LECTURE NOTES: SOIL AND WATER ENGINEERING

2
SOIL EROSION
Soil erosion is a process of moving soil by water or wind - when the soil particles are detached and
transported to a different location. The two main agents of soil erosion are water and wind

1.1 How Erosion water and wind erosion occurs

The three steps common to both water and wind erosion

(i) Detachment of soil particles: This action dislodges the particles from the soil by the
impact energy of the rain or wind.

(ii) Transport of particles: This action carries soil particles in the moving wind or water.

(iii) Deposition of particles in a new location: This action deposits the sediment when the
wind and water energy subsides . Clay or silt size particles can be carried a great distance
before deposition, while larger sand-size particles will be carried only a short distance.

The impact of raindrops shatters surface aggregates and detaches soil particles from them.
Raindrop impact is the primary cause of particle detachment. Raindrops can splash soil
particles, moving them up to three feet away. Some of the detached particles float into soil
pore spaces. This can clog and seal soil pores and result in reduced water entry (infiltration)
into the soil. If the rainfall rate exceeds the rate at which water can infiltrate the soil, the
excess water runs off and often carries the detached soil particles with it.

Detached particles (sediment) are carried with flowing water down the slope. How many
particles and how far they are transported depends on the velocity and volume of the running
water. As the water velocity slows down it loses the energy needed to continue carrying the
detached suspended soil particles, and the soil particles are then deposited in their new
location.

Similarly, wind erosion is a world-wide problem that occurs when strong winds blow across
dry soil on unprotected surfaces. Wind detaches soil particles from the surface. Once detached
these particles are transported by either suspension into air and/or rolling along the soil
surface. Fine sands, silt or clay size particles can be transported for great distances by strong
winds. While larger particles rolling along the soil surface move shorter distance and also
shatter other soil particles along the way. As the wind speed decreases, deposition of soil
particles begins. Wind erosion most commonly occurs in arid and semi-arid regions, because
of the frequent occurrence of dry and windy conditions.

Soil erosion in the field can be assessed at the scale of a watershed. A watershed refers to a
delineated area with a well-defined topographic boundary and a water outlet. It contains a
complex of soils, landforms, land uses, and vegetation. A watershed is a hydrologic unit in which
all hydrological processes are related. The terms watershed, catchments and basin are used
interchangeably.

1.2 Broad classification of soil erosion

(i) Geological or natural or normal erosion:

Erosion can occur naturally, transforming soil into sediment. This naturally occurring erosion
devoid of man’s influence is called geological or natural or normal erosion. Under this erosion
type, the process of soil erosion is balanced by the process of soil formation, creating a state of
equilibrium.

(ii) Accelerated erosion:

When the process of soil erosion is influenced by human activities, it is accelerated. Such
accelerated erosion is caused by removal of vegetation, and improper land use and management.

1.3 Factors Contributing to Water and Wind Erosion of Soil

Climate, soil properties, vegetation, soil cover, and land management practices are factors that
influence both water and wind erosion. Soil surface roughness, unsheltered distance, and wind
velocity and turbulence are additional factors influencing wind erosion, and topography is an
additional factor influencing water erosion.

Water Erosion Wind Erosion

climate climate
soil properties: aggregation /soil moisture soil properties
soil cover soil cover
land management land management
topography soil surface roughness
unsheltered distance
wind velocity and turbulence

(i) Climate
Duration and intensity of rainfall regulates the amount of soil detachment and subsequent
loss from the land. During intense storms, rainfall can detach up to 100 tons/acre.
The erosive energy of running water depends on the volume and velocity. When the erosive
energy is high (i.e., high volume and velocity), water can detach and transport large particles
as well as smaller particles.
Soil Properties
Soil texture (proportion of clay, silt, and sand particles in a soil) has two effects on soil
erosion. The first is in its influence on infiltration or entry of water into the soil. When rainfall
infiltrates rapidly, runoff is minimal. For example sandy textured soils have large pores acting
like large pipes that allow much of the rainfall to soak right into the soil. Sandy soils are
known to have good infiltration and drainage. Clay textured soil have small pores more like
narrow pipes that do not allow water to soak into the soil fast. Clay soils are known to have
poor infiltration and drainage.
Second, particles vary in their ease of detachment. Silt particles are most easily detached
because they are small and do not easily form aggregates.
Aggregation
Particles of fine sand, silt and clay may join together to form aggregates. The soil property
which describes the character and formation of these aggregates is called soil structure. The
glue that joins the soil particles together includes organic matter, clays, iron oxides, aluminum
oxides, and lime. Aggregate formation in clay-textured soil improves water infiltration into the
soil and drainage because it increases the number of large pores (larger pipes). In sandy
textured soil, aggregate formation reduces the excessively fast drainage of water by increasing
the number of small pores (narrow pipes).
Aggregates
Can be described by their grade. The grade is a measure of how well the aggregate is
cemented together or, conversely, how easily it is broken down by the impact of water, wind,
or human activity. A soil with good structure has many aggregates present which are stable,
meaning well cemented together. Such aggregates resist the forces of water, wind, and human
activity. Consequently, they can maintain their porosity and allow better water and air
movement.

Soil Moisture
Moist soils are less prone to wind erosion due to the cohesive or binding effects of water on
soil clay and organic matter. As wind dries the soil, the risk of soil loss erosion by wind
increases, especially if aggregate grades are weak. The risk peaks at or below permanent
wilting point.

(ii) Soil Cover

Bare soil is exposed to the full erosive power of raindrops and runoff water. Vegetative
canopy helps stabilize soil and controls runoff. The vegetative canopy intercepts raindrops and
reduces the erosive energy of the raindrops. Dense canopies that cover much of the soil
surface intercept a large proportion of the rainfall. The roots of vegetation, such as grass, bind
soil particles together to resist erosion. Vegetation can also help lessen or deflect wind,
intercept wind-borne sediment, and keep soils moist, making them less susceptible to wind-
related erosion.

Crop or plant residue dissipates the energy available to cause erosion. A mulch or crop residue
absorbs the energy of falling raindrop, lessens

Detachment , reduces sealing of pores in the soil surface, and promotes good water
infiltration. The chart below shows residue cover effects from 0 to 100% on soil erosion
reduction. For example, a residue cover of 20% will reduce erosion by 50% compared to field
with no residue cover.

(iii) Topography

Topography, or lay of the land, is an important variable in water erosion. More specifically,
the degree of steepness (percent slope), as well as the slope length, is important. Steep slopes
have high runoff water velocity. This increases its erosive energy (remember that erosive
energy of runoff is a function of runoff velocity and volume). When the slope is longer
(length), surface area for water collection also increases and therefore increases the run-off
volume.

The plan is a term used to describe the distribution of water across the slope, that is, whether
water flow is evenly distributed across the slope (linear); water flow is concentrated in one
area (concave); or water flow is moved away from the slope (convex).The pattern and speed of
water flow will influence the area of most intense soil erosion across the slope.
 (iv) Land Management

Land Development projects, such as road and housing construction, can contribute to soil
erosion and sedimentation both during and after the actual construction activity. Clearing,
grading, and other activities disturb the soil surface, remove existing vegetation, and alter
topography, thereby increasing erosion risk. Massive land clearing done by large construction
equipment pulverizes the soil and clears all vegetation. This mechanical disturbance exposes
the soil directly to the impact of rainfall energy. Highly disturbed soils have also lost much of
the organic matter that glues them together. Also, the rate of water infiltration is usually
decreased and water that does not soak into the soil runs off carrying sediment.

1.4 WATER EROSION

It refers to the detachment, transport and deposition of soil particles by water
Types of Water Erosion

(i) Splash erosion: Raindrops hitting soil aggregates tear it apart by its kinetic energy. The
soil particles are splashed as a consequence of this action
(ii) Sheet erosion: Removal of thin layer of soil from a large area

(iii) Rill and Interill erosion: Rills are channel which could be obliterated easily by normal
tillage operations. A rill is always no more than 30 cm depth and 100 cm in width. They are
formed when water has accumulated on the ground, and the film of water becomes streamlets
which have greater scouring action than sheet flow. Rills can easily be formed along furrows
planted along slopes. Interrill (between rills) erosion is sometimes referred to as sheet erosion;
but technically, interill erosion is the detachment and transport of particles by rain impact and
shallow overland flow.
 (iv) Gully erosion: When rills advance, gullies are formed. These are erosion channels too
large to be obliterated by ordinary tillage. In gullies, runoff develops as powerful torrents
with enhanced capability of erosion. Gullies have different shapes, depending on soil
texture, and bedrock

(v) Landslides:
Landslides, and other mass failures, occur when the underlying layers of soil are more saturated
and erodible than the outer layers. Gravity moves soil directly. Soil movement caused by gravity is
known as landslide, mudflow, slip, slump, soil creep, and surface creep.

4.3 MODELS FOR SOIL EROSION ASSESSMENT

Quantitative assessment soil erosion is by the use of equations. The first equation
developed to estimate soil loss is called Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). Other
models which are currently being used include Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP)
model, European Soil Erosion Model (EUROSEM), RUSLE, European Soil Erosion Model
(EUROSEM)
Using Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) for Soil Loss Evaluation

Based on the mechanism and factors affecting soil erosion, the universal soil loss equation
(USLE) was developed. It is useful for prediction soil loss due to water erosion
A=RKLSCP
A= Predicted soil loss (t/ac/year) (NB ac=acre-=0.4ha)
R= Rainfall and runoff factor
K= soil erodibility
L= slope length
S= Slope gradient or steepness
C=Soil Cover and management
P= erosion control practice

NB: Maximum possible erosion occurs when C and P have a value of 1 each, implying that the
soil was bare with no land management practice to control erosion.

Problem
Estimate Soil loss from field with 4% slope and 30.5m length which was cleanly tilled and fallowed. The R factor
for the region is 150 and soil erodibility factor is 0.33 (NB L.S= 0.4)
SOIL EROSION BY WIND

Wind erosion is the process of detachment, transportation and deposition of soil materials by wind.
The basic causes are:

· Loose, dry and finely divided soils

· Smooth and bare soil surface
· Strong wind
· Large field

Wind erosion can be eliminated or curtailed whenever:

(i) The soil is compacted, kept moist or made up of stable aggregates or clods large enough to
resist the force of the wind
(ii) The soil surface is roughed or covered by vegetative residue
(iii)The wind velocity near the ground is somewhat reduced.

5.1 Types of Soil Movement

Suspension, saltation, and surface creep are the three types of soil movement which occur during

wind erosion. While soil can be blown away at virtually any height, the majority (over 93%) of

soil movement takes place at or below one meter.

Suspension: Fine particles less than 0.1 mm in size are moved parallel to the surface and upward
into the atmosphere by strong winds. The most spectacular of erosive processes, these particles can
be carried high into the atmosphere, returning to earth only when the wind subsides or they are
carried downward with precipitation. Suspended particles can travel hundreds of miles.

Saltation: Movement of particles by a series of short bounces along the surface of the ground, and
dislodging additional particles with each impact. The bouncing particles ranging in size from 0.1
to 0.5 mm usually remain within 30 cm of the surface. Depending on conditions, this process
accounts for 50 to 90% of the total movement of soil by wind.

Surface creep: The rolling and sliding of larger soil particles along the ground surface. The
movement of these particles is aided by the bouncing impacts of the saltating particles
described above. Soil creep can move particles ranging from 0.5 to 1 mm in diameter, and
accounts for 5 to 25% of total soil movement by wind.

35
Mulching:

Similar to seeding, mulching is a method of applying plant or non-plant materials to cover

bare soil surface. The main goal of mulching is to protect the surface of the soil from the
impact of erosive forces. In construction sites, mulch can be placed to minimize wind and
water erosion. However, the type of mulching selection depends on the land (i.e., slope).
Heavy and large sized mulch would be more appropriate for a steep slope. In steep or gentle
slopes, matting can be done to hold the mulch in place and reduce its movement by wind or
water. Aside from protecting the soil from erosion, mulching conserves water and reduces soil
temperature fluctuations. If the mulch is plant-based or organic, it also increases the soil tilth.

Material Type Advantages Disadvantages

 slowly builds  periodic application
Bark Mulch Organic (plant needed
based) organic matter
 easily blown away under
 relatively inexpensive windy conditions

 may not be appealing

aesthetically
 slowly builds organic matter  periodic application
Wood chips Organic (plant needed
based)  relatively inexpensive
 easily blown away under
windy conditions

 may not be appealing

aesthetically
 builds organic matter  periodic application
Leaves Organic (plant needed
based)  relatively inexpensive
 Mixing may be necessary
 decomposes relatively fast to avoid leaves being
blown
 adds nutrients to the soil
 may not be appealing
aesthetically
 builds organic matter  periodic application
Grass Organic (plant needed
Clippings based)  relatively inexpensive
 Mixing may be necessary
 decomposes relatively fast to avoid leaves being
blown
 adds nutrients to the soil
 may not be appealing
aesthetically
 slowly builds organic matter  periodic application
Newspaper Organic (plant needed
based)  relatively inexpensive
  Mixing may be necessary
to avoid leaves being
blown

 may not be appealing

aesthetically
 builds organic matter  periodic application
Compost Organic (plant needed
based)  relatively inexpensive
 may not be appealing
 decomposes relatively fast aesthetically

 adds nutrients to the soil

 periodic application not  does not build organic
Crushed Inorganic necessary matter
stone, gravel, (non-plant)
volcanic rock  appealing aesthetically  relatively expensive
 periodic application not  does not build organic
Plastics Inorganic necessary matter
(non-plant)
 appealing aesthetically  may not be appealing
aesthetically
 relatively inexpensive
 can increase soil surface
temperature to the
extreme
 especially useful in high velocity  does not build organic
Geotextiles Inorganic flows, such as creek and stream matter
(non-plant) bank protection
 may not be appealing
 periodic application not aesthetically
necessary
 may need to be replaced
 appealing aesthetically periodically because of
wear and tear
 i. Toxic tom plants and animals

ii. Restrict gaseous and vapour exchange

iii. Highly impermeable to wavelength of light needed for photosynthesis

iv. Not flexible enough to allow for leave motion and expansion

v. Easily degraded by sunlight and microorganisms

vi. Not economically attractive

42