Diodes

A semiconductor diode is a two terminal electronic component with a PN junction. This is also called
as a Rectifier.

The anode which is the positive terminal of a diode is represented with A and the cathode, which is
the negative terminal is represented with K.
Formation of a Diode
If a P-type and an N-type material are brought close to each other, both of them join to form a
junction.

A P-type material has holes as the majority carriers and an N-type material has electrons as
the majority carriers. As opposite charges attract, few holes in P-type tend to go to n-side, whereas
few electrons in N-type tend to go to P-side.
As both of them travel towards the junction, holes and electrons recombine with each other to
neutralize and forms ions. In this junction, there exists a region where the positive and negative ions
are formed, called as PN junction or junction barrier
The formation of negative ions on P-side and positive ions on N-side results in the formation of a
narrow charged region on either side of the PN junction. This region is now free from movable charge
carriers. The ions present here have been stationary and maintain a region of space between them
without any charge carriers.
As this region acts as a barrier between P and N type materials, this is also called as Barrier junction.
This has another name called as Depletion region meaning it depletes both the regions. There occurs
a potential difference VD due to the formation of ions, across the junction called as Potential
Barrier as it prevents further movement of holes and electrons through the junction.
Biasing of a Diode
When a diode or any two-terminal component is connected in a circuit, it has two biased conditions
with the given supply. They are Forward biased condition and Reverse biased condition.
Forward Biased Condition
When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the positive terminal and cathode to the
negative terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be forward biased condition. This
kind of connection makes the circuit more and more forward biased and helps in more conduction. A
diode conducts well in forward biased condition.
Reverse Biased Condition
When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the negative terminal and cathode to the
positive terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be Reverse biased condition. This
kind of connection makes the circuit more and more reverse biased and helps in minimizing and
preventing the conduction. A diode cannot conduct in reverse biased condition.
Let us now try to know what happens if a diode is connected in forward biased and in reverse biased
conditions.
Working under Forward Biased
When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it cancels the potential barrier and permits the
flow of current is called as forward bias. When anode and cathode are connected to positive and
negative terminals respectively, the holes in P-type and electrons in N-type tend to move across the
junction, breaking the barrier. There exists a free flow of current with this, almost eliminating the
barrier.

With the repulsive force provided by positive terminal to holes and by negative terminal to electrons,
the recombination takes place in the junction. The supply voltage should be such high that it forces
the movement of electrons and holes through the barrier and to cross it to provide forward current.
Forward Current is the current produced by the diode when operating in forward biased condition and
it is indicated by If.
Working under Reverse Biased
When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it increases the potential barrier and restricts
the flow of current is called as Reverse bias. When anode and cathode are connected to negative and
positive terminals respectively, the electrons are attracted towards the positive terminal and holes are
attracted towards the negative terminal. Hence both will be away from the potential barrier increasing
the junction resistance and preventing any electron to cross the junction.

With the increasing reverse bias, the junction has few minority carriers to cross the junction. This
current is normally negligible. This reverse current is almost constant when the temperature is
constant. But when this reverse voltage increases further, then a point called reverse breakdown
occurs, where an avalanche of current flows through the junction. This high reverse current damages
the device.
Reverse current is the current produced by the diode when operating in reverse biased condition and
it is indicated by Ir. Hence a diode provides high resistance path in reverse biased condition and
doesn’t conduct, where it provides a low resistance path in forward biased condition and conducts.
Thus we can conclude that a diode is a one-way device which conducts in forward bias and acts as an
insulator in reverse bias. This behaviour makes it work as a rectifier, which converts AC to DC.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): The Peak Inverse Voltage can be defined as the maximum reverse
voltage that a diode can withstand without being destroyed. Hence, this voltage is considered during
reverse biased condition. It denotes how a diode can be safely operated in reverse bias.
Purpose of a Diode
A diode is used to block the electric current flow in one direction, i.e. in forward direction and to
block in reverse direction. This principle of diode makes it work as a Rectifier.
For a circuit to allow the current flow in one direction but to stop in the other direction, the rectifier
diode is the best choice. Thus the output will be DC removing the AC components. The circuits such
as half wave and full wave rectifiers are made using diodes, which can be studied in Electronic
Circuits tutorials.
A diode is also used as a Switch. It helps a faster ON and OFF for the output that should occur in a
quick rate.
V - I Characteristics of a Diode
A Practical circuit arrangement for a PN junction diode is as shown in the following figure. An
ammeter is connected in series and voltmeter in parallel, while the supply is controlled through a
variable resistor.

During the operation, when the diode is in forward biased condition, at some particular voltage, the
potential barrier gets eliminated. Such a voltage is called as Cut-off Voltage or Knee Voltage. If the
forward voltage exceeds beyond the limit, the forward current rises up exponentially and if this is
done further, the device is damaged due to overheating.
The following graph shows the state of diode conduction in forward and reverse biased conditions.
During the reverse bias, current produced through minority carriers exist known as Reverse current.
As the reverse voltage increases, this reverse current increases and it suddenly breaks down at a point,
resulting in the permanent destruction of the junction.
There are many types of diodes depending upon many factors such as the frequency used, their
working and construction, their applications etc. Let us go through few of them.
Junction diodes
The junction diodes are the normal PN junction diodes but differ in construction. There are three types
of junction diodes, as shown in the following figure.

Rectifier Diode
These diodes are the normal PN junction diodes, which allow current to flow through them in only
one direction and stop in the other direction. These diodes are used in rectifier circuits to convert
alternating current into direct current.
Rectifier diode is added to the diode to minimize the heat distribution which might affect the diode
sometimes. Such a metal projection is called as Heat sink. These help in the improvement of the
diode performance and the diodes will be able to withstand high powers, without getting affected.
There are circuits such as Half wave rectifier and Full wave rectifier circuits which use these
diodes. These circuits are discussed in ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS tutorial. These rectifier circuits are
used in Power supply sections of many circuits where alternating input current has to be converted
into direct current for that circuit applications.
Zener Diode
This is a special kind of diode which permits current flow not only in forward direction, but also in
reverse direction. A normal diode, when operated in reverse bias, gets damaged if the reverse current
above a certain value is passed through it. This certain value is called as the Breakdown voltage.
The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is very low. But this diode allows the reverse current to pass
through it, once this breakdown voltage is exceeded. That breakdown voltage is called as Zener
Voltage. Hence there is a controlled breakdown which does not damage the diode when a reverse
current above the Zener voltage passes through a Zener diode.

A Zener diode in its reverse bias, exhibits a controlled breakdown voltage and it allows the current
flow to keep the value of voltage across that Zener diode close to the Zener breakdown voltage value.
This value of Zener breakdown voltage makes any Zener diode to be chosen for certain applications.
Avalanche diode is another diode which has the similar characteristics of Zener diode. The avalanche
breakdown takes place across the entire PN junction, when the voltage drop is constant and is
independent of current. This avalanche diode is used for photodetection.
V-I Characteristics of a Zener diode
The V-I Characteristics of a Zener diode are common for any diode when operated in forward bias.
But the reverse bias operation of a Zener diode makes it very important to consider.

The point where the bent is shown in the reverse bias operation, is the Zener breakdown voltage,
after which the diode allows high reverse currents through it. This Zener voltage is indicated by VZ.
This incredible quality of Zener diode made it the most reliable one and have got many applications
too.
Applications of Zener diode
This diode has many applications such as −
1. It is mostly used as a Voltage Regulator.
2. Provides fixed reference voltage in transistor biasing circuits.
3. For peak clipping or limiting in wave shaping circuits.
4. As a Surge protector in many circuits.
5. For meter protection against damage from accidental applications.
Switching Diode
This is a normal single PN junction diode which is especially designed for switching purposes. This
diode can exhibit two states of high and low resistance clearly which can be used alternatively.
The junction capacitance of this diode is made very low so as to minimize other effects. The switching
speed is made quite high. When the diode has high resistance it works as an open switch and it acts as
a closed switch during low resistance. This transition occurs at a faster rate in switching diode, than in
any ordinary one.
Applications of switching diode
These have many applications such as −
1. Used in high-speed rectifying circuits
2. Used in ring modulators
3. Used in radio frequency receivers
4. Used as reverse polarity protectors
5. Used for both General purpose and high speed switching applications
Photo Diode
Photo diode, as the name implies, is a PN junction which works on light. The intensity of light affects
the level of conduction in this diode. The photo diode has a P type material and an N-type material
with an intrinsic material or a depletion region in between.
This diode is generally operated in reverse bias condition. The light when focused on the depletion
region, electron-hole pairs are formed and flow of electron occurs. This conduction of electrons
depends upon the intensity of light focused. The figure below shows a practical Photo diode.
The figure below indicates the symbol for a photodiode.

When the diode is connected in reverse bias, a small reverse saturation current flows due to thermally
generated electron hole pairs. As the current in reverse bias flows due to minority carriers, the output
voltage depends upon this reverse current. As the light intensity focused on the junction increases, the
current flow due to minority carriers increase.

The Photo diode is encapsulated in a glass package to allow the light to fall onto it. In order to focus
the light exactly on the depletion region of the diode, a lens is placed above the junction, just as
illustrated above.
Even when there is no light, a small amount of current flows which is termed as Dark Current. By
changing the illumination level, reverse current can be changed.
Advantages of Photo diode
Photo diode has many advantages such as −
1. Low noise
2. High gain
3. High speed operation
4. High sensitivity to light
5. Low cost
6. Small size
7. Long lifetime
Applications of Photo diode
There are many applications for photo diode such as −
1. Character detection
2. Objects can be detected visibleorinvisiblevisibleorinvisible.
3. Used in circuits that require high stability and speed.
4. Used in Demodulation
5. Used in switching circuits
6. Used in Encoders
7. Used in optical communication equipment
LED Light Emitting Diodes
This one is the most popular diodes used in our daily life. This is also a normal PN junction diode
except that instead of silicon and germanium, the materials like gallium arsenide, gallium arsenide
phosphide are used in its construction.

Like a normal PN junction diode, this is connected in forward bias condition so that the diode
conducts. The conduction takes place in a LED when the free electrons in the conduction band
combine with the holes in the valence band. This process of recombination emits light. This process is
called as Electroluminescence. The color of the light emitted depends upon the gap between the
energy bands.
The materials used also effect the colors like, gallium arsenide phosphide emits either red or yellow,
gallium phosphide emits either red or green and gallium nitrate emits blue light. Whereas gallium
arsenide emits infrared light. The LEDs for non-visible Infrared light are used mostly in remote
controls.
The following figure shows a how the practical LEDs of different colors looks like.

LED in the above figure has a flat side and curved side, the lead at the flat side is made shorter than
the other one, so as to indicate that the shorter one is Cathode or negative terminal and the other one
is Anode or the Positive terminal.
The basic structure of LED :

As the electrons jump into the holes, the energy is dissipated spontaneously in the form of light. LED
is a current dependent device. The output light intensity depends upon the current through the diode.
Advantages of LED
There are many advantages of LED such as −
 1. High efficiency
2. High speed
3. High reliability
4. Low heat dissipation
5. Larger life span
6. Low cost
7. Easily controlled and programmable
8. High levels of brightness and intensity
9. Low voltage and current requirements
10. Less wiring required

11. Low maintenance cost

12. No UV radiation

13. Instant Lighting effect

Applications of LED
There are many applications for LED such as −
In Displays
1. Especially used for seven segment display
2. Digital clocks
3. Microwave ovens
4. Traffic signaling
5. Display boards in railways and public places
6. Toys
In Electronic Appliances
1. Stereo tuners
2. Calculators
3. DC power supplies
4. On/Off indicators in amplifiers
5. Power indicators
Commercial Use
1. Infrared readable machines
2. Barcode readers
3. Solid state video displays
Optical Communications
1. In Optical switching applications
2. For Optical coupling where manual help is unavailable
3. Information transfer through FOC
4. Image sensing circuits
5. Burglar alarms
6. In Railway signaling techniques
7. Door and other security control systems