. The flowers and has been planted throughout much of the
are small and unisexual. Within the family Lemnaceae, Lemna is world. Some rival the redwoods and sequoias
one of the smallest flowering plants in the world In size.
(scale in mm.).

Representative Herbarium Specimens of Angiosperms

Figure 9.184 Herbarium specimen of a sage, Salvia dornii, Figure 9.185 Herbarium specimen of loco weed, _
family Lamiaceae. Salvia lives in arid environments where it Astragalus oophorus, family Fabaceae. Loco weed is toxic
produces terpenes that inhibit the growth ofother plants. This to livestock on the semiarid open ranges in the Western
specialization tends to insure adequate moisture for an United States.
established plant.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Figure 9.186 Herbarium specimen of papyrus, Cyperus Figure 9.187 Herbarium specimen of Indian rice
papyrus. Cyperus is within the family Cyperaceae. Papyrus, grass, Stipa hymenoides. Indian rice grass is a member of
a tropical reed that grows in the water ways of Northern the family Poaceae and was used by Native Americans
Africa, was used by the Egyptians to make paper. to make a mush-like food, rich in protein. Stipa
hymenoides is the state grass of both Utah and Nevada.

Figure 9.188. Herbarium specimen of the sedge, Carex Figure 9.189 Herbarium specimen of a wild rose, Rosa
scirpoidea, family Cyperaceae. This species of sedge is a woodsii. With only five petals, Rosa woodsii is an
high altitude plant that occurs above the timberline in ancestral form of cultivated roses within the rose
North America.
The higher the altitude, the smaller the family, Rosaceae.
plant specimens become.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants

Figure 9.190 Herbarium specimen of holly atriplex, Figure 9.191 Herbarium specimen of a lady slipper,
Atriplex hymenelytra. Holly atriplex is a salt-tolerant Cypripedium calceolus, family Orchidaceae. The lady slipper
plant within the family Chenopodiaceae. This species orchid is found in wet climates in the eastern United States
of atriplex has small, felt-like leaves. Its range is arid to and in mountainous regions of other parts of the United
semiarid regions in the Western United States. States.

Figure 9.192 Herbarium specimen ofbreadroot, Figure 9.193 Herbarium specimen of mullein, Verbascum
Cymopterus purpurascens. Breadroot is a member of the thapsus. An Old World plant within the family Scrophulariaceae,
family Apiaceae. Developing foliage in the spring, this Verbascum thapsus was used in making fire torches. Portions of
plant was used as a food by many Native Americans. the plant were also used for medicinal purposes.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Figure 9.194 Herbarium specimen of the small barrel Figure 9.195 Herbarium specimen of mountain
cactus, Neolloydia johnstonii, family Cactaceae.
This cactus 1s mahogony, Cercocarpus montanus, family Rosaceae. The
endemic to the western United States and is noted for wood of this plant is extremely dense and was utilized by
its brilliant purplish-pink flower. many Native Americans for making bows and arrows.

Figure 9.196 Herbarium specimen of a sunflower, Figure 9.197 Herbarium specimen of rice, Oryza sativa.
Helianthus annuus. Sunflowers produce flowers in a A species within the grass family, Poaceae, Oryza sativa
composite inflorescence and are members of the family is the major food crop grown in Asia. Known to have
Asteraceae. been cultivated for over 7,000 years, rice requires warm
temperatures and abundant moisture. Rice is one of the
twelve most important human food plants.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants

Saeed

ee

Figure 9.198 Herbarium specimen of wheat, Triticum Figure 9.199 Herbarium specimen of barley, Hordeum
aestivum. Like the other cereal crops, wheat belongs to vulgare. Like wheat, rye is a member of the grass family,
the grass family, Poaceae. Wheat was first cultivated in the Poaceae. Rye has been cultivated as a grain crop since
Middle East over 9,000 years ago. It is currently grown the time of ancient Rome. It is currently grown in cool
in temperate climates throughout the world and is one of climates of northern Europe, Asia, North America, and
the twelve most important human food plants. South America.

Figure 9.200 Herbarium specimen of maize (corn), Zea Figure 9.201 Herbarium specimen of the soybean,
mays. Domesticated nearly 7,000 years ago from a Mexican Glycine max. A legume within the family Fabaceae, the
grass in the family Poaceae, maize is currently grown through- soybean was initially cultivated in China nearly 5,000
out the world but more extensively in North America. During years ago. Currently more than half of the world’s soybean
pre-Columbian times, it was cultivated by Native Americans production is in the United States. Soybeans and other
in societies throughout North and South America. Although beans are high in nutrients and easily grown in many parts
more than half of the cultivated maize in the United States is of the world. Because of this, the soybean is considered
used for animal feed, it is the basis of many important food one of the 12 most important human foods.
items ranging from corn bread to cereals to tortillas. Maize 1s
one of the twelve most important human food plants.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Labor atory

Figure 9.202 Herbarium specimen of cassava, or manioc, Figure 9.203 Herbarium specimen of a garden bean
Manihot esculenta. Within the spurge family Euphorbiaceae, plant, Phaseolus vulgaris. The garden bean 1s easily grown
cassava is an important starch root crop in South America, and the pod and seeds of the fruit provide a nutritious
West Indies, Africa, and Indonesia. Cassava is a shrub that has vegetable.
large, starch-filled roots. Following the preparation of the root,
the residue may be utilized in many ways, including baking as
thin cake bread or drying as a meal called farinha. It is also the
source of tapioca, used in puddings. Cassava is considered one
of the twelve most important human food plants.

Figure 9.204 Herbarium specimen of the white potato, Figure 9.205 Herbarium specimen of the coconut,
Solanum tuberosum. The potato is a member of the family Cocos nucifera. Cocos nucifera is a species within the palm
Solanaceae. The potato tuber is a modified stem that is family Arecaceae (or Palmae). Distributed along tropical
rich in nutrients and is a staple crop for millions of people. shorelines, the coconut “meat” is a nutritious source
Cultivated by Native South Americans, potatoes were of food for millions of people. Palm leaves are used in
introduced to Europe about 1570. Potatoes are currently making shelters and the fibrous portion of the coconut
grown worldwide, especially in temperate regions and at fruit is used for making mats and rope. The coconut is one
higher tropical elevations. The potato is one of the twelve of the twelve most important human food plants.
most important human food plants.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants

Figure 9.206 Herbarium specimen of the banana, Musa Figure 9.207 Herbarium specimen of a squash plant
eee aa are more than 300 varieties of bananas, all Cucurbita foetidissima, family Cucurbitaceae. Many varieties
within the family Musaceae. Thought to have been domesticated of squash have been cultivated and are important food crops.
thousands of years ago, the first became known to Europeans
following the incursion of Alexander the Great into India (327
b.c.). Bananas are high in nutritional value. The banana is one of
the twelve most important human food plants.

Figure 9.208 Herbarium specimen of tobacco, Nicotiana Figure 9.209 Herbarium specimen of sugarcane, Saccharum
tabacum. The tobacco plant is in the nightshade family ravennae. There are several species of cultivated sugarcane grown
Solanaceae. Native to the American tropics, tobacco was first in moist tropical regions throughout the world. Initially used
encountered by Columbus and his men in the West Indies. It is in India nearly 5,000 years ago, sugarcane is a sturdy perennial
currently cultivated in countries throughout the world and as grass with broad leaves. The sucrose content within the stems of
many as half the world’s population chew, sniff, or smoke the certain varieties may reach 20% of the crop biomass. Sugarcane
products from the tobacco plant for the effects of the nicotine. is one of the twelve most important human food plants.
ie A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Figure 9.210 Herbarium specimen of the hot pepper, Figure 9.211 Herbarium specimen of the hemp plant, Cannabis
Capsicum frutescens. Native to North America, the hot sativa. The hemp plant is the source of marijuana and hashish. It
pepper was introduced to Europe by Columbus. Because of is a dioecious annual that was initially cultivated in China as early
its value in spicing foods, it is an important cultivated plant. as 3,000 b.c. The seeds of hemp are used for industrial oil and the
plant body is a source of valuable fiber. In spite of its cultivation
being illegal in many countries, products from the hemp plant are
used by an estimated 200 million people throughout the world,
making it an important cultivated crop.

Figure 9.212 Herbarium specimen of the opium poppy, Papaver Figure 9.213 Herbarium specimen of the foxglove, Digitalis
somniferum. The latex of opium contains many alkaloids, of which purpurea, within the family Plantaginaceae ee isa ae
morphine and codeine are the most important because of their European wild flower that is an important arate lant o
medicinal benefits in making pain-killers.As a cultivated plant for alleviate cardiac insufficiency and related problems :
the narcotics it produces, the opium poppy was first grown in Asia
Minor as early as 2,500 b.c. Opium and its derivatives are commonly
used narcotics, with an estimated 900 million users, mostly in Asia.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants

Angiosperms of Commercial Value as Wood Products

Ash
Red alder—Alnus rubra.
Principal hardwood in the forests of the Pacific Northwest. Size 40 to 50
feet in height. Commercially important for construction of cabinets and
furniture; frames and doors, veneer for plywood, pulpwood, and charcoal.

White ash—Fraxinus americana.

Distribution eastern North America. Size 80 to 100 feet in height.
Commercially important for construction of tool handles (shovels, rakes,
hoes), sporting equipment (baseball bats, hockey sticks, paddles, and oars),
wooden toys, and cabinets.

Basswood
Linden (basswood)—Tilia americana.
Distribution eastern North America. Size 80 to 90 feet in height.
Commercially important for construction of building materials: plywood,
furniture, cabinets, and doors; piano keys, boxes, and caskets.

Beech
American beech—Fagus americana.
Distribution eastern North America. Size 70 to 80 feet in height.
Commercially important for construction of building materials: flooring
and veneer; fuel wood; chemicals such as acetic acid and methanol.

Birch
Yellow birch—Betula alleghaniensis.
re
Distribution eastern North America. Size 80 to 100 feet in height.
Red AdereAlaus ee Commercially important for construction of furniture, veneer, musical
instruments; boxes and matches.

Cherry
Black cherry—Prunus serotina.
Distribution throughout wooded areas of North America. Size 70 to 80
feet in height. Commercially important for construction of cabinets, veneer
for plywood, flooring, furniture, paneling, and interior trim.

Cottonwood
Cottonwood—Populus deltoides.
Distribution throughout most of northern United States. Size 75 to 90 feet
in height. Commercially important source of pulpwood for paper, drawers,
pails, boxes, and crates.

Elm
American elm—Ulmus americana
Distribution eastern United States and southeastern Canada. Size 75 to
100 feet in height. Until decimated by a fungal disease, was commercially
important for construction of furniture, crates, boxes, and round cheese
containers.

Hickory
Bitternut hickory—Carya cordiformis.
Distribution eastern North America. Size 80 to 1000 feet in height.
Commercially important for construction of furniture and tool handles; fuel
wood and smoking meat.

Linden (basswood)—Tilia americana

 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory

Locust
Black locust—Robinia pseudo-acacia
Distribution southeastern United States. Size 70 to 80 feet in height.
Commercially important for construction of wooden bridges and planks,
mine timber, railroad ties, and fence posts.

Maple
Sugar maple—Acer saccharum.
Distribution eastern North America. Size 80 to 100 feet in height.
Commercially important for construction of furniture, veneer for
plywood, flooring, woodenware, and musical instruments. Sap 1s
processed into maple extract and maple syrup.

Oak
Red oak—Quercus rubra.
Distribution eastern United States. Size 70 to 80 feet in height.
Commercially important for construction of flooring, doors, boat-
building, and caskets; fuel wood.

White oak—Quercus alba.

Distribution eastern North America. Size 70 to 120 feet in height.
Commercially important for construction of flooring, doors, furniture,
boat-building, and caskets; fuel wood; barrels for aging wine and whiskey.

Persimmon
Persimmon—Diospyros virginiana.
ae i,
Distribution eastern United States. Size 80 to 100 feet in height.
Commercially important for construction of furniture, boats, barrels, and oak—Quercus alba
golf-club heads.

Sycamore
American sycamore—Platanus occidentalis.
Distribution eastern United States. Size 70 to 115 feet in height.
Commercially important for construction ofinterior trim, paneling,
flooring and drawers; butcher’s blocks.

Walnut
Black walnut—Juglans nigra.
Distribution central and eastern United States. Size 80 to 100 feet in
height. Commercially important for construction of cabinets, veneer for
plywood, chairs, tables, and furniture; gunstocks and coffins.

Poplar
Yellow poplar (tulip tree)—Liriodendron tulipifera.
Distribution eastern North America. Size 140 to 150 feet in height.
Commercially important for construction of furniture, doors, boxes, and
veneer for plywood.

American sycamore—Platanus occidentalis

 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants 181

Photos of Live Specimens of Dicot Trees

Figure 9.214 Acacia (Acacia

sp.). Native to the southwestern
United States, this species of acacia
commonly occurs along the stream
banks of gullies and washes. It
ranges in height from 25-feet to
35-feet (a). The fruit of acacia are
contained in pods that split open
to release the mature seeds, which
are eaten by many species of birds
and small mammals. The bark (b) is
rough and leaves (c) small to retain
moisture.

Figure 9.215 Crapemyrtle

(Lagerstroemia indica). Native to Japan
and eastern Asia, these flowering
trees are cultivated for landscaping
in southwestern United States.
They frequently grow to a height of
40 feet (a) and have distinctive bark
(b) and glossy, green leaves (c).
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory
182

Figure 9.216 Burr oak (Quercus

macrocarpa). Native to eastern
North America, this rounded
crown tree (a) attains heights of 60
to 80 feet and has rough bark (b).
The obovate leaves (c) are deeply
furrowed into round-ended lobes
and are glossy green in color. The
acorn fruit is 2 inches long and
is an important food source for
rodents and many species of birds.

Figure 9.217 Canby oak (Quercus

canbyi). Native to the mountains
of northern Mexico, this semi-
deciduous tree (a) grows to about
35 feet. The tree has rough bark
(b), glossy, serrated, dark green
leaves (c), and is drought tolerant.
Frequently used for firewood, this
tree is adapted to cold temperatures
well below freezing.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—-Flowering Plants
183

Figure 9.218 Hill country live oak

(Quercus fusiformis) This evergreen
oak (a) is native to Texas, particularly
in hilly terrain. It grows to about
80 feet tall and develops a crown of
70-feet to 100-feet wide. The bark
is grayish-brown (b) and furrowed.
The leaves (c) of this drought-toler-
ant tree are dark green and shiny. The
branches of this tree are frequently
covered with ball moss, which is
a harmless epiphyte (non-parasitic)
bromeliad. The wood is used for
furniture.

Figure 9.219 Coastal live oak

(Quercus virginiana) Common along
the coastal states of southeastern
United States, this tree (a) grows
to a height of about 50 feet. Its
elliptical, leathery leaves (c) are
evergreen. The branches are
frequently covered with Spanish #

moss, an epiphytic bromeliad. The

bark is furrowed (b). The wood
of this tree is utilized in making
furniture and oak cabinets.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory
184

Figure 9.220 Chinkapin oak

(Quercus muehlenbergii). This mod-
erately fast growing tree (a) is native
to the eastern deciduous forest,
Texas, and eastern New Mexico.
Its heights range from 65 feet to
100 feet. The bark is grayish-brown
(b) and furrowed.The dense wood
is used for railroad ties, posts,
construction timber, and fuel.
Leaves are drought-tolerant (c).
Acorns from this tree are only
about 1/2 inch long.

Figure 9.221 Lacey oak (Quercus

laceyi). Native to the mountains of
Mexico and the hills of southern
Texas, this drought-tolerant oak
(a) grows to about 45 feet with
a crown spread of 30 feet. The
bark is brown (b) and rough. The
leaves (c) are grayish-green and
change to yellow in the fall prior
to dropping.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—-Flowering Plants
185

Figure 9.222 Gambel oak (Quercus

gambelii). Native to western North
America, this rounded crown tree
(a) attains heights of 40 to 60 feet.
The obovate leaves (c) are deeply
furrowed into round-ended lobes
and are glossy green in color. The
bark is grayish-brown (b). The
acorn fruit is 1.5 inches long and
is an important food source for
rodents and many species of birds.

Figure 9.223 Silver maple (Acer

saccharinum). A large tree (a) that
grows to a height of 60 feet to 90
feet. Older bark tends of flake (b),
leaving brown spots. Leaves (c) are
deeply five-lobed and silvery-white
underneath.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory
186

Figure 9.224 Sweet gum

(Liquidambar styraciflua). This 80-toot
to 120-foot tree is native to south-
eastern United States and along
damp coastal plains (a). Leaves (c) are
deeply palmate and 5-lobed. Its small
yellow-green flowers are without
petals, and its hanging fruit is enclosed
in a ball covered with tiny horns (d).
The wood of the sweet gum is used
for furniture, cabinets, and veneer.

Figure 9.225 Sycamore (Platanus

occidentalis). A large, lowland tree that
grows 75 feet to 115 feet (a). It has
distinctive mottled brown bark (c)
that frequently flakes off in a jigsaw-
puzzle-like pattern exposing the
yellowish underbark. Fruit clusters
appear as fuzzy balls hanging on
three to six inch stems. (b). It is
native to eastern United States. Its
dense, coarse-gained wood is used
for boxes, barrels, butcher’s blocks,
cabinetwork, and furniture. Native
Americans frequently hollowed out
the trunks of sycamores to use them
as canoes.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—Flowering Plants
187

Figure 9.226 Catalpa (Catalpa

bignonioides). Catalpa grows to a
height of 50 to 70 feet (a) and has
large (6” to 12”) leaves (c). Flowers
are white with yellow and purple
spots. The bark is grayish-brown
(b). Fruits are long slender pods (d)
containing many small seeds.

Figure 9.227 Russian olive

(Elaeagnus angustifolia) (a). A
moderately sized, bushy tree with
reddish-gray bark (b). Leaves (c)
are elliptical and silver brown in
coloration. Flowers are silvery
yellow and fragrant. Fruits are
silvery, small, and elliptical. Russian
olive trees are one of a few non-
legumes that fix nitrogen in the soil
in bacterial root nodules.
 A Photographic Atlas For The Botany Laboratory
188

Figure 9.228 Linden (Tilia

americana). Distribution eastern
North America. Size 80 to 90 feet
in height. The linden has a triangle
shape (a). The bark is gray-brown (b).
The leaves are one-sided, and heart-
shaped (c). Commercially important
for construction of building materials:
plywood, furniture, cabinets, and
doors; piano keys, boxes, and caskets.

Figure 9.229 American hornbeam

(Carpinus caroliniana). Also known as
blue beech or water beech, this tree
(a) is native to eastern North America.
As a mature tree of about 30 feet in
height, it is somewhat circular in
shape. The bark is smooth and gray
(b). Its oval leaves (c) are double
toothed and dark green. They change
to an orange to red color in autumn.
The dense and heavy wood of
this tree is used for tool handles
and wedges.
 Angiosperms: Enclosed Seed Plants—-Flowering Plants
189

Figure 9.230 Bluewood condalia

(Condalia hookeri). This drought
tolerant spiny shrub or small tree
(a) is native to the southwest United
States and northwestern Mexico.
The bark is sinooth and gray (b).
Leaves are small and waxy (c). The
dark blue fruit is eaten by many
desert birds and mammals and
makes good jelly and wine.

Figure 9.231 Yaupon holly (Ilex

vomitoria). Native to south eastern
and central Texas to northern
Mexico, this 30-foot tree (a) has
dark glossy evergreen leaves and red
berries (c) (on females) that persist
through the winter. The bark 1s
smooth and gray (b). Many species
of birds feed on the berries. Native
Americans used the berries to make
a beverage called “black drink” that
was used in a ritualistic purging
ceremony.
A
Abiotic: that portion of the environment without living
Alternation of generations: two-phased life cycle
organisms; the non-living portion of the environment.
Abscisic acid: a plant hormone that inhibits growth and characteristic of many plants in which sporophyte and
gametophyte generations alternate.
promotes dormancy; helps the plant conserve energy and
withstand stressful conditions. Amoeba: a protozoan that moves by means of
Abscission: the shedding of leaves, flowers, fruits, or pseudopodia.
other plant parts, usually following the formation of an Anaerobic: metabolizing and growing in the absence of
free oxygen (OQ).
abscission zone.
Absorption: movement of a substance into a cell or an Analogous: structures that have a common function or
appearance in different species but lack a common
organism, or through a surface within an organism.
Accessory bud: a bud developing on a stem or twig developmental origin.
located above or on either side of the axillary bud. Anatomy: the structure of an organism.
Accessory fruit: a fruit composed primarily of tissue Androecium: the stamens of an angiosperm flower.
other than ovary tissue. Apples, plums, and pears are Angiosperm: flowering plant, having double fertilization
examples of accessory fruit. resulting in development of specialized seeds within fruits.
Acclimation: the structural and functional changes of an Annual plant: a plant that completes its entire life cycle in
organization in response to climatic changes. a single year or growing season.
Acid: a substance that releases hydrogen ions in a solution Annual ring: yearly growth demarcation in woody plants
and having a pH less than 7.0. formed by production of “spring wood” and “summer
Acid rain: acidic atmospheric water formed from sulfur wood” in the secondary xylem.
and/or nitrogen oxides forming acids when they react Anther: the terminal pollen sacs of a stamen in an
with water; partially due to the combustion of coal. angiosperm flower where pollen grains with male
Actinomorphic: a flower type that can be divided into gametes develop.
halves in more than one longitudinal plane (also called Antheridium (p/. antheridia): a sperm-producing
radially symmetrical plane). structure in an alga and some fungi.
Active transport: energy-requiring movement of a Apical meristem: embryonic plant tissue in the tip of a
molecule across a membrane from a region of low root, bud, or shoot where continual cell divisions cause
concentration to a region of high concentration. growth in length.
Adaptive radiation: the emergence of several species Archaea: one of the three domains of organisms that
from a common ancestor. includes methanogens, halophiles, and thermophiles.
Adhesion: an attachment between unlike substances or Archegonium: multicellular female reproductive organ in
cells. No chemical bonds are formed between the two. certain plants; a gametangium where eggs are produced.
Adventitious root: a root developing from the stem of a Ascospore: a haploid spore produced within an ascus of a
plant; often functioning in support. sac fungus (ascomycete).
Aeciospore: a dikaryotic spore of rust fungi. Asexual reproduction: a reproduction process that
Aecium: a cuplike structure in a rust fungus where does not require the union of gametes, such as budding
aeciospores are produced. or fission.
Aerobic: respiration requiring free oxygen (O>) for Asymmetry: a non-symmetrical morphology.
growth and metabolism. Autosome: a chromosome other than a sex
Aggregate fruit: a fruit produced from a single flower chromosome.
with several separate carpels. Autotroph: an organism capable of synthesizing organic
Alga (pl. algae): any of a diverse group of aquatic molecules (food) from inorganic molecules.
photosynthesizing organisms that are either unicellular Auxin: a category of plant hormone that stimulates cell
or multicellular; algae comprise the phytoplankton and differentiation and plant growth, such as phototropic
seaweeds of the Earth. response through cell elongation, stimulation of second-
Alkaline: a substance having a pH greater than 7.0; basic. ary growth, and development of leaf traces and fruit.
Allele: an alternative form of gene occurring at a given Axillary bud: group of meristematic cells at the junction
chromosome site, or locus; several alleles may exist for fa) of a leaf and stem, which may develop a branch or
single gene. flower(s); also called lateral bud.
 Glossary of Terms 191

Carpel: the megasporophyll of an angiosperm.

Bacillus (p/. bacilli): a rod-shaped bacterium. Carrying capacity: the maximum number of organisms
Bacterium (pl. bacteria): a prokaryote within the of a species that can be maintained indefinitely in an
Bacteria domain, lacking the organelles of an eukaryotic ecosystem without causing damage.
cell. Catalyst: a chemical, such as an enzyme, that accelerates
Bark: outer tissue layers of a woody plant consisting of the rate of a reaction of a chemical process but is not
periderm, cortex, and outer phloem. used up in the process.
Basal: at or near the base or point of attachment. Cell: the structural and functional unit of an organism; the
Base: see alkaline smallest structure capable of performing all the functions
Basidium (pl. basidia): a reproductive cell of necessary for life.
basidiomycetes, where nuclear fusion to form a diploid Cell wall: a rigid protective structure of a plant cell
cell followed by meiosis occurs to produce basidiospores. surrounding the cell (plasma) membrane; often
Berry: a simple fleshy fruit that develops from a superior composed of cellulose fibers embedded in a
ovary wall. polysaccharide/protein matrix.
Cellular respiration: the reactions of glycolysis, Krebs
Biennial plant: a plant that lives through two growing sea-
cycle, and electron transport system that provided cellular
sons; generally, these plants often have vegetative growth
energy and accompanying reactions to produce ATP.
during the first season, and flower and set seed during
Cellulose: a polysaccharide produced as fibers that form a
the second season.
major part of the rigid cell wall around a plant cell.
Bilateral symmetry: the morphologic condition of having
Chlorophyll: green pigment in photosynthesizing
similar halves.
organisms that absorbs energy from the sun.
Binomial nomenclature: an assignment of two names
Chloroplast: a double membrane-enclosed organelle that
to an organism, the first of which is the genus and the
contains chlorophyll and is the site of photosynthesis.
second the specific epithet; together constituting the
Chromosome: structure in the nucleus of a cell that
scientific name.
contains the genes; comprised of a molecule of DNA
Biomass: the dry weight of all organisms in a particular
and associated proteins.
sample or area.
Climax community: a mature biological community that
Biome: a major climax community characterized by a
is the relatively stable terminal stage reached in ecological
particular group of plants and animals.
succession.
Biosphere: the portion of the Earth’s atmosphere and sur-
face where living organisms exist. Collenchyma: supporting tissue in herbaceous plants
Biotic: pertaining to the living part of the environment. characterized by living elongated cells with unevenly thick-
Bisexual flower: a flower that produces both male and ened primary cell walls.
female sex organs. Colony: an aggregation of organisms of the same species
Blade: the broad expanded portion of a leaf. living together in close proximity.
Brackish: water that is intermediate in saltiness between Community: an ecological unit composed of all the popu-
fresh water and seawater. lations of organisms living and interacting in a given area.
Bryophyte: a plant within the phylum Bryophyta; a moss, Competition: interaction between individuals of the same
liverwort, or hornwort; non-vascular plant that inhabits or different species striving to obtain a mutually
terrestrial environments but lacks many of the necessary resource.
Complete flower: a flower that has the four types of
adaptations of most vascular plants.
floral components including sepals, petals, stamens, and
Budding: type of asexual reproduction in which out-
growths from the parent plant pinch off to live indepen- carpels.
Compound leaf: a leaf with a blade deeply divided into
dently or may remain attached to form colonies.
distinct leaflets.
Bulb: a thickened underground stem often enclosed by
Conifer: a cone-bearing woody seed plant, such as pine,
enlarged, fleshy leaves containing stored food.
fir, and spruce.
Convergent evolution: the evolution of similar
Cc structures in different groups of organisms. They lack
Callus: a mass of undifferentiated plant tissue often
common ancestors but occur in similar environments.
growing in a wound during the healing process.
Cork: the protective outer layer of bark of many trees,
Calyptra: the expanded archegonium that covers the composed of dead cells that may be sloughed off.
capsule in bryophytes and some non-seed vascular plants.
Cork cambium: a lateral meristem that produces the
Calyx: the sepals of an angiosperm flower. periderm.
Cambium (pl. cambia): lateral meristem in a stem or Corolla: the petals of an angiosperm flower
root that causes growth in diameter and girth.
To2 A Photographic Atlas for the Botany Laboratory

Cortex: a primary tissue region of a plant root or stem Epidermis: the outermost protective layer of cells of a
bounded externally by the epidermis and internally by the plant.
vascular system. Epiphyte: nonparasitic plant that grows on the surface of
Cotyledon: the leaves of a plant embryo, which in some other plants.
plants enlarge and function as a storage site for nutrients Estuary: the mixing zone between fresh water and
to support early growth after seed germination. seawater at the mouth of a river.
Crossing over: the exchange of corresponding chromatid Eubacteria (Bacteria): one of the three domains of
segments (genetic material) of homologous chromosomes organisms that includes the cyanobacteria and other pro-
during synapsis in the first phase of meiosis. karyotes except the Archaea.
Cyanobacteria: photosynthetic prokaryotes that have
Eukarya: one of the three domains that includes all
chlorophyll and release oxygen; sometimes referred to
eukaryotic organisms.
as blue-green algae.
Cytoplasm: cellular contents exclusive of the nucleus. Eukaryote: organisms, such as plants, the cells of which
contain a nucleus and other specialized organelles.
D Evolution: genetic and phenotypic changes occurring in
Deciduous plant: a plant that seasonally sheds its leaves. populations of organisms through time, generally
Denitrifying bacteria: single-cellular organisms of the resulting in increased adaptation for continued
Bacteria domain that convert nitrate to atmospheric survival of a species. Evolution may also result
nitrogen. in extinction.
Detritus: non-living organic matter important in the F
nutrient cycle in soil formation. When abundant,
organic detritus is often Known as humus. Fertilization: the fusion of two haploid gametes to form a
Diatoms: aquatic unicellular algae characterized by a cell diploid zygote.
wall composed of two silica-impregnated valves. Fibrous root system: a mass of roots of about equal size.
Dicot: a kind of angiosperm characterized by the presence Filament: a long chain of cells.
of two cotyledons in the seed; also called dicotyledon. Filtration: the passage of a liquid through a filter or a
Diffusion: movement of molecules from an area of greater membrane.
concentration to an area of lesser concentration. Flora: a general term for the plant life of a region or area.
Dihybrid cross: a breeding experiment in which parental Flower: the blossom of an angiosperm that contains the
varieties differing in alleles for two traits are crossed. reproductive organs.
Dimorphism: two distinct forms within a species, with Fossil: any preserved ancient remains or impressions of an
regard to size, color, organ structure, etc. organism.
Division: a major taxonomic grouping of plants that Frond: the leaf of a fern, cycad, or palm containing many
includes classes sharing certain features with close leaflets.
biological relationships. Most biologists use the Fruit: a mature ovary enclosing a seed or seeds.
term phylum rather than division. Fruiting body: a reproductive structure of a fungus or
Dominant: a hereditary characteristic that is expressed slime mold in which spores are produced.
when the genotype is homozygous or heterozygous.
Dormancy: a period of suspended activity and growth. G
Double helix: a double spiral used to describe the Gametangium: a structure that produces gametes.
three-dimensional shape of DNA. Gamete: a haploid sex cell, often a sperm or egg.
Gametophyte: the haploid, gamete-producing phase in
E an organism that has an alternation of generations life
Ecology: the study of the relationship of organisms and cycle.
the physical environment and their interactions. Gemma (pl. gemmae): a small vegetative outgrowth
Ecosystem: a biological community and its associated of the thallus in liverworts or certain fungi that can
abiotic environment. develop into a new organism.
Embryo: a plant at an early stage of development. An Gene: part of the DNA molecule located in a definite
embryo develops from a zygote and may begin growth position on a certain chromosome and coding for specific
immediately or become dormant. protein product.
Endosperm: a plant tissue of angiosperm seeds that stores Gene pool: the total of all the alleles of the individuals in
nutrients; the endosperm of an angiosperm is typically a population.
3n in chromosome number. It is produced by fusion of a Genetic drift: evolution by chance process; often due to
sperm and polar nuclei. the loss of parts of a population.
Epicotyl: portion of a plant embryo that develops to Genetics: the study of genes, gene products and heredity.
become part of the stem, above a cotyledonary node. Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism.
 Glossary of Terms 193

Genus: the taxonomic category above species and below

family; the first name of a scientific binomial.
Indigenous: organisms that are native to a particular
Germ cells: gametes or the cells that give rise to
region; not introduced.
gametes.
Germination: the process by which a spore or seed ends Inferior ovary: a type of flower where the ovary is below
dormancy and resumes metabolism, development, and the attachment of the other floral parts.
growth. Integument: the outer layer(s) of an ovule that mature
Gibberellin: plant hormone producing increased stem into the seed coat.
growth by promoting cell division; also promotes seed Internode: region between stem nodes.
germination and flowering.
Girdling: removal of a strip of bark from around a tree K
down to the wood. Karyotype: the number and type of chromosomes
Grana: a “stack” of flattened membrane disks (thylakoids) characteristic of the species or of a specific individual.
within the chloroplast that contain chlorophyll. Kingdom: a taxonomic category grouping related phyla.
Gravitropism: plant growth oriented with respect to
gravity; stems grow upward, roots grow downward; also L
called geotropism. Lateral bud: a bud often in a leaf axis that has the
Growth ring: an annual growth layer of secondary xylem potential to become a branch or other structure.
(wood) in gymnosperms or angiosperms. Lateral meristem: see cambium
Guard cells: epidermal cells at the side of a stomate that Lateral root: a secondary root that arises by branching
help to control the stoma size.Gymnosperm: a vascu- from an older root.
lar plant producing naked (exposed) seeds, as in conifers. Leaf: a lateral appendage from a plant that has the
Gynoecium: the carpel or carpels of an angiosperm principal function of photosynthesis.
flower. Leaf veins: plant structures that contain the vascular
tissues in a leaf.
H Legume: a member of the pea, or bean, family; also the
Habitat: the ecological abode of a particular organism. fruit of this family.
Herbaceous: a non-woody plant or plant part. Lenticel: spongy area in the periderm of a stem or root
Herbaceous stem: stem of a non-woody plant; stem that permits interchange of gases between internal tissues
lacking wood. and the atmosphere.
Heredity: the transmission of certain characteristics, or Lichen: an alga and fungus forming a single thallus and
traits, from parents to offspring via the genes. coexisting in a symbiotic relationship.
Heterozygous: members of a gene pair are of two differ- Locus: the specific location or site of a gene within the
ent allele types. chromosome.
Holdfast: basal extension of a multicellular alga that
attaches it to a solid object. M
Homologous chromosomes: similar types of chromo- Marine: pertaining to the sea or ocean.
somes that pair in meiosis.
Medulla: the center portion of an organ.
Megaspore: a plant spore that will germinate to become
Homologous structures: structures with similar develop- a female gametophyte.
ment derived from similar structures in a common ances- Meiosis: nuclear division by which haploid nuclei are
tor. formed from a diploid nucleus; also referred to as
Homothallic: species in which individuals produce both reduction division.
male and female reproductive structures and are
Meiospore: a haploid spore produced by meiosis.
self-fertile.
Meristem: undifferentiated plant tissue that is capable of
Homozygous: having both genes of a gene pair of the dividing and producing new cells.
same allele type. Mesophyll: the ground tissue layer of a leaf containing
Hybrid: an offspring from the crossing of genetically cells that are active in photosynthesis, gas exchange and
different strains or species. sometimes storage.
Hypha: a single filament of cells that makes up the Microspore: a spore that develops to produce the male
vegetative body of a fungus. gametophyte.
Hypocotyl: portion of a plant embryo that contributes to Migration: movement of organisms from one geographical
the root development. The hypocotyl is below the site to another.
cotyledonary node.
 A Photographic Atlas for the Botany Laboratory

Mitosis: the process of nuclear division, in which the two Parasite: an organism that derives nutrients from another
daughter nuclei are identical and contain the same num- species; an endoparasite lives within the host organism
ber of chromosomes; often followed by cell division. and an ectoparasite lives on the host organism—both
Monocot: a type of angiosperm in which the seed has relationships are detrimental to the host organism.
only a single cotyledon; also called monocotyledon. Parenchyma: the principal structural cells of herbaceous
plants; a relatively non-differentiated plant cell type
Mutation: a variation in heritable characteristic caused by characterized by thin primary cell walls.
a change in DNA; a permanent transmissible change in Passive transport: molecular movement across a
which the offspring differ from the parents. membrane that does not require energy.
Mutualism: a beneficial relationship between two Pathogen: a disease causing organism.
organisms of different species. Pectin: an organic compound in the intercellular layer and
Mycelium: the mass of hyphae that constitutes the body primary wall of plant cell walls; the basis of fruit jellies.
of a fungus. Pedicel: the stalk of a flower in an inflorescence.
Perennial plant: a plant that lives throughout the year
N and grows during several to many growing seasons.
Natural selection: the evolutionary mechanism by which Perfect flower: a flower having stamens and carpels
organisms with adaptive traits pass on their genes to the contained in the same organ.
next generation. Pericarp: the fruit wall that forms from the wall of a
Nitrogen fixation: a process carried out by certain mature ovary; or female gametophyte tissue enclosing
prokaryotes, such as some soil bacteria, whereby tetrasporophyte in some red algae.
free atmospheric nitrogen is converted into ammonia Pericycle: a tissue in the roots and in the stems of certain
compounds. plants that is bounded externally by the endodermis and
Node: location on a stem where a leaf is attached. internally by the xylem and phloem.
Nucleus: a spheroid body within the eukaryotic cell that Periderm: the secondary dermal tissue produced by the
contains the chromosomes of the cell. cork cambium, consists mainly of cork cells.
Nut: a hardened and dry single-seeded fruit. Petal: modified leaf occurring in a flower. Petals are often
colored and functional in attracting pollinators:
O collectively called the corolla.
Oogonium: a unicellular female reproductive organ of Petiole: structure of a leaf connecting the blade to the stem.
some non-vascular plants and fungi that contains a single Phenotype: the appearance of an organism created by the
or several eggs. genotype and environmental influences.
Organ: a structure consisting of two or more tissues, Phloem: vascular tissue in plants that transports nutrients.
which performs a specific function. Photosynthesis: the process of using the energy of the
Organelle: a minute structure of the eukaryotic cell that sun to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and
performs a specific function.Organism: an individual water.
living creature.
Phototropism: plant growth or movement in response to
Osmosis: the diffusion of water from a solution of lesser a directional light source.
concentration to one of greater concentration through a Phycology: the study of algae.
semipermeable membrane.
Phylogeny: the evolutionary relationship among
Ovary: the portion of an angiosperm carpel or pistil that organisms.
contains the ovule(s) Phytoplankton: microscopic, free-floating, photosynthetic
Ovule: the female reproductive structure in a seed plant organisms that are the major primary producers in
that contains the megasporangium where meiosis occurs fresh-water and marine ecosystems.
and the female gametophyte is produced. Ovules mature Pistil: a reproductive structure of a flower comprised of the
to become seeds. stigma, style, ovary; formed by one or more carpels.
Pith: a centrally located tissue within a dicot stem.
P
Plankton: aquatic free-floating microscopic organisms.
Paleobotany: the study of fossil plants. Plastid: an organelle of a plant where photosynthesis or
Palisade layer: the columnar layer of the mesophyll of a food storage occurs.
leaf where abundant photosynthesis occurs. Pollen grain: a mature microspore containing the male
Parasite: an organism that resides in or on another from gametophyte generation of seed plants.
which it derives sustenance. Pollen tube: a passageway formed after germination of a
Parallel evolution: the development of similar adaptive pollen grain that permits passage of male gametes into an
traits in different species as a result of similar selective ovule.
pressures. Pollination: the delivery by wind, water, or animals of pol-
len to the stigma of a seed plant leading to fertilization.
 Glossary of Terms 195

Population: all the organisms of the same species in a par- Seedling: a developing sporophyte, which develops from a
ticular location. germinating seed.
Producers: organisms within an ecosystem that synthesize Sepal: outermost whorl of flower structures beneath the
organic compounds from inorganic constituents. petals; collectively called the calyx.
Prokaryote: organism, such as a bacterium, that lacks the Sessile: organisms that lack locomotion and remain
specialized organelles and a nuclear envelope stationary.
characteristic of eukaryotic cells. Sexual reproduction: the fusion of a male and female
Prothallus: the gametophyte generation of a nonvascular gamete, followed by meiosis and genetic recombination at
plant. some portion of the developmental life cycle.
Protonema: the first stage of gametophyte development Shoot: portion of a vascular plant that includes a stem with
in mosses and liverworts. its branches and leaves.
Shrub: a relatively short bushy woody plant that generally
R has several stems arising from or near the ground.
Radial symmetry: symmetry around a central axis so Sieve tube: a linear group of cells in the phloem function-
that any half of an organism is identical to the other. ing in translocation of dissolved photosynthetic products.
Receptacle: the tip of the axis of a flower stalk that Simple fruit: a ripened ovary derived from one carpel or
bears the floral organs. several united carpels.
Regeneration: the regrowth of tissue or the formation of Simple leaf: a continuous, undivided laterally extending
a complete organism from a portion. organ of a plant; opposed to a compound leaf.
Renewable resource: a commodity that is not used up Somatic cells: all the cells of the body of an organism
because it is continually produced in the environment. except the germ cells (gametes).
Replication: the process of producing a duplicate; DNA is Sorus: a cluster of sporangia on the underside of fern
replicated prior to cell division. pinnae (leaflets).
Rhizoid: a minute hairlike extension of a fungus or plant Species: a group of morphologically similar organisms that
that functions in nutrient and water absorption. share a gene pool and are capable of interbreeding and
Rhizome: an underground stem in some plants that stores producing fertile offspring and are generally
photosynthetic products and gives rise to above-ground reproductively isolated from other species.
stems and leaves. Sperm: a mature haploid (11) male gamete.
Root: the anchoring subterranean portion of a plant that Spermatophyte: a seed plant.
permits absorption and conduction of water, minerals, Spirillum (p!. spirilla): a spiral-shaped bacterium.
and nutrients. Spongy parenchyma: leaf tissue containing loosely
Root cap: end mass of parenchyma cells that protects the arranged, chloroplast-bearing cells.
apical meristem of a root. Sporangiophore: a hypha or branch that produces a spo-
rangium.
Root hair: epidermal projection from the root of a plant Sporangium: any structure within which spores are
that functions in absorption of water the nutrients. produced.
Spore: a reproductive cell capable of developing into an
5 adult organism without fusion with another cell.
Salinity: saltiness in water or soil; a measure of the Sporophyll: a sporangium-bearing leaf.
concentration of dissolved salts. Sporophyte: the diploid, meiospore-producing phase in an
Sap: the fluid content of the xylem or the sieve elements organism that has an alternation of generations life cycle.
of the phloem. Stamen: a reproductive structure of a flower, comprised
Saprophyte: a heterotrophic bacterium, fungus, or plant of a filament and an anther, where pollen grains are
that absorbs nutrients directly from dead and decaying
produced.
organic matter. Starch: carbohydrate molecule synthesized from
Savanna: open grassland with scattered trees. photosynthetic products; common food storage
Sclerenchyma: supporting tissue in plants composed of substance in many plants.
cells with thickened secondary walls. Stele: the primary vascular tissue at the central core of a
Secondary growth: plant growth in girth from root or stem.
secondary or lateral meristems. Stem: the supporting axis of a vascular plant either above
Seed: a plant reproductive body developed from a ground, or in some plants (such as those having rhizomes
matured ovule and consists of a plant embryo with a food or corms), below the ground as well.
reserve enclosed in a protective seed coat. Stigma: the upper portion of the pistil of a flower. Pollen
Seed coat: the outer protective epidermal layer of a grains become attached to the stigma.
seed.
196 A Photographic Atlas for the Botany Laboratory

Style: the long slender portion of the pistil of a flower. Unisexual: in terms of botany, a flower lacking either
Succession: the sequence of ecological stages by which stamens or carpels; a perianth may be present or absent.
a particular biotic community gradually changes until
replaced by another community. V
Succulent: a fleshy plant with fluid-storing stems and Vacuole: a membrane-bound, fluid-filled organelle.
leaves. Variety: a division of plants or animals below the
Sucrose: a disaccharide (double sugar) consisting of a subspecies level.
linked glucose and fructose molecule: the principal Vascular cambium: a layer of meristematic tissue in
transport sugar in plants. roots and stems of many vascular plants that continues to
produce secondary vascular tissue.
Superior ovary: a type of flower where the flower parts Vascular tissue: plant tissue composed of xylem and
are attached below the base of the ovary. phloem, functioning in transport of water, nutrients, and
Symbiosis: a close association between two organisms photosynthetic products throughout the plant.
where one or both species derive benefit. Vascular plant: a plant that has the vascular tissue xylem
Syngamy: union of gametes in sexual reproduction; and phloem.
fertilization. Vegetative: plant parts not specialized for reproduction;
asexual reproduction.
T Viable: the ability to survive.
Taproot: a plant root system in which a single root
dominates the root system. Ww
Taxon: a taxonomic grouping, such as species, genus, class, Weed: a popularized term referring to a herbaceous plant
order, or phylum. lacking in commercial or aesthetic value and living with
Taxonomy: the science of describing, classifying, and and hindering the growth of desirable plants.
naming organisms. Wood: the interior tissue of a tree composed of secondary
Thallus: a flattened plant body often with little tissue xylem.
specialization and lacking roots, stems, or leaves.
Tuber: a thickened underground stem, such as a potato. X
Tendril: a modified fleshy portion of a plant into a slender Xerophyte: a plant adapted to live in an arid
coiled structure that aids in the support of the stem; environment.
found only in certain angiosperms. Xylem: vascular tissue in plants that transports water and
Tissue: an aggregation of similar cells and their binding minerals.
intercellular substance joined to perform a specific
function. Z
Toxin: a poisonous compound. Zoospore: a flagellated motile asexual spore produced by
Trait: a distinguishing feature of an organism, often studied fungi and algae.
in heredity.
Zygomorphic: a flower type that has bilateral symmetry.
Turgor pressure: osmotic pressure that provides rigidity
Zygote: the union of haploid gametes (117) in the
to a cell.
formation of a diploid (2n) cell; a fertilized egg.
U
Unicellular: an organism consisting of a single cell.
A 23550057409. Ol. Cannabis 147,178 conidiophores 67
abscission layer 145 63, 67 capsule 76, 77, 80, 81, conifer 113, 114, 120, 123
Acacia 181 Ash 138, 179 84, 85 conjugation 13, 39, 40,
accessory fruit 164, 166 Aspergillus iv, 67 Carnegiea 149 41
acer 180,185 Astragalus 171 cassava 176 conjugation fungi 61, 62
actinomycetes 14 astrosclereid 7 catalpa 187 contractile vacuole 26,
aerial roots 130 atactostele 135 cattail 129 28, 29
aerial stem 91 axillary bud 128, 135 cell v, 1-8, 10-13, 16, 19, cork cambium 134
African sleeping sickness 20, 22-24, 26-28, 30, corn 130, 133, 135, 146,
19.27, B 36, 38, 40, 41, 44, 61, 166, 168, 175
agar 15 bacteria iv, v, 1, 14 63, 76, 82, 95, 100, cortex 7, 74, 75, 114, 128,
aggregate fruits 156 bacteria domain iv, v 114, 115, 117, 130, 130, 132, 133
alfalfa 5 baker’s yeast 65 134, 144, 147, 151, cottonwood 179
Allophylus 141 162 cotyledons 129, 162
alternation of genera- balantidiasis 29 cell cycle 1 crapemyrtle 181
tions 30,54, 76 bald cypress 125 cell lumen 6, 8 crown of thorns 154
amebic dysentery 27 banana iv, 177 cell membrane 5, 6, 26, crustose lichen 74, 75
American hornbeam barberry 71, 72, 73, 147 28 cryptobiotic soil 18
188 bark 75, 113, 125, 127, cell plate 9,10, 11 Cucurbita 6, 147, 177
amoebas 19, 26,55 134, 138, 140, cellulose 1, 19, 20, 30 cuticle 89, 122, 144-146,
amyloplasts 5 181-189 cell wall v, 2-7, 9, 40, 46 149
angiosperm 104, 122-123, barley 6,175 centrosome 2 cyanobacteria iv, 14, 15,
128, 130, 134, basidiocarp 68 Cercis 137 18
140-143, 151, 155, basidiomycete 69 chalaza 161 cycad 105, 107, 108, 109
157-158, 163, 171, basidiospores 69, 70, 71 chara 44 Cycas revoluta 106, 108
179 basidium 69, 71 cherry 169, 179 cytokinesis 1,9
angiosperm leaf types basswood 133, 147, 179 Chinkapin oak 184 cytoplasm 1, 2, 12, 19,
142 bean 167, 176 chlamydias 14 20, 30
beech 169, 179 chloroplast 2, 4,5, 24,
animal-dispersed seeds
163 begonia 6 28, 40 D
annulus 69, 70, 99, 100
berry 164, 168 chloroplast envelope 5 dandelion 163, 167
birch 179 choke cherry 65 deciduous leaf 141
anther 151, 153, 155, 158,
bird of paradise 154 chromatids 8,9, 10,11 dermal tissue system 1
160
antheridium 26, 38, 44,
blackberry 166 chromosome vy, 8, 11 desmid 41
blade 51, 128, 141, 143 chrysophyta v, 19, 25 diatom 22, 23, 24
51, 64, 78, 80, 82,
Blue spruce 120, 126 ciliophora 19 dicot 128-130, 133-136,
855.05, 67494, 995
bluewood condalia 189 cilium 2 138, 140, 159, 162
97, 100
bract 152 cleistothecium 65, 67 Digitalis 178
anthocyanins 143
bread mold 62, 63 club moss _ v, 86, 90, 91 dinoflagellate 20, 21
antipodal 161
breadroot 173 Coastal live oak 183 dinophyta v, 19, 20
apical caps 36
brome grass 73 coconut 169, 170 double fertilization 151
apical meristem 128, 134,
brown algae _ v, 19, 30, Cocos 176 drupe 165
135
45, 48 coleoptile 163 duckweed 128,171
apicomplexa 19, 27
brown trout 60 coleorhiza 161
archaea iv, v, 12, 14 E
bryophytes v, 76 coleus 135, 152
archegonium 76, 77, 78, elater 76, 80
budding 1, 61 collenchyma tissue 6
80, 85, 86, 100, 102, elm 179
bulb 134 columbine 129, 154
105, 109, 119 elongation region 130,
bulbils 84 columella 58, 62, 63, 81,
arrowroot 159 1325.133
burr oak 182 85
ascogonium 64 endoplasmic reticulum 4
buttercup 133 cone 86, 91, 104, 106—
ascomycete 61, 64, 65 endosperm 8, 158,
109, 112, 117-123,
ascospores 61, 64, 65, 66 161-163
C 125, 142
asexual reproduction 1, endospores 13, 21
Canby oak 182 conidia 61, 66, 67
Oe 255 30.31,
198 A Photographic Atlas for the Botany Laboratory

K megasporophyll 92, 151

endosymbionts 18 gills 30, 70
Ginkgo v, 104, 110, 111 karyogamy 55, 64, 69, 71 meiosis 21, 25, 31,33; 59;
Ephedra 104, 121, 122
gladiolus 153 39,.42,-45,.99,,00;
epicotyl 163
epidermal hair 148 glycine 175 L 59, 102, 158
epiderimis 6, 66, 107, 128, gnetophyte 122 Lacey oak 184 meiosporangium 47
130, 131, 133, 141, golgi complex 2, 4 lady slipper 157, 173 meiospore 45, 54,55, 96

144, 145, 147, 148, gonorrhea 13 lamina 141, 143 meristematic region 81,

149, 167 gram-negative bacteria lateral bud 135 130, 132

Equisetum 86, 94, 95, 96 14 leaf primordia 135 mesophyll 107, 115, 128,
eucalyptus 128, 171 grape 7, 30, 138 leaf scar 135 141, 144, 145, 147
euglenophyta v, 19, 28 grapefruit 168 leaf sheath 72, 95 methanogens iv, 12, 14
eukaryotic cells 1, 19 green alga iv, 7, 18, 31, leaf trace 91, 145 micronucleus 28, 29
eukaryotic organisms 19 32, 35-39, 42, 43, 61 leaves 1, 30,57, 72-73, 76, micropyle 109, 111, 119,
euphorbia 149 green algae v, 17, 30, 31, 86, 88, 91, 101, 104, 161
eustele 136 40 106, 118-123, 125, microsporangia 102, 105,
green bacteria 14 126, 128, 134-135, 108, 158
F ground tissue 1 140-141, 143-144, microsporangiate 107,
facultative anaerobes 12 growth 1, 61, 93, 113, 148-151, 163, 173, 108s dite 1 ie tis.
fern 7, 86-89, 97-103 114, 128, 130, 132, 176, 177, 181-185, 121, 122
fibrous root system 128, 133, 134, 136, 138, 187-189 microsporangiate cone
130 140, 171 legume 167, 175 108, 112, 118, 122
fiddleheads 86 guard cell 76 lenticel 140 microspores 11, 103, 104,
filament 158 gymnosperm 104 lichens 18, 61, 74, 75 160
fishhook barrel cactus life cycle 19, 30, 76, 104, microsporophyll 92, 93,
149 H 128 105, 108, 112, 118
fission 1, 29 hedge privet 144 lilac 159 midrib 128, 141, 143, 146,
flagellum 2, 20, 28 Helianthus 136, 147, 152, lily 7, 11, 129, 143, 159, 147
flavonoids 143 174 160, 161, 165 milkweed 169
flax 8 hemp 147, 178 linden 179, 188 Mimosa 143
floatation 143 herbaceous stems 134 liverwort 76,77, 78, 80, mitochondrion 2, 4,5, 6
foliose lichen 75 heterocyst 13 81 mitosis 1, 2, 9-11, 23, 31,
foot 78, 80, 81 heterocyst cells 13 Loblolly pine 124 132, 134
foxglove 154, 178 heterotrophs_v, 30, 61 loco weed 171 mnium 84, 85
fragmentation iv, 1, 16 hibiscus 159 locule 161, 168 modified taproot 130
fronds 86 hickory 179 locust 180 mold iv, 30, 55-60, 62,
fruit 149, 163, 167, 168, hill country live oak 183 Lodgepole pine 124 63, 67
186 hilum 167 long shoot 110, 111 monocot 129-131, 135,
fruticose lichen 75 holdfast 38, 49 lycophytes 86 138
fucus 48,50, 51 homeostasis 1 lycopodium 86, 90, 91 Monterey pine 127
fungi iv, v, 1, 18, 30, 61, Hordeum 175 lysosome 2, 4 morel v, 61, 64, 65, 66
62, 74, 113 hormogonium 16 morning glory 154
funiculus 161 hornwort 81 M moss _ v, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86,
horsetail 94, 95 macronucleus 28, 29
901 231002 80
G hot pepper 178 maidenhair fern 99
mucilage 16, 21
gall 140 hyphae 61, 62, 64, 69-71, maize 175
gambel oak 185
multiple fruits 163, 166
74 malaria 19, 27
Musa iv, 177
gamete 31 hypocotyl 163 manihot 176
mushroom v, 61, 69, 70
gametes 1, 2, 30, 34, 40, hypogynous 151 maple 169, 180, 185
41,55, 76 mycelium 61, 66
Marchantia 76, 78, 79, 80,
gametophyte 42, 45, I mycoplasmas 14
81
47, 52, 54, 76-79, Indian rice grass 172 maturation region 130 N
82-87, 90, 95, 97, indusium 98, 99 megasporangiate cones nicotiana 152,177
100, 104, 105, 109, integument 111, 161 122 nitrogen-fixing bacteria
112, 119, 158 internode 128 megasporangium 92, 93, 13
gemmae cup 79 iris 3,129 102, 103, 109 node 94, 95, 96, 128, 134,
geranium 148 megaspore 92, 102, 103, 135
giant sequoia 123, 126 112, 161
 Index
199

Norfolk Island pine 120, perigynous 151, 153 poplar 180 S

125 perispore 94 potato 5, 30, 131, 134, Saccharum 180
nucellus 109 peristome 76, 85 176 sage 171
nuclear membrane 1 perithecia 65, 66 prickly pear 149 Saguaro cactus 149
nuclear pore 6 persimmon 8, 180 primary phloem 114, salix 131, 132
nucleolus 1, 2,4,5,9,11 petal 151-153, 158, 160, 1315 1325 133,135 saprobes 61
nucleus 1, 19, 39, 151 164 primary root 128, 163 saprophytes 12, 30
petiole 7, 104, 106, 128, primary xylem 114, 131, sarcomastigophora 19, 27
O 141, 143, 145 132, 133, 135 Sargassum 49
oak 7, 136, 140, 150, 169, phaeophytes 30 prokaryotic cells 1 sclerenchyma 6, 8, 195
180, 182, 183, 184, phloem 7, 113, 114, 128, prop root 130 scutellum 161
185 130-139 prothallus 86, 100 sea lettuce 43
oats 166 photoreceptor 28 protists iv, v, 19, 30 secondary root 128, 130
obligate aerobes 12 photosynthesis i, v, 1, 2, protonema 76 seed 104-106, 109-112,
obligate anaerobes 12 12, 61, 141, 143, 146 Prunus 65, 153,179 L165 119912281275
ocotillo 150 photosynthetic bacteria pseudoelaters 76, 81 128, 151, 162-164,
oedogonium 36, 37, 38 12, 14 pseudopodia 19, 26 167-170
oleander 144 photosynthetic mesophyll psilopsid 86 seed coat 105, 109, 111,
onion 9, 134, 147 115 psilotum 86, 87, 88, 89 PTZ P11ORI 581625
oogonium 26, 38, 60 Picea 116, 118, 120, 124, pulvinus 143 163, 167, 168
operculum 76, 85 126 purple bacteria 14 seed dispersal 106, 163,
opium poppy 178 pigweed 159 pycnidium 72 169, 170
Opuntia 149, 150 pileus 69, 70 Pyrus 132, 133, 153, 164 seed germination 119,
orchid 130, 154, 157, 173 pine (Pinus) 6, 75, 104, 163
organ 124 112-120, 123, 124, Q Selaginella 86, 92, 93
organelles v,1,2,5 125, 127, 140, 169 Quercus 7, 140, 180, 182, sensitive plant 143
organism 1, 13, 19, 29, pineapple 150, 166, 168 183, 184, 185 separation disk 16
30, 34, 53 pinna 97-100 quillwort 86, 90 Sequoiadendron 123, 126
Oryza 174 pisum 156 seta 76, 84
ostiole 51, 66 pitcher plant 148
R
sexual reproduction 2, 19,
ovary 151, 152, 153, 160, radicle 163
pith 96, 101, 107, 110, 21, 255307535505
161, 163, 164, 168 Ranunculus 133
114, 122, 128, 134, Whar
ovulate 117, 119, 122 ray 114, 136, 137, 139,
136, 138 shoot apex 95, 109, 111,
ovulate cone 117,119 156
placenta 152, 160, 163, 161, 168
ovule 105, 109, 111, 112, receptacle 50,51, 78, 80,
168 short shoot 111
(lity, 11, aes, Ue ee 81, 151, 156, 158
plankton 12, 19 Silver maple 185
160, 161, 168 red algae v, 30, 49
plasmodesmata 8 simple fruits 163, 165,
Red spruce 124
plasmodial slime mold 166
P 55
resin duct 114, 115
Slash pine 124
palisade mesophyl 107 rheumatic fever 15
plasmogamy 55, 62, 63, slime mold 55-58
papaver 178 rhizoid 62, 76, 79, 86, 87,
64, 69, 71 smilax 131
papyrus 172 92, 95, 97, 100, 102
Platanus 180, 186 smut 6, 61, 68, 73
parasitic 19, 30, 61, 65, rhizome 7, 86, 91, 134
pneumatophores 125 Solanum 5, 152,176
128, 150, 183 rhizopoda 19, 26
polar nuclei 151 soredium 74
parenchyma 7, 8, 114, rhizopus 62, 63
sorus 99
133, 134, 135, 144 ribosome 2
pollen 104-106, 112, soybean 175
pea 156, 165 rice 172,174
117711851517 155, Spanish moss 183
peanut 168 rickettsias 14
159-161 Sphagnum 82
pear 133, 149, 153, 164 root cap 128, 130, 133
pollen grain 105, 112, spike mosses v, 86, 90
peat moss 82 root hair 128, 131, 132
118, 151, 158, 159 spirochetes 13, 14
penicillium 65, 67 roots 1, 76, 86, 88, 119,
pollen tube 151, 155, spirogyra 39-41
perianth 77, 164 125, 128, 130, 169,
158, 159, 161 sporangiophore 62, 63,
pericarp 54, 161, 168 176
pollination 108, 122, 151, 94-96
pericycle 89, 91, 133 rose 129, 154, 172
157, 159 sporangium 46,55, 57,
periderm 113, 114, 132, Russian olive 187
pome 165 58, 62, 63, 76, 81,
133, 134, 136, 138, rust v, 30,59, 61, 68,
Ponderosa pine 140 88, 93
140 71-73
200 A Photographic Atlas for the Botany Laboratory

sporogenous tissue 77, tissue 1, 6, 7, 8, 76, 77, 80, wild rose 154, 172
80, 93, 160 81, 85, 89, 93, 96, wind-dispersed seeds
sporophylls 91 99-101, 104-105, 163
sporophyte 45, 47, 76-78, 107, 110, 114-115, wings 118
80, 81, 83-88, 90, 119, 122, 131-135, wood 7, 70, 104, 113-115,
92, 94, 97, 1005102, 137, 138, 140, 141, 124, 137-139, 174,
104, 105, 112, 119, 143-146, 149, 152, 179, 180, 183, 184,
158, 163 160, 163 186, 188
sporophyte capsule 85 Tmesipteris 86, 88, 89 wood fungus 70
sporulation 1 toadstool 61, 68 woody stems 134
squash 6, 177 tobacco 152,177
stele 89, 91, 131, 133 tomato 144, 152, 163, xX
stem 6, 7, 8, 65, 71, 73, 164, 168 xylem 6,7, 104, 113, 114,

76, 86, 91, 93, 94, tracheid 6,7 122, 128, 130-139
96, 101, 104, 107, transfusion tissue 115
113-115, 119, 122, trichocyst 28
ay:
yaupon holly 189
128, 134-138, 140, trichome 135, 147, 148
yeast 1, 65
141, 145, 176 triploid 151
yucca 6,8
sterigma 69, 70 Triticum 131, 135, 155, 161,
stigma 151, 153, 155, 158 175
Z
stipe 48, 49, 69, 70 truffles v, 61, 64
Zamia 107, 108, 109
stolon 62, 63 tuber 134, 176
Zea 73,133,135, 146;
strawberry 164, 166 tulip 153, 180
155, 168, 175
strobilus 90-93, 95-96,
Zygnema 40
111 U
zygosporangium 62, 63
style 151, 152, 153, 158, Ulmus 139,179
zygospore 31, 33, 34, 37,
167 Ulva 43, 44
39, 41, 63
subepidermal sclereids urediniospores 71
zygote 2, 21, 31, 33, 34,
167
Vv 35,37; 99, 40, 41,
sugarcane 177
vacuole 2, 4,5, 6, 26, 28, 42,45, 55, 59, 76;
Sugar pine 124
29, 115 86, 112
sulfur granules 12
vascular bundle 8, 96,
sunflower 136, 147, 152,
107, 129, 135, 136,
156, 174
138, 144, 146
sunken stoma 115
vascular cambium 113,
suspensor cell 63
sweet gum 186 114, 132, 134, 136,
sycamore 140, 180
138, 139
synangium 87, 88 vascular tissue system 1
veil 70
synergid cell 161
syngamy 25 venus flytrap 144, 148
syphilis 13 volvox iv, 32-34

DS WwW
taproot 128, 130 walnut 136, 169, 180
teliospore 71 water-dispersed seeds
telium 71, 72
163
tendril 134 water fern 101-103
terminal bud 128, 134, water lily 143
135 water mold 30,59, 60
thalloid liverwort 78 Welwitschia 104, 122
thallus 36, 46, 74, 75, 79 Western white pine 124
thermoacidophiles 12 wheat 66, 71, 72, 73, 131,
thylakoid membrane 5 135, 161, 175
Mata 33.91595 147,179. wheat rust 71-73
188 whisk fern 87-89
a
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