THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION AND CURRICULUM

The idea of Curriculum began as a Latin word which means a race or the course of a race (which in turn
derives from the verb “currere’’, meaning to run/to proceed). The first known use in an educational
context is in the “Professio Regia’, a work by University of Paris Professor Petrus Ramus published
posthumously in 1576 (Hamilton, 2014, p.55). The words origins appear closely linked to the Calvinist
desire to bring greater order to education. By the seventeenth century, the University of Glasgow also
referred to its course of study as a curriculum, producing the first known use of the term in English in
1633. By the nineteenth century, European universities routinely referred to their curriculum to describe
both the complete course of study and particular courses and their contents.

Definitions and interpretations

As earlier stated, there is no generally agreed upon definition of curriculum (Wiles, 2008). Some popular
definitions combine various elements to describe curriculum as follows:

Kerrin Kelly (2009) defines curriculum as all the learning which is planned and guided by the school
whether it is carried out in groups or individually inside or outside the school. Braslavsky (2003), states
that curriculum is an agreement among communities, educational professionals, and the state on what
learners should take on during specific periods of their lives. Furthermore, the curriculum defines “why,
what, when, where, how, and with whom to learn.’’

Tanner and Tanner (2000) define curriculum as ‘all the planned guided learning experiences and
intended learning outcomes formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and
experiences, under the auspices of school, for the wilful growth and personal social competence of the
learners’.

Curriculum can refer to the entire programme provided by a classroom, school, district, state, or
country. A classroom is assigned sections of the curriculum as defined by the school.

Through the readings of Kelly (2009) four curriculums or curricula could be identified and defined as:

1. Explicit curriculum: Subjects that will be taught, the identified mission of the school, and the
knowledge and skills that the school expects successful students to acquire.
2. Implicit curriculum: Lessons that arise from the culture of the school and the behaviours,
attitudes, and expectations that characterised that culture, the unintended curriculum.
3. Hidden curriculum: Things which students learn because of the way in which the work of the
school is planned and organized, but which are not in themselves overtly included in the
planning or even in consciousness of those responsible for the school arrangements (Kelly,
2009). The term itself is attributed to Philip W. Jackson and it is not always meant to be
negative. Hidden curriculum, if its potential is realized could benefit students and learners in all
educational systems. Also, it does not just include the physical environment of the school, but
the relationships formed or not formed between students and other students or even students
and teachers.

1
4. Excluded curriculum: Topics or perspectives that are specifically excluded from the curriculum.
Under some definitions, curriculum is perspective, and is based on a more general syllabus
which merely specifies what topics must be learned and to what level to achieve a particular
grade or standard. The word syllabus originates from Greek. The Greek meaning of the world
basically means a ‘concise statement’ or table of the heads of a discourse, the contents of a
treatise, the subject of series of lectures.
Curriculum can be envisaged from different perspectives. What societies envisage as important
teaching and learning constituents the ‘intended curriculum’ (Kelly, 2009). Since it is often
presented in official documents, it may be referred to as ‘written’ and ‘official’ curriculum. What
learners really learn (i.e. what can be assessed and can be demonstrated as learning
outcomes/learner competencies) constitutes the ‘achieved’ or ‘learned curriculum. In addition,
curriculum theory points to a ‘hidden’ curriculum (i.e. unintended development of personal
values and beliefs of learners, teachers and communities, unexpected impact of a curriculum;
unforeseen aspects of a learning process). While the written curriculum does not exhaust the
meaning of curriculum, it is important because it represents the vision of the society.
In some cases, people see curriculum entirely in terms of the subjects that are taught, and as set
out within the set of textbooks, and forget the wider goals of competencies and personal
development. This is why a curriculum framework is important, because it sets the subjects
within this wider context, and shows how learning experiences within the subjects need to
contribute to the attainment of the wider goals. Regardless of the definition of curriculum, one
thing is certain. The quality of any educational experiences will always depend to a large extent
on the individual teacher responsible for it (Kelly, 2009).

What is Education?
Education is a very important means of developing any nation. It is seen as the process of
transmitting the values, cultures and desirable attitudes of the society from one generation to
the other. Education is aimed at developing individuals socially as to equip them with the
desired type of behaviour that conforms to their societal way of life. In fact, education seeks to
develop the individually mentally, physically, socially, morally and culturally for him to
effectively and efficiently contribute to the advancement of the present society. However, there
life various definitions of education by educators.
Cermin (1978), sees education as the deliberate systematic and sustained effort to transit, evoke
or acquire knowledge, attitude, values skills and sensibilities and any learning that results from
efforts directed or undirected, intended or unintended. Farrant (1980) also perceived education
as a universal practice engaged in by societies at all ages of the development. He also sees it as a
total process of human learning by which learning by which learning is imparted, faculties
trained and skills developed. To them education is seen as a lifelong process of preparing
individuals for effective living and maintenance of existence of society and it constantly changes
and adapting to new societal demands and curriculum.

2
 Educational has also been seen as the leading out of the in-born powers and potentialities of the
individuals in the society and the acquisition of skills, aptitudes and competences necessary for
self-realization and coping with life problems (Achoney and Ajoku 2003). Accordingly this
definitions connotes two things, the first is that individuals are born with certain innate qualities
so that one could be said to be completely without any human or creative qualities. This
individual could however, be or not be aware of these innate qualities and so has to be helped
to their utmost realization in order to be effective within the society and be useful to himself.
The second connotation is that there are skills and qualities which the individual needs but he
does not have. These he has to learn hence, through education.
Education is also seen as a process of changing behaviour patterns of people. Elliot Ndubisi
(1981) clearly states that education has always been regarded by many as a means of preserving
the way of life in which he believes. According to him, one important role of education is the
transformation of condition of a society into a better one. This transformation is affected
through the transmission of desirable elements of culture from one generation to other through
the early form of education which is traditional in nature. For example, the traditional education
in Nigeria for the training of young ones was largely carried out by families, age grade members
and different groups in the society. There was no real instance of teaching, no place to be called
school where actual knowledge can be imparted directly or indirectly. In fact, there was no plan
of lesson as regards to what should be taught; such education was largely vocational and aimed
at acquisition of skills, attitudes beliefs and behaviours necessary for desirable active life in the
society. Its aim also is the inculcation of respect for elders. Its unique features include:
i. It is not institutional (i.e.) no place called school
ii. No specified place for teaching
iii. No specific time
iv. No strict time table as regards to what will be taught
v. It is also experimental in terms of content, manpower and pedagogy.

This type of education was neither planned nor documented with no formal programme of evaluation.
Education then depends on the transmission of culture, problems and trends of the society. When
schools were set up in 1842 by the Christian Missionary Societies who considered it very important as
part of their work of evangelization, education became more organized and programmes were planned.
That was when people started talking about curriculum. Curriculum then became the instrument used
by schools to achieve educational goals of the society. The aims of education are attained by the school
programmes, concerning knowledge, experiences, activities, skills and values. The different school
programmes are jointly known as curriculum.

What is Curriculum?

Curriculum is a structured plan of action that guides the process of education. It may be viewed as a set
of learning experiences planned to influence learners to bring about the objectives of education. It is a
key element in educational process. It is the sum of the learning activities and experiences that a
student has under the auspices or direction of the school. It includes course and experiences associated

3
with preparation for life and for earning a living. In other words, it is a programme of studies to be
completed by learners and teachers. The term curriculum has been derived from the Latin word
‘Currere’ which means a ‘race course’ or a runaway on which one runs to reach a goal. It is figuratively
used in education to mean the “relatively standardized ground covered by students in their race towards
the finished line (Mkpa 1987). This finished line could be the certificate students are striving to acquire.
It is graphically represented thus:

Curriculum target

This shows that curriculum is the ground that lies between a starting point and target. This ground or
the curriculum shows the school as a medium through which the educational goals, aims, objectives and
aspirations of the nation and state is met. The school curriculum draws its aims, goals and objective
from the national policy on education, and as the society changes and more insight on how learning
occur is revealed, curriculum changes in line with policies made along with the needs of society.
Normally, teaching and learning are purposely planned to meet the goals of society and those planned
activity are referred to as the curriculum. Some traditionalist educators view curriculum, as an organized
body of knowledge to be acquired by learners. For them, the permanent studies include the rule of
grammar, reading, rhetoric, login and mathematics (Elekwa and Eze 2002). The essentialist view
curriculum as the study of five great subject areas while the discipline advocates view it as being limited
within established disciplines and have no concern for the nature, needs and interests of the learner.
Whichever way one conceives the definition, many experts have come to the knowledge of what
curriculum entails. The regard it as total experience offered to the learner under the guidance of the
school. According to Mkpa (1987:8), it involves the implementation of the decisions reached during
curriculum planning. He goes on to emphasize that curriculum is a vehicle through which the school
strives towards the achievement of educational ends; be they those of the nation, state, local
government or even the community.

Fafunwa (1974) describes it as the whole of the educative process; that is the total environment in
which education takes place. To him curriculum contains the total environment in which learning takes
place, the child, the teacher, content, methods, physical and psychological environments. Wheeler
(1967) defines curriculum as the planned learning experiences offered to the learner under the guidance
of the school. Those who criticized Wheeler’s definitions emphasized that not all experiences exposed to
the learner are desirable.

Ivowi (2009) regards curriculum as the systematic body of materials and an organized plan put together
to modify the behaviour of a person in his/her environment. To him, curriculum contains materials
which would include the objectives and knowledge to be acquired, while the plan includes the
instructional activities and resources designed to affect the materials. He goes on to say that a good
curriculum should consist of the following characteristics teaching, learning and governance.

 Teaching: Subjects taught in school (i.e.) what the teacher teaches and what he uses in
teaching

4
  Learning: This entails all the experiences a learner undergoes in school; all those things a child
is expected to learn at school and the programme schools have for the learner.
 Governance: Thus takes care of all the experiences of children for which the school accepts
responsibility e.g. the authority of the school to guide educational experience of the child;
and the right of the school to organise, design, plan and control the sequence of events that
would lead to learning outcomes.

Wojtczak (2002) defines curriculum as an educational plan that spells out which goals and objectives
should be achieved, topic to be covered and methods to be used for learning, teaching and evaluations.
Coles (2003) argues that curriculum is more than a list of topics to be covered by an educational
programme that the more commonly accepted word is “Syllabus”. He however, explains that curriculum
is a policy statement about a piece of education, that an indication as to the ways in which that policy is
to be realized is through a programme of action, and thus, he defines curriculum as the “sum of all the
activities experiences and learning opportunities for which an institution (society) or a teacher takes
responsibility either deliberately or by default. All these definitions has been criticized as either being
too broad (creating problems as to identifying the elements that should contain in the curriculum) poor
narrow (neglecting some important facts of curriculum planning) hence, the definitions of Tanner and
Tanner (1975) was upheld as being more inclusive. For them, curriculum is the planned and guided
learning experiences and intended learning outcomes, formulated through the systematic
reconstruction of knowledge and experience under the auspices of the school for the learners
continuous and wilful growth in personal-social competence

In summary, from different experts, it is visible that curriculum is an instrument used by school to
translate the needs, attitudes, values and aspirations of the society into reality. The concerted efforts of
the school are termed effective if what is done in the school reflects the need of the society.

Relationship between Education and Curriculum

The education between education and curriculum is visible for it portrays curriculum as a very important
aspect of education. It is through curriculum that goals and aspirations of the society are made possible
and curriculum is one of the aspects of education. Their relationships can be seen from the definition of
Smith, Stanley and Shores (1957) when they noted that curriculum is the instrument of the society for
the education of the young. In support of them, Kelly (1982) insists that curriculum is the very
foundation of any educational system. These assertions between the two concepts show that
educational and societal aspirations can only be actualized through curriculum; and so for curriculum to
yield expected results, experts should ensure its effective implementation so that the younger ones will
benefit.

Needs for Curriculum Studies

Curriculum studies are inevitable aspect of education just as teaching is. Therefore, the teacher cannot
do without the knowledge of curriculum. This knowledge of curriculum can be acquired by the teacher

5
through effective curriculum studies. Curriculum studies are beneficial to the teacher in the following
ways:

1) It would help the teacher to understand the cultural heritage (background) of a society and how
to transmit this culture from generation to generation through teaching the curriculum. This is
because curriculum is formulated in relation to the culture of a society.
2) It would help the teacher serve the social needs as well as the individual needs of the learner.
This will help in reconstructing the society.
3) Curriculum studies provide the learner a theoretical background for meaningful education. This
is so because curriculum theories are philosophical studies which reveal to the professional
teacher that no adequate theory of curriculum and instruction can be done based on any one
academic discipline or subject. This is to say that the theory of curriculum is inter-disciplinary
(not based on History, Geography or Economics subjects but based on broad-field) to establish
priorities, take valued decisions, differentiate between content and process, role or values,
nature of curriculum structure (Wheelers, Tyler, Nicholls etc.)
4) Different curriculum theories help the teacher to integrate and synthesize different kinds of
knowledge needed for effective kinds of knowledge needed for effective teaching (integrative
approach to teaching).
5) It helps the teacher to know the means of describing and analyzing teaching in relation to pupils’
needs in a society, i.e. it enables them to produce functional pupils (or students) and not social
misnomers.
6) Curriculum studies help the teacher to be aware of innovations in the society and how to use
education to accommodate those innovations due to changing social aims, aspirations, forces
and problems in the society.
7) Curriculum prepares the teacher on how to evaluate the teaching plan; i.e. knowing the criteria
to be used in evaluating a teaching plan to ensure successful classroom encounter.
8) It enables the teacher understand that teaching and education are social responsibilities which
touch opinions of many people in the society, stakeholders in education, parents, subject
specialists, and other resource persons.
9) Curriculum studies enables him analyze characteristic features, trends and developments at
different levels of educational systems (primary, secondary and tertiary).

The different makes it clear that curriculum is an inevitable aspect of education; i.e. there can be no
education without curriculum. Curriculum should not be studied merely for passing examinations but for
social transformation as education is an instrument per excellence for societal changes. This is because
no society is static but dynamic.

CONCEPTIONS OF CURRICULUM

THE TRADITIONALIST AND PROGRESSIVE CONCEPTS OF CURRICULUM

6
The Traditional Concept of Curriculum

The traditional concept treats curriculum as a body of subjects or subjects matters set out by the
teacher for students to cover; i.e. the aggregate of all school subjects. Some scholars believe in this
traditional conception. Following are three different views of curriculum; these three groups have some
variations in their definitions of Curriculum.

The Perennialists’ View of the Curriculum

The perennetailist believe that the purpose of education is to cultivate intellectual virtues; therefore
there are permanent or essential subjects which must constitute the curriculum because they have not
only stood the test of time but are also valid and are the gateways to knowledge. The studies includes: -
reading, rules of grammar, logic, rhetoric and mathematics. They cherish mental discipline. The
perennetailist maintain that grammar develops logical thinking while mathematics sharpens the mind
and leads to correct thinking.

The weaknesses in the perennetailist, argument are as follows:

a. They do not consider the interests and needs of the learners

b. They do not believe that there are other purposes of education apart from the cultivation of the
intellect. Therefore, they neglect such sectors of human development as physical, emotional
and spiritual.
c. They have a narrow view of the curriculum since they ignore modern scientific discoveries.
d. They fail to realize the fact that all the subjects help in developing logic thinking and sharpening
of the intellect. In curriculum planning, the planners choose relevant data based on the
objectives of the programme for the target audience. It considers issues like what is to be
taught, who is to be taught, what resources to be taught, where the teaching will take place
(level, location) as well as the correct sequence for teaching.

The Essentialists’ Concept of Curriculum

They hold the view that curriculum should aim at training the intellect and to achieve this, some
organized bodies of academic knowledge is to be acquired and stored for future use. They value deep
knowledge on a few care subjects as opposed to more general knowledge on a wider array of subjects.
They recognize certain academic studies like: command of the mother tongue, study of grammar,
literature and writing, mathematics, sciences, history and foreign language. They posit that all these
subjects should from the components of the curriculum. They also recognize the place of modern
laboratory science in the curriculum. Some of their limitations are that physical, emotional and moral
developments were neglected. Knowledge is dynamic and it is acquired for utility value and for the
development and growth of the learner, not just for the development of the intellect. An essentialist
curriculum is structured to develop discipline and a common culture of knowledge. It is teacher-centred
and stresses rigorous practice with the traditional subjects.

The Discipline Advocates’ Conception of Curriculum

7
 The discipline doctrine advocates see curriculum as knowledge which comes from disciplines. For
them, education is a guided process of inquiry that gave rise to the fruitful bodies of organized
knowledge comprising the established disciplines. It implies that curriculum is something made up of
different independent compartment of studies that has nothing to do with the nature, needs and
interest of the learner. In other words, the process prevents learners from seeing the interrelationship
that exist between different areas of knowledge. ‘The Essentialists’’ goals are to instil students with the
“essentials” of academic knowledge, patriotism and character development through traditional
approaches. This is to promote reasoning, train the mind and ensure a common culture for all citizens.

The traditional view of curriculum was rejected because it was narrow and it divorced school
studies from the realities and demands of life in society. That is, it limits learners’ ability to use their
initiatives to solve problems.

Traditionalist concept and application in the classroom

1. The Traditionalists spend more time preparing the teachers to be strong in their subject-matter.
2. Teachers have minimum involvement in the curriculum development process. Their main duty is
only to implement an already designed blueprint.
3. The teacher is viewed as an authority and an expert, who plans class activities, and an expert,
who plans class activities, and supplies knowledge to the students
4. Teaching strategies largely involves interpretation, telling, drilling, lecturing, discussion and
questioning technique.
5. The emphasis is on what knowledge is to be taught to students, and not how it is to be taught.
6. Curriculum largely focuses on disciplinary subjects, literary analysis, doctrines, doctrines, eternal
truths and essential subjects like: science, history and foreign languages.
7. Students’ needs, interests and social experiences are not considered when planning the
curriculum.
8. The role of students is largely to receive and memorize information and knowledge.

Known traditionalists include Raph Tyler, Hilda Taba, George Beauchamp etc.

Progressives’ view of curriculum

On the other hand, to the progressives, a listing of school subjects, syllabus, courses of study and list of
courses of specific discipline do not make a curriculum. These can only be called curriculum if the
written materials are actualized by the learner. Broadly speaking, curriculum is defined as the total
learning experiences of the individual under the auspices of the school.

Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as “all experiences that children have under the guidance of
teachers”. The constructivist approach proposes that children learn best through pro-active
engagements with the educational environment (learning through discovery). In this regard, curriculum
should contain all the experiences needed by the children to learn and the teacher should only act as
guide or facilitator.

8
In summary, progressivism comes from the word “progress”, which means, making changes, reforms, or
improvements towards better conditions. This concept implies that teachers must provide sets of
experiences that are planned and guided by the school in order for the students to actualize what they
have learned within or outside the classrooms (Bilbao, Lucido, Iringan, & Javier, 2008). Progressive
education is a reaction against the traditional style of teaching. It is a pedagogical movement which
values experience over learning facts and information at the expense of understanding what is being
taught. Progressive education embraces the idea that the teachers should teach children how to think,
and that a test cannot measure whether true learning has taken place in a child.

Application of progressivism in the classroom

The following are the practical concept of progressivism in the classroom:

1. The teacher serves as a facilitator, encouraging the students to think and question the world
around them.
2. It encourages active and collaborative learning among students.
3. Curriculum changes according to the changing needs of the students and the society.
4. Progressive concept of curriculum is totally child centred.
5. It encourages a life-long learning and education.
6. It is largely democratic, and not autocratic.
7. It helps learners to acquire problem-solving skills
8. Exploration of the real goals of learning is of more value than rote memorization.

Known progressives include: John Dewey, William Kirkpatrick etc.

Components of Curriculum

Iloh (2004) gives three major components of curriculum. They include:

1. Programme of studies (instruction)

2. Programme of activities
3. Programme of guidance

Programme of Studies

This is list of formal subjects guided by the school time-table, an integral part of curriculum
implementation. Programme of studies according to Ughamadu (1998), involves the teaching of all the
subjects in the syllabus so that the students can learn practically and theoretically all about ideas,
concepts and principles in the classroom and how to utilize them in the future. We can infer from these
statements that programme of studies is just a tiny part of educational programme. Supporting this
assertion, Onwuka (1981:23) was of opinion that programme of study is not the curriculum in its totality;
it is a component or an aspect of it.

9
In the past, programme of study was seen as the only means of providing academic opportunities for the
learner in the school; but today, it is clear that this programme involves the teacher splitting the syllabus
into the scheme of work and breaking the scheme of work into units of work. From the unit plan, he
prepares his lesson plan/note, while he delivers in the class theoretically. It is teacher-oriented, because
he does most of the work, while the learners are the passive receivers. Such programme could be boring
and frustrating if not well managed.

Programme of Activities

The programme is designed to enhance the total body fitness of the learners. Ughamdu (1998) states
that programme of activities can generally be referred to as the programme that embraces or
incorporates the various activities that have the potential of enhancing the academic experiences of the
learners in a system. These activities deal with the actual learners experiences in the contemporary life
of the society; which reduces tension, fatigue and boredom. Because there is a saying that all work and
no play makes Jakes a dull boy. Programme of activities are those school activities regarded as extra-
curricular because they were seen as non-academic. However, regarding them as extra-curricular is a
misconception, because they can as well contribute to a child’s learning. These activities afford the
learners the opportunities to practice a great range of social-personal understandings and skills which
can contribute to their total body development.

There is no limit to the number of activities to be included in a programme. They include all kinds of
practical lessons, participatory and movement education programme, such as field trips, games and
sports, debates, gardening, clubs, participation in unionism, nature studies, hiking, swimming and all
other types of activities that can stimulate learning. Gone are the days when parents discouraged their
children from school activities apart from reading and writing because they felt it was a wasteful
venture. Today, men and women, boys and girls, rich and poor create time to partake in one form of
participatory activities of the other so that they can remain healthy; because, it is only when a child is
healthy in school that he can participate in other programmes in the school. The importance of
programme of activities as part of educational programme cannot be over-emphasized. Generally, the
essence of the programme according to Onwuka (1981) lies in the fact that many educators believe that
it is a way to vitalize the curriculum. That such revitalization is reflected in the fact that a child may learn
civics from his teacher but he learns citizenship from his play mates. This highlights the fact that
programmes of studies and activities are manually supportive. While the programme of studies ensures
that students learn (theoretically) all about concepts, principles, and ideas, programme of activities
ensure that they learn and concretize the concepts, ideas and principles in behaviour. Thus, from the
standpoint of our society, a child can learn all about such concepts as co-operation, democracy, and
unity from his teacher but it is from his playmates that he may learn how to be co-operative,
democratic, and develop the spirit of unity.

Programmes of Guidance

Guidance is a programme designed to help and advise the children to acquire the capacity for self-
direction in school. Guidance services are used to guide the learners to develop capabilities, skills,

10
attributes, and knowledge to maximum for adequate adjustment in their immediate and external
environment. On the other hand, “counselling” is the instrument of “guidance”. It is the means by which
students are helped to help themselves. Through counselling, students are aided to grow in the ability to
solve their own problems and thereby achieve the ultimate aim of guidance. There must be good
rapport between the staff and students in order to help the learners to help the learners to help
themselves. Ughamadu (1998) posits the “guidance is a programme of service with the ultimate purpose
of helping students acquire the capacity for self-direction.” To him, it is a process of helping students to
understand themselves and their world. A saying goes that when you guide a child the way he will grow;
when he grows he will never depart from it. Therefore, good guidance service is required in every school
to help learners blossom like a flower, both educationally, vocationally as well as in his personal life. Iloh
(2004) gave three categories of guidance services as:

1. Educational guidance
2. Vocational guidance
3. Personal social guidance

Educational Guidance: It is the duty of the school guidance counsellors and all other members of staff in
the school to watch and keep authentic records concerning every learner; so that at a glance, the school
has information on the educational achievement as well as other aspects of the child’s character. With
such records, the child’s academic performance can easily be monitored and quick advice given to check
ugly situations.

Vocational Guidance: The school with the authentic records will know the direction a learner is moving
in terms of his future career, based on the child’s past performances, ability, and interest. The guidance
counsellor can help each learner select a vocation or career.

Personal-Social Guidance: As the school is a social agent for learning, the teacher is also expected to go
the extra mile find out the child’s personal, social, mental, emotional and physical problems that can
hinder his learning. Health is wealth, and a healthy mind and body will also be ready to learn, all things
being equal.

TYPES OF CURRICULUM STUDIES

Curriculum planning is a guide that suggests steps to be taken in the process of educating young and
inexperienced members of any society. It is the process of planning learning experiences for a target
group taking into consideration their needs, interests, abilities, as well as those of the society (Mkpa
2009). Hass (1983) also defines curriculum planning “as the process of gathering, sorting, selecting,
balancing and synthesizing relevant information from source in order to design those experiences that
will assist learners in attaining the goals of the curriculum” (p.5). The designed learning experiences are
expected to assist the learner in the achievement of immediate objects as well as helping him contribute
to the attainment of societal goals.

Curriculum planning involves making series of decisions and choices which are based on values and
grounds to be covered to reach the goals of education. in other words, it involves the considerations of

11
goals and objectives, the choice of contents and instructional materials, appropriate methods and the
type of evaluation to be used to determine the level of success of the instruction or programme; that is,
deciding what is to be taught at various levels of education, what resources to be used in teaching and
the correct sequence for teaching. It is a process of building, constructing or developing learning
experiences for a target group and ensuring that what is planned leads to the achievement of the
desired outcome.

Curriculum Development

Curriculum development is the creation of new curriculum materials to be utilized in implementing the
curriculum that has been planned. It is an act of working out the potentialities of the curriculum.
Curriculum development is the mapping out of what ought to be covered within a stipulated period and
at a certain level of education (Oforma, 2009). It involves the vision and mission of school programmes.
It establishes what is to be the outcome of education, how the intended outcome is to be achieved and
who should achieve it so as to produce useful members of the society. It involves the objectives, the
content, the method, the resources and the evaluation. Curriculum development must consider the
learner and his characteristics, the teacher, the environment etc. “Development” refers to the actual
carrying out of the plan. It involves the creation of appropriate curriculum materials such as textbooks
and non-text materials, teachers’ guides and instructional materials that are used in the implementation
of the curriculum that is planned, the development of syllabus for various subjects at all levels of
education and suggestions about teaching methods. In other word, it include the ‘why’, ‘what’ and ‘how’
of education. The ‘why’ seeks to provide a precise statement of objectives that serves as a guide in
curriculum development and the philosophy that is drawn from other areas of educational foundations?
Sources of the objectives include the learner and his characteristics, the teacher who is the actual
implementer of the curriculum, nature of the subject, economic, political and educational values of the
programme and psychology etc.

The ‘what’ deals with the problem of selecting and organizing learning experiences, and planning/
building learning units. The ‘how’ considers teaching methods, techniques and approaches suitable for
the programme. It is also considers the level of the learners and the expectation of the society. In
curriculum development as pointed out by Olaitan (1997), experts are assembled for the use of their
expertise in developing curriculum package through the curriculum process; the experts will identify the
needs of the society, their philosophy or belief and translate these into goals which the society wants to
achieve. These goals are now translated into objectives (proximate or ultimate goals). From these
objectives, learning experiences are identified and arranged sequentially and translated into content.

Learning resources such as the required materials and teachers who will deliver the contents are
identified. A compilation of all these will make up a curriculum package through the curriculum
development process. There always trial out of the new package to determine the suitability and
reliability of whatever is developed in achieving the objectives (for which is developed) and for the
purpose of making amendments. When these activities are completed, curriculum development has
taken place.

12
 Curriculum Design

Curriculum design refers to the arrangement of the components or element of a curriculum. It focuses
on developing curricula for students. It is a kind of intellectual ‘journey’ for students. As pointed by
Mkpa (2009), it is concerned with mapping out the learning experiences which are organized to suit the
needs and the interest of the learner and the society. In other words, it is a way of presenting learning
opportunities so as to emphasize a desired set of educational goals. Curriculum design includes
consideration of aims, intended learning outcomes, syllabus, learning and teaching methods and
assessment.

In many nations, specific benchmark standards are set for education to ensure that children across the
nation achieve a similar level of education. Curriculum design involves reviewing standards set and how
they can be met or exceeded; i.e. it serves as a guide for evaluating the entire educational programme.
Curriculum design may also include consideration on the needs of the student population it is serving. It
is also involves ensuring that the curriculum is accessible and inclusive, i.e. that students with disabilities
and from all backgrounds can participate in it with equal chance of success. It considers limitations such
as issues of funding, access of textbooks, moral norms and limitations set by the school. Flexibility is also
an important aspect of curriculum design since students have different level of ability. In some
situations, the pace of a curriculum may be changed to deal with problems as they arise. The framework
for organizing the components of curriculum differs and these have resulted in different curriculum
designs.

Curriculum Implementation

Curriculum implementation is the way content is designed and delivered. It includes the structure,
organization, and balanced presentation of this content in the classroom; i.e. it is the classroom effort of
the staff and students of a school and others concerned in putting into operation the curriculum
document. In other words the actual execution of the contents in order to achieve pre-determined
objectives of the curriculum is curriculum implementation.

The star in curriculum implementation bid is the teacher. The learner through the mediation of the
teacher interacts with learning activities so that learning is maximized. The learner interacts with
content and materials in order to acquire the necessary knowledge, skill, attitude and abilities. Hence,
the need for planning instructional activities or teaching; planning the curriculum syllabus; scheme of
work; planning and utilizing the curriculum unit; writing of lesson note etc.

PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

Subject-matter Curriculum

The subject curriculum is the oldest form of curriculum organization and the most widely used
(Gbamanja, 1987, 1988). Subjects are organized so that each of them purportedly represents a
specialized and homogenous body of content. The basis for the organization is usually the traditional
subject matter. According to Offorma (1994), it is the organization of the curriculum into discrete subject

13
areas as we have today in our primary and secondary school curriculum such subjects as English,
Mathematics, History, Geography, French, Economics, Chemistry, Physics, Biology and so on. Subject
specialists claim the ability to compile the wealth of human experiences to form knowledge or subject
matter and organize them in the most systematic, coherent, logic and sequential form. The scope of this
design is to be determined by the amount of subject matter existing within each subject and the range
of subjects to be included in the school time table. This is why some new subjects such as; Introductory
Technology, Business Studies, Moral Instruction are introduced into the secondary school curriculum
since the new system wants it to be comprehensive.

What is taught in school is presented in subjects. Sometimes, the subjects are subdivided into divisions
or section; for example, Mathematics is subdivided into arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry and
calculus; English is subdivided into essay, comprehension, lexis and structure; while Geography is
subdivided into physical geography, economic geography, political geography, map reading and so on.
Part of the philosophy of subject organization is that is a hierarchy of priority among the students
according to their values as mental disciplines. They are organized in order of importance. The degree of
importance is dependent upon the nation’s value system or socio-economic demands. For examples,
sciences are being emphasized in our schools today because Nigeria wants scientists who would help
the country develop technologically. One of the proprieties of this design is orderliness. Every subject
has its own design and methods. This is why there are courses on special methods of different subjects
in teacher education programmes. Subject curriculum design is also logically organized and
systematically presented to enable the learners build upon their store of knowledge and develop their
intellectual powers.

The content of each subject is planned in advance and could be taken by all students who need them
specifically or it could be taken by all students who need them specifically or it could be taken as
electives by those who need not specialize in it. Emphasis is laid on mastery of subject matter and not on
the utility of knowledge. Exposition seems to be the chief method of instruction and textbooks are major
sources of information.

Advantages of Subject Curriculum

i. The subjects constitute a logical and effective method of organizing new knowledge and,
therefore, an effective method of learning it.
ii. The organization of subjects consists of fragmented or compartmentalized segments which
provide disciplined knowledge, and train special systems of thought hence, intellectual powers
are developed.
iii. The education system is examination-oriented, geared towards some specialized discipline.
These examinations demand factual content, and this is the type of material that a subject
curriculum can offer readily
iv. The design makes for easy assessment of learning outcomes and ease in the development of
standardized evaluation instruments for each subject area.
v. This design makes provision for textbooks and teaching materials to be organized based on the
content and scope of each subject at each grade or level of education, and this is cost effective.

14
 vi. It encourages specialization and research in each subject area. This enables students and
research in each subject area. This enables students and researchers to explore the different
ramifications of the content of each subject area in order to acquire competence and mastery to
it.

Disadvantages of Subject Curriculum

i. Because the subjects are compartmentalized and rigid, the students have little or no avenue to
display their individual freedom or creative thought. They are fixed to the content of the subject
which they must pass in order to progress academically.
ii. The content of the design, in most cases, is detached from social reality and so the learners’
experiences and interests are not fully explored.
iii. The needs and interests of the learners are never considered. The emphasis is on ensuring that
the subject matter is effectively covered.
iv. The pattern of organization and teaching procedure is not flexible, as learners have little or no
avenue to use their initiative or creative ability. Rather, they are compelled to reproduce it in
the same order it was presented to them in order to earn marks.

The Core Curriculum Pattern

The core curriculum is the set of common courses required of all (learners) undergraduates and
considered the necessary general education for students, irrespective of their choice in major. It helps
educators make well-formed comparisons of their student’s progress by using the same guidelines for
every student across the country. Gbamanja (2002) admits that a core curriculum means a group of
subjects which every pupil must take in addition to his other specialties or subject disciplines at a given
stage or age throughout the school system as a whole. The core curriculum is organized in other to
develop integration to serve the needs of students and to promote active learning and significant
relationship between life and learning. It means that portions of the curriculum are distinguished from
those which have specialized curriculum are distinguished from those which have specialized function or
are labelled electives and are required of all students. Offorma (1994) states that the core curriculum
design is the design which involves what all learners are supposed to learn. It includes the entire
compulsory course through which learners in an institution must pass. The core curriculum can also be
regarded as the separate courses which every learner is required to take. For example, G.S. 101, (Use of
English), 103 (Social Sciences), 105 (Natural Sciences) and 207 (Humanities) are the core courses for
undergraduates of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka because these students are required to take three
of them before they can graduate. In teacher education programmes, Philosophy of Education,
Curriculum Studies, Educational Technology and so on are core courses.

A broad definition of core curriculum is general education since it gives opportunity to learners of
different backgrounds and aspirations to share certain common problems and responsibilities (Onwuka,
1981).

15
The word ‘core’ implies that central or essential part of something. Core curriculum therefore, implies
the central or essential part of a whole curriculum, designated as compulsory for all the learners. Every
curriculum has this attribute of making some subjects or contents compulsory, based on the needs and
interests of the society and the learner. Core curriculum constitutes part of the whole of curriculum of a
nation or school. It presents important and compulsory subjects, at any particular level of education,
thereby guiding a whole lot of students to focus on essential aspects of learning at the same time. The
Nigerian National Policy on Education (2008) describes core curriculum as the group of specialities which
every pupil take, in addition to his or her specialities. The core curriculum subjects at the primary level
of education in Nigeria include:

 English Language
 Mathematics
 Physical and Health Education
 Basic Science and Technology
 Social Science
 Cultural and Creative Arts
 One major Nigerian Language
 Christian or Islamic Religious Knowledge
 Vernacular (Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo)
 Computer Science/ICT
 French
 One Elective (Agric, Homec, Arabic Language).

These subjects are compulsory in the primary schools and constitute part of the whole curriculum,
because there are pre-vocational subjects and some electives which also form part of the whole
curriculum of the nation.

The core curriculum subjects at the junior secondary level of education are structured as follows:

 Mathematics
 English Language
 One major Nigerian Languages
 Integrated Science
 Social Studies
 Basic Science and Technology
 Cultural and Creative Arts
 Christians or Islamic Religious Knowledge
 Computer Studies/ICT
 French
 Physical and Health Education
 One Elective (Agric., Homec, Business Studies or Arabic Language).

In the same vein, the core curriculum subjects at the senior secondary level include:

16
  English Language
 One major Nigerian Language
 Mathematics
 Science (Physics, Chemistry, Biology)
 Humanities (Literature, History or Geography)
 Either Agricultural Science or a vocational subject which includes: Commerce, food and
nutrition’s, technical drawing or fine arts.

The major essence of core subjects at this level is to enable students fit into arts, science or technology
courses, at the tertiary level, when combined their chosen specialities. As earlier stated, all the general
studies courses in all the tertiary intuitions are core and compulsory. Even in subject special areas, core
ideas, concepts and principles still exist, and they are compulsory for all the specialists.

Characteristics of Core Curriculum

i. The more curriculum is organized around the problem and needs of adolescents
ii. It is an attempt to promote the greater integration of learning of unifying subject matters
iii. Problems of living or contemporary problems provide the main structure of organization. These
problems may range from those dealing with orientation to school or personal problems to the
problems of contemporary culture and problems of peace.
iv. The core-curriculum uses boarder units; it’s more flexible; it uses freer instructional procedures;
and a greater variety of learning experiences than is possible in the subject curriculum, since the
time is more flexible.
v. It emphasizes co-operative teacher-pupil learning
vi. The attempt at integrating learning around broader themes or problems, represent at best a
patchwork of existing content: combining subjects instead of integrating ideas is the rule rather
than the exception. In the process of combining subjects, one field often becomes dominant
(Maduewesi 2000, p.105).

Merits of Core Curriculum

i. Core-curriculum provides learners with useful, purposeful and meaningful learning experiences
related to their everyday life by making what is relevant to the learner’s personal life. In other
words, the immediate needs of the society and the learners are determined and reflected in the
core subjects.
ii. Active participation of learners in the planning of programme centred on their needs, interests
and problems is promoted.
iii. It promotes greater integration by unifying subject matter. Various subject areas are cut across
in an attempt to handle a general topic.
iv. It helps in the transfer of learning from subject to subject, from school activities to life outside
school; e.g. the home.
v. Contemporary problems provide the structure of the core curriculum. The immediate needs of
the society are determined and reflected in the core subjects.

17
 vi. All learners are subjected to similar learning experiences, in line with the minimum standards of
education
vii. Employment of core-subject teachers has always been a priority of the various governments.

Demerits of Core Curriculum

i. The curriculum does not sufficiently prepare teachers for the implementing.
ii. It does not offer significant and systematic knowledge independent of the subject curriculum
design. The learning experiences organized around new centres have not been successful
because the people involves are not versed enough in the area of integration.
iii. The lack of uniformity in the contents, methodology and material is as a result of core
curriculum flexibility, thereby lacking uniform textbooks.
iv. Co-operative thinking by a team of subject specialists is encouraged. But the plan is not given a
red chance to operate fully in order to attain its goals, because most often the time allowed for
classes is not enough for the attainment of the goals.
v. The major criticism levelled against this pattern of curriculums that, influential politicians and
agents of government could easily influence this, by including irrelevant subjects as core, in
order to satisfy one selfish motive or another. For instance, the inclusion of French Language as
a core subject in Nigerian schools could be attributed to this reason. Chinese language is now
being mentioned as a possible inclusion as core subject.

Broads Fields/ Integrated Curriculum

It is a design where several specific areas were synthesized into a larger field of study (Offorma, 1994). It
is an attempt to create interdisciplinary knowledge (Onwuka 1981).its purpose is to integrate, synthesize
different content areas into one whole so that learners can see the interrelationships between different
subject areas. Mkpa (1987, Tanner and Tanner (1975) term this design “Correlate or fusion pattern”
because it is an amalgam of different subject areas into one broad field (p.478). for example, integrated
Science is made up of aspects of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, and Agriculture while Social studies are
composed of History, Geography, Economics and Government. For Eze (1985), “It is a remedial action
against the acquisition of pieces of information that lack meaning and integration, and also prevention
against knowing too much about one subject and being ignorant in other subjects’’ (p.81).

Advantages of Broad Fields/Integrated Curriculum

i. It permits a greater integration of subject matter.

ii. There is greater flexibility in the choice of content.
iii. There is more functional knowledge organization
iv. It promotes transfer of learning because the learner can draw experiences from wider subject
areas to solve contemporary problems.
v. This organization also permits a broader coverage and allows the elimination of excessive
factual details which seemed necessary when the units of study were laid out in small segments.

18
 vi. The comprehensive knowledge it provides serves as a affected subject areas. For example,
Integrated Science serves as foundation for the study of Physics, Chemistry or Biology in the
senior secondary school.
vii. It cuts across subject area boundaries and therefore, provides a comprehensive knowledge for
persons who have no intention of specialization.

Limitations of Broad Fields/Integrated Curriculum

i. It presents a passive overview of generalization which offers little opportunity for active inquiry
and active learning.
ii. There is little or no in-depth or detailed exploration of concepts. Most of what is learnt is
superficial conceptualization.
iii. There is no disciplined knowledge because insignificant details are replaced by unintelligible
generalizations.
iv. It makes no room for specialization. Experts are needed in certain areas to solve problems, but
this design produce “jack of all trade and master of none”. There is no in-depth study of the
content because there is no provision to examine some concepts and principles in details.

Teachers cannot cope with it since they are trained in the subject design. For example, a Biology
specialist teaching integrated science tends to emphasize the biology contents more than the chemistry
and physics contents. It then means that teachers have to be retrained. Today, there are programmes to
produce teachers in the broad areas such as Integrated Science and Social Studies.

Official or Formal Curriculum

The official curriculum is the formally knowledge curriculum selected by a school. The official curriculum
focuses on goals, objectives, subject matter, and organization of instruction. Instruction has been
carefully planned; resources including personnel, materials, time, and space have been allocated; the
curriculum has been written into lessons and is taught in the classroom; and intended learning is
formally evaluated. The formal curriculum encompasses the sequence of courses, goals, and objectives
mandated by the state; the curriculum guide developed by the school district; and the textbooks used in
the classrooms. Local curriculum development efforts are generally derived from the official state-
mandated curriculum that is to be implemented by classroom teachers. Most parts of the official
curriculum are determined at the federal level.

According to Afangideh (2009), Any planned curriculum indicates the subject matter to be taught, the
method to be used in teaching it, the learning experiences to be provide to the learners, the way and
manner it can be determined if the educational goals have been attained, and finally, it suggests who
will determine if the goals have been achieved. The planned curriculum is based on the assumption that
the selected items can lead to the achievement to ensure educational goals are achieved. In Nigeria, the
planned curriculum indicated reaches the schools in the form of curriculum guides. For example the
Federal Government of Nigeria (2007), in the curriculum for English Studies has infused curriculum
innovations in comprehension passages as a guide for teachers. The innovations are in the areas of

19
population and family life education, drug abuse education, HIV/AIDS education and peace education
among others. In the content, comprehension topics are arranged around the four basic language skills
(listening, speaking, reading and writing) as a unifying strand across the entire curriculum to ensure
proficiency in the use of the English Language. The English Language teacher is expected to pay special
attention to the learning of these basic skills arranged under these four themes: listening and speaking,
reading and writing, grammatical accuracy/structure and literature.

The curriculum goes further to suggest how each topic should be taught, what teaching and learning
materials are to be used, the performance objectives to be pursued, the learning activities to be
engaged in and possible duration and type of evaluation guide to be adopted. These items represent the
planned curriculum for the English Language for the primary level of basic education.

Hidden Curriculum

A hidden curriculum to the life lesson that students learn at school that are not part of traditional study
subjects and lesson plans. Long Strret and Sahne (1993), sees it as the kind of learning children derive
from the very nature and organizational design of the public school, as well as from the behaviours and
attitudes of teachers and administrators. It might also include the messages and lessons derives from
the mere organizations of schools-disciplined messages when concentration equates to student
behaviours where they are sitting up straight and are continually quiet, students getting in and standing
in line silently, students quietly raising their hands to be called on, the endless competition for grades,
and so on.

Moor (2001), defines it as the “unintended” curriculum. It consists of those learning experiences, both
negative and positive, that are not part of the explicit curriculum but that result in changes in attitudes,
believes and values of students. Some students learn positive, worthwhile behaviours and attitudes,
such as how to think independently, politeness etc. Ogunyemi (2009), refers to it as the unplanned
aspects of learning which nevertheless result in behavioural changes in learners. Such “learning
experiences” were originally unintended, unanticipated or unexpected. More often than not, these
experiences are cultivated directly in the school by observing and interacting with teachers, school
administrators and peers. Although they could come from the “carry-over” effect of the home and the
larger society. It may include resisting pressure to join gangs or cultist groups. Mbakwem (2005), stated
that when students engage themselves in such overtly displayed co-curricular activities as sports, clubs,
weekend activities or break-time voluntary activities, there are certain values and attitudes which are
not part of the overtly displayed activities but which are consciously imbibed by the students.

Teacher Centred Curriculum

Teaching and learning styles are the behaviours or actions that teachers and students exhibit in the
learning exchange. In teacher-directed classrooms, control is of primary importance and “authority is
transmitted hierarchically” (Dollard & Christensen, 1996, p.3). This means that teachers exert control
over the students. Critics of teacher-directed instruction argue that in these classrooms, compliance is
valued over initiative and passive learners (Freiberg, 1999). To help teachers maintain control over

20
students, instructional methods that promote a focus on the teacher are frequently used, such as
explicit lectures, demonstrations and so on (Edwards, 2004). These forms of instruction lend themselves
to having the teacher stand in the front of the classroom while all students work on the same task.
Similarly, the physical design of the classroom often promoters focus on the teacher and limits student
activity that disrupts the focus. In other words, classrooms are often organized so that desks face toward
the primary focal point, the teacher (Boostorm, 1991). According to (Stitt-Gohdes, 2001) Research
supports the concept that most teachers teach the way they learn since a great many teachers have
experienced academic success in learning environments that were teacher-directed and relied heavily
on lecture, it is understandable that their preferred style of teaching would be to repeat the same
approach.

Teacher-directed instruction (TDI) is an instructional method specifically designed to enhance academic

learning time. This method does not assume that learners will develop insights on their own. Rather, TDI
takes learners through the steps of learning in a systematic way, hearing the learners see both the
purpose and the result of each step. When teachers explain exactly what learners are expected to learn,
and demonstrate the steps needed to accomplish a particular academic task, learners are likely to use
their time more effectively and to learn more (Cole, Dale, Mills & Jenkins, 1993).

The basic components of a teacher-directed instruction (TDI) are:

1. Setting clear goals for students and making sure they understand these goals.
2. Presenting a sequence of well-organized assignments.
3. Giving students clear, concise explanations and illustrations of the subject matter.
4. Asking frequent questions to see that the students understand the material.
5. Giving students frequent opportunities to practice what they have learned (p.42).

In teacher centred curriculum design, the teacher is the centre of interest. This type of curriculum
emphasizes the involvement of the teacher in the curriculum development. The teacher plays an
important role in the development of the student. He participates in a number of activities at a
classroom level. For instance, he selects the teaching strategies, use of audio visual aids and so on. The
teacher also controls what is taught, when and under what conditions within a classroom. Teachers are
the primary source for knowledge; the children are educated using certain method put unto action by
their teacher. The teachers rely heavily upon the textbook to guide curricular and instructional decision
making. The teacher chooses what the student’s will learn, how the students will learn and how the
students will be accessed on their learning. According to Mkpa (2009), teacher centred curriculum;

a) Does not encourage necessary interactions in the teaching learning situation.

b) Does not allow the learners to participate actively in classroom activities
c) Does not promote or encourage development of desirable skills and attitudes in the learner.
d) Does not encourage the learners to use their initiates and develop self-confidence.
e) Encourage rote learning.

Learner Centred Curriculum

21
In learner centred curriculum, the student is the focus. The curriculum gives the students opportunity to
exercise a substantial degree of responsibility for what is taught, how it is learned, and for movement
within the classroom. It requires students to be active, responsible participants in their own learning and
with their own pace of learning. It puts students’ interest first, acknowledging students voice as central
to the learning experience. Teaching methods are formed according to the needs and learning styles of
individual students. It aims to develop leaner autonomy and independence by putting responsibilities for
the learning path in the hands of students. Students choose what they will learn how they will learn, and
how they will assess their own learning. The teacher’s role is to facilitate growth by utilizing the interest
and unique needs of students as a guide for meaningful instruction. Learner centred curriculum
recognizes individual differences in learners. It emphasizes each student’s interest, abilities and learning
styles, placing the teacher as a facilitator of learning. It gives students opportunity to participate in the
evaluation of their learning which involves more formative assessment. It also leads to increased
motivation for learning and greater satisfaction with school, both of these outcomes lead to greater
achievement. Group work is encouraged and students learn to collaborate and communicate with one
another. They learn to direct and communicate with one another. They learn to direct and communicate
with one another; learn to direct there, learning, ask questions and complete task independently.
Students’ learning in judge by whether they achieve predetermined, developmentally-oriented
objectives. People learn best when they hear, see and manipulate variables, the method by which
learning occurs is often times experimental. The instructor creates learning environments that motivate
students to accept responsibility for learning. Some of the features of learner-centred instructional are:

 Most instruction occurs individually, in small groups (2 to 6 students) or in moderate-sized

groups rather than being directed at the entire class.
 Students help chose and organize the content to be learned.
 Teachers permit students to determine, partially or wholly, rules of behaviour, classroom
rewards and penalties, and how they are enforced.
 Varied instructional materials (e.g. activity centres, learning stations, interest centres) are
available in the classroom so that students can use them independently or in small groups.
 Use of these materials is scheduled either by the teacher or in consultation with students, for at
least half of the academic table available.
 The classroom is usually arranged in a manner that permits students to work together or
separately, in small groups or individual work spaces, nor dominant pattern in arranging
classroom furniture exists, and desks, tables, and chairs and aligned frequently.

Mkpa (2009) posits that this type of curriculum:

a) Encourages active participation of learners in the teaching learning situation

b) Encourages active participation and interaction among learners, the teacher and other
components of the teaching learning process
c) Encourages and promotes the development of skills.
d) Encourages the learner to develop and use their own initiatives.
e) Discourages rote learning and positivity in the classroom on the part of the learner.

22
In a learner-centred classroom students are guided to choose what they will learn, and how they will be
assessed in their own learning (Hannafin and Hannafin, 2010). All students’ activities involve active
cognitive processes, such as creating, problem solving, reasoning, decision-making, and evaluation of
their own learning. Consequently, Kearsley and Schneiderman (1999) states that:

a. The facilitator guides the learner to choose what to learn from a ready general course outline
for subject.
b. The facilitator guides the learners on how to form peer-partners and how to learn;
c. The facilitator determines how the learners will be assessed and the level of self-assessment by
the students.
d. The facilitator establishes short-term benchmark to monitor students’ strengths and
weaknesses.
e. The facilitator makes lesson plans flexible to accommodate students’ needs, and differentiate
instruction (p.53)

Johnson (2013) states that this is a sharp contrast with traditional education dubbed “teacher-directed
instruction” (TDI) which positions the teacher in primarily “active” role while the learners take more
receptive role (p. 19). In a teacher-directed classroom, teachers choose what the learners will learn, how
the learners will learn and how they will be assessed on their learning (p.20). In corroborating the
classroom practices of a learner-centred instruction (LCI), Green (2004) states that leaner must
demonstrate the ability to select the amount, kind and complexity of practice to be done, in order, in
order to complete the objectives formulated by them (p.17). During this process, according to Green
(2004), the students will involve peer-imposed objectives. Here, the learners receive no formal
instruction unless they ask for it, and may decide to listen to some or all some or all formal lesson or to
work on the objectives without any help from the teacher. However, this is not in line with the
submission of George (1998) who emphasizes that the teacher must know the learner, examine the
learner, and assess the learner, in order to ensure that learning has taken place.

However, Weimer (2002) does not advocate abandoning the professional responsibility and
letting students determine course content or whether they will do assignments; instead the author
recommends that teachers establish parameters within which their students will select options. Learner-
centred instruction (LCI) according to Brown (2008, p.40) “is most suitable for the autonomous and self-
directed learners who do not only participate in what, how and when to learn, but also construct their
own learning experiences. ‘Many educators believe that the lecture approach to teaching methods
9Jungst, Licklider & Wiersema, 2003; Marbach-Ad, Seal & Sokolove, 2001). Methods that promote active
learning by students are based on the constructivist view that for deep learning to occur, students
should actively engage with the material to be learned, through such activities as cooperative learning,
problem-solving, peer presentation, discussion and so on.

Active learning activists posit that learning through explicit lecture or TDI is relatively superficial and
transient (Moust, Van-Berkel & Schmidt, 2005; Phipps, Phipps, Kask &Higgens, 2001). Consequently,

23
teachers are chastised for clinging to the lecture approaches and are simply told to adopt approaches
that make students more responsible for their own learning (Covill, 2011). Usually, this recommendation
is made without qualification; that is, teaching for active learning that characterize a learner-centred
instruction is presented as the best approach regardless of class size, subject matter, learner
characteristics and the culture of the learning institution (Covill, 2011, p.3).

The author further adds that this recommendation is made, even though research is mixed as to the
effectiveness of these methods. Weimer (2002) outlines the characteristics of a learner-centred
instruction, thus;

1. It engages students in a hard and messy work of learning

2. It includes both implicit and explicit skill instruction
3. It encourages students to reflect on what they are learning and how they are learning it.
4. It motivates students by giving them some control over learning process
5. It encourages cooperation among students and facilitators.
6. Teachers use a variety of student groupings to encourage communication among students.
7. Teachers adjust teaching based on formative assessment results.
8. The classroom environment is warm, open, and students are encouraged to participate.

Weimer (2002) believes that teachers are doing too many learning tasks for students; teacher asks
question, calls on students to respond, add detail to their responses, offers examples, organizes the
content, does the preview and review. Thus, on any given day in mot classrooms, teachers are working
much harder than the students.

Weimer (2002, p.98) states that: The more structured we make the environment, the more they expect
us to decide for students, the more they expect us to decide. The more motivation we provide, the less
they find within themselves. The more responsibility for learning we try to assume, the less they accept
on their own. The more control we exert, the more restive their response. We end up with students who
have little commitment to and almost no respect for learning and who cannot function without
structure and imposed control.

Weimer’s suggested remedy is not to abandon rules and structure (which do need produce good results)
but to understand their liabilities, use them carefully and try additional approaches that create a climate
that promises inductive and cooperative learning. The author further recommends four practices to
communicate the message that learning the content of the lesson matters more than the grade on the
content:

1. Focus on learning processes associated with evaluation, and conduct review session before
major examinations.
2. Reduce the stress and anxiety of evaluation experiences, and lower the stakes of individual tests
by giving more of them. Consider allowing students to retake tests and revise assignments, if
doing so will produce learning.

24
 3. Do not use evaluation to accomplish hidden agenda. Do not make examination excessively
difficult to weed out students from the course or the career.
4. Incorporate more formative feedback mechanisms, and write constructive comments about
how to improve performance, and encourage individualized attention. Comment on the
performance, not the person; use descriptive rather than evaluative language and provide
feedback immediately (p. 100).

All these submission from Weimer (2002) imply that learner-centred approaches engage students in
more learning task and self-evaluation. Students who lack confidence in themselves may initially
become filled with anxiety at the prospect of becoming active and responsible learners. Researchers
have found that students prefer the lecture or teacher-directed approach for many reasons that
educators believe to be weak; “It enables the students to listen passively to lectures; organizes the
students to listen passively to lectures; organizes the subject matter for them, and prepares them well
for tests” (Mckeachie, 1997, p.1219). Certainly, students’ perception of the effectiveness of an
instructional activity can be at odds with the activity’s actual effectiveness (Lake, 2001; Wesp &Miele,
2008). In other words, students may reject or resist what is educationally good for them. For example,
“students may judge a teacher’s effectiveness based on how often the teacher creates enjoyable and
entertaining environment, rather than on how much learning that occurs” (Lammers & Smith, 2008,
p.63). Regardless of the basic for students’ perceptions, if students perceive a particular instructional
approach positively, they are likely to be more motivated to learn (Struyven, Duchy & Janssens, 2008).
Student engagement through active learning strategy leads top desirable student learning outcomes,
increased motivation for learning outcomes, and increased motivation for learning and greater
satisfaction with school (Johnson, 1991 & Maxwell, 1998; Slavin, 1990). Students in the learner-centred
program differ from students in more teacher-directed programs in some concrete and specific ways,
namely:

 They develop the ability to continue to learn throughout their lives, as they can retrieve and
evaluate information that they need to learn (Association of American Colleges and Universities,
2002; Doherty, Riordan & Roth, 2002).
 They can learn cooperatively in small groups and maintain group interdependence.
 They can easily communicate their knowledge in and outside the classroom and can use
knowledge to solve problems.
 They have a self-awareness of their learning abilities and how they acquire knowledge (Fink,
2003).

Weimer (2002), in her book “Learner-Centred Teaching,” outlines five practices that need to change, to
achieve this type of teaching:

1. The function of control; where students need to be actively engaged to learn more
independently and the ability to apply the content.
2. The role of the instructor; which focuses on helping the students to learn, by not just
disseminating information, rather, they create an environment for learning.

25
 3. The responsibility for learning; shifts from the teacher to the students, who should proactively
be assisted to take responsibilities for learning.
4. The purpose s and processes of assessment; shifts from only assigning grades to include
providing constructive and corrective feedback to assist student improvement. Learner-centred
teaching integrates assessment with feedback as a part of the learning process.
5. Balance of power; shifts so that the teacher shares some decisions about the courses with the
students, such that the teacher and the students collaborate on course policies and procedure
9Weimer, 2002, p. 29)

Watanabe (1999) is of the view that to keep abreast with the rapidly changing world of information and
the economy that requires critical thinking, we need to empower the students to think critically and
independently, and be responsible for and involved in their learning. On all these accounts, the author
states that it is time to advance from two-dimensional teacher-to-student instruction to three-
dimensional student-centred learning, where students and teachers are involved in project work.

Despite the perceived contributions of learner-centred instructions, Thamraska (2010, p.4) outlines the
difficulties that may arise from implementing this model thus;

 Some teachers resist changing their old beliefs and usual teaching practices
 Some teachers lack the skill and knowledge to incorporate technology into their own teaching.
 Some students reject the approach because they want evidence that they are being taught
something. These students, like some teachers, cling to the perception that knowledge should
be transferred and thus wait for teachers to spoon-feed them.

Weimer (2013) in a revised book, states that “things have not changed; that teaching is still often
focused on what the teacher knows and on unilateral transmission, followed by regurgitation and
evaluation” (p.65).

Activity/Experience Curriculum Pattern

This is based on the fact that every educational activity must be designed and packaged to suit the
physical, intellectual, social and emotional capacities of the child, or the learner. in other words, the
needs, abilities, hopes, aspirations and aptitudes of the child should form the major considerations,
when planning the curriculum, for any level of education. it is based on the assumption that children
learn better and faster, when the school work is designed in such a way that, what the child learns at
school should be used by the same child, to solve the problems of life, in the society. Great educators
associated with this child-centred design include Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Dewey, Froebe etc. They
maintain that curriculum must consist of activities that relate to experiences of life. These great
educators who propounded the practice of progressivism and pragmatism in education are especially
mentioned here, because their useful thoughts defied space and time in exerting considerable influence
on most modern curricula used worldwide. This is totally related to the innovative andragogy, which is
based on educative dialogue between the child, material and teacher, with strong influence from the
environment. The child remains the nucleus of any worth of educative process, because a desirable

26
change in her behaviour is being targeted, in order to measure the effectiveness of the teacher. Most
times, the learner and the teacher are in the best position to plan the learning experiences, since they
must be based on the interests and needs of the children. This implies that activity/experience
curriculum is not always pre-planned, until the needs of the children are identified. The major teaching
approach used here is problem solving, based on life experiences and life problems. Teaching and
learning becomes purely cooperative, collaborative and participatory, with the learner doing most of the
things in the class, while the teacher acts as a facilitator and an analyst.

Advantages of Activity/Experience Pattern

The following have been identified as possible merits of the above curriculum pattern:

a) Learning experiences are designed and packaged based on the identified needs, interests,
abilities and aspirations of the learner.
b) School work is planned to solve the real life problems of the learner, who becomes more serious
learning what is useful in solving tomorrow’s problem.
c) Activity or experience curriculum is based on sound psychological and philosophical principles.
d) The uniqueness of individual is given more attention than in any other pattern of curriculum.
Therefore, educative materials are varied to suit all the students in the classroom.

Demerits of Activity/ Experience Curriculum

The major criticisms levelled against activity/experience curriculum are as follows:-

1. It does not encourage uniform standards, since every school must design learning experiences
to suit the needs, interests and aspirations of their learners. These needs and aspirations may
vary from school to school or sub-culture to another.
2. There is no perceived continuity in curriculum organization, due to the changing needs of the
learners which must always be considered.
3. It is more concerned with identifying learning experiences that suit the learners, than in the
organization of content.

Despite these few odds identified with activity or experience curriculum, it has remained very useful to
contemporary curricula, which emphasize more of andragogy or child-centred education, than pedagogy
or teacher-centred education. The needs, abilities, interests and aspirations of the learners are roundly
considered, in planning any modern curriculum patterns for schools.

Social Problems Core Curriculum Pattern

Some educators neither agree to a subject centred pattern of curriculum planning nor the popular child
centred design. To this group the subject-matter or body of organized subjects and the needs, interests,
aspirations of the child should not be determine the curriculum elements, rather, the needs, interests,
hopes, aspirations, values and norms of the society would be uppermost in any curriculum planning.

27
Here, subjects are replaced with themes of social and cultural problems of the society. Bishop (1985)
articulates three assumptions underlying this curriculum pattern

a) Curriculum is a tool employed by schools to reconstruct the cultural values and norms of the
society.
b) Education should be able to prepare the learners to constantly solve the problems of the
society.
c) Learning is an active social process, involving projects, problem solving, guided but not
dominated by teachers, adaptable and flexible.

Therefore the reconstructions theorists view curriculum as a tool for the introduction and sustenance of
innovation in the society. This is achieved by presenting some social and cultural problems to the
learners, through themes like: Problems and prospects of fighting examination malpractice in the
society; HIV/AIDS education; population and family life education; drugs abuse and related problems;
child abuse in the society; cult activities in the schools and how to curb it; health hazard and cigarette
smoking, et cetera. The curriculum is designed in a flexible manner, so as to consider emerging problems
and changes from the society. Students are trained to identify these problems and to find solutions to
them, through projects and problem solving approaches.

Advantages of Social Problems Core Pattern

The following points have been identified as possible merits of this design:

a) It encourages inter-dependence and integration of knowledge, skills and attitudes.

b) It encourages transfer of learning, since the learners are expected to use the knowledge
acquired to solve real societal problems.
c) Cooperative planning of learning experiences by the learners and teachers is highly encouraged
here.
d) The learners acquire individual problem-solving strategies.

Major Criticisms of Social Problems Core Pattern

Critics of this curriculum design are of the view that:

a. The design discourages specialization, due to massive integration of knowledge being

canvassed;
b. Since this design is based on the social problems of the society, it implies that learners in
different sub-cultures and geographical locations will have different school programmes, even
when they are in the same country.
c. It may be difficult to operate social problems core pattern since most textbooks are written in
subject form, with only a few written in social problems core pattern.
d. There may be problem of evaluation, since the social core pattern does not fit into examination
oriented system with standardized judgement.

28
A close look at the above, reveals that demerits of social problems core pattern outweigh the merits,
nevertheless, this curriculum design is gradually creeping into contemporary curricula, where themes of
societal and cultural problems are constantly identified and discussed in seminars, workshops,
excursions and students’ assemblies, in an effort to find solutions to the problems. In the process of this,
the students learn the strategies of problem-solving which are adapted to emerging problems of the
society.

CHAPTER

CURRICULUM PLANNIND AND DEVELOPMENT

Curriculum planning and development process gives rise to the instrument curriculum. As noted earlier,
curriculum is that vital instrument with which the school educates the young ones in the society.
Curriculum planning and development process is quite elaborate and involving task. It usually calls for a
lot of decisions and involves the cooperative effort of many individuals. In this modern time, no one
single individual is expected to plan and develop the curriculum of a school system.

The terms curriculum planning and curriculum development have often been used interchangeably
in curriculum literature. If there exist any difference, it is minor. Both involve the same steps in
execution. Curriculum planning can be referred to as the decision making process in which focus is on
the determination of the nature, organization and orientation of the curriculum design. It is considered
as being choice orientation and can be viewed as the process of arriving at decisions that will lead to the
building of a programme of learning experiences, that will enable learners in a school system attain pre-
specified goals and objectives. Decisions have to be made in respect of the general goals and objectives
that the school system is to endeavour to achieve, the content and learning experiences that will help in
the attainment of goals and objectives; how to evaluate the students level of attainment of objectives
and also the curriculum pattern or design to be adopted.

Curriculum development involves the actual implementation of the results of the decisions
reached during curriculum planning (Mkpa, 1987). In fact, when decisions have been made in respect of
the nature, organization and orientation of the curriculum, it becomes the place of curriculum
development, based on the decisions, to proceed to build the curriculum. From this, one can say that
curriculum planning precedes curriculum development, but both are essentially inseparable. As noted
by Nicholls and Nicholls (1978) the planning of learning opportunities intended to bring about certain
changes in pupils and the assessment of the extent to which these changes have taken place is what is
meant by curriculum development.

Curriculum planning and development have been visualized as being a process, and also a continuous
and dynamic one, with set objectives. For different levels of education there are certain factors that
should be taken into account in planning and developing curriculum. The curriculum planning and
development process has also being viewed as taking place at different levels. It has been conceived as
involving the joint effort of many individuals in the society, but with the teacher at the heart of the

29
process. There are also marks of an effectively planned curriculum. In addition certain factors affect the
curriculum planning and development process. All these issues will be treated in the following sections
of this chapter.

The Curriculum Planning and Development Process

Curriculum planning and development is regarded as a process whereby goals and objectives are
selected from various sources. On the basis of the goals and objectives selected, content, and learning
experiences are selected and organized such that they can lead to attainment of the goals and
objectives. Evaluation is also involved. The process is rather a dynamic and continuous one. This is based
on the fact that, the society is dynamic and ever changing. The society usually changes in term of needs,
values and goals of its members. Also knowledge is not static but ever changing; resulting in what has
been tagged knowledge explosion.

Essentially, the process of curriculum planning and development involves the following interrelated
stages.

1. Selection of aims, goals and objectives

2. Selection of content and learning experiences.
3. Organization of content and learning experiences.
4. Evaluation.

These stages have formed the basis of various models of curriculum development. The model is
discussed in the next chapter.

Curriculum Planning and Development for Different Levels of Education

In Nigeria, the levels of education as stipulated in the National Policy on Education (2004) include;

i. Early childhood/pre-primary level

ii. Basic Education (primary 1-6 and JS 1-3)
iii. Post Basic Educational Level (SS 1-3)
iv. Tertiary Education (College of Education, Polytechnics, Universities).

Early Childhood/Pre-Primary Level

Early childhood education otherwise referred to as pre-primary, nursery, kindergarten, crèche is the
education given in an educational institution to children prior to their entry into the primary school
(Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). Before the mid-20th Century, much attention was not given probably
because parents and nursing mothers were not deep into white collar jobs as obtainable today in the
society. This gave them opportunity to nurse their younger siblings up to a certain age when they are
ready for formal education. Chijioke (2011) reported that pre-primary education in Nigeria originated
during the colonial days and it reflected the social climate of the time.

30
 Virtually after the independence in 1960, the society witnessed visible changes as a result of oil
boom. These changes became significant as industries sprang up in the cities and as such attracted
migration of people from rural to urban towns searching for white collar jobs. This economic revolution
necessitated the need for education and led to the establishment of Universal Basic Education UBE
(2006). It was this period that much need for pre-primary education was considered because when
parents and older children leave for work and primary school, the younger ones are left with no one to
take care of them. This level is largely handled by private individuals with no formal curriculum but
recently few public schools started handling them. The first national curriculum for pre-primary
education was developed another one tagged ‘The Early Child Care Development and Education’
(ECCDE). This has also been revised for the success of the ongoing reform in education. Those in this
educational level (3-5 years) fall within Piaget’s pre-operation stage of mental development.

The National Policy on Education accorded recognition to early childhood education as the document
spelt out the following purposes:

i. Effecting a smooth transition from the home to the school

ii. Preparing the child for the primary education level.
iii. Providing adequate care and supervision for the children while their parents are at work (on
farm, in the market, offices).
iv. Inculcating in them social norms.
v. Inculcating in the child the spirit of enquiry and creativity through the exploration of nature and
the local environment, playing with toys, artistic and musical activities, etc.
vi. Teaching co-operative and team work.
vii. Teaching rudiments of numbers, letters, colours, shapes, forms, et cetera, through play.
viii. Teaching good habits.

Basic Education (Basic 1-6 and JS 1-3)

This level takes care of children from 6-11 years for primary and 11-13 years for junior secondary. This
age groups falls within the concrete operational stage of Piaget’s classification of intellectual
development stages. Learners in this age bracket have certain peculiarities when it comes to their ability
to understand what is taught. At times, they have difficulty in understanding abstract concepts when
there are no concrete objects used to illustrate what is being taught. So in planning curriculum for this
group, curriculum planners should be aware of what is needed at this curriculum planners should be
aware of what is needed at this level. NERDC which is the agency conferred with the responsibility of
developing curriculum divided the curriculum into;

 Lower Basic (primary 1-3)

 Middle Basic (primary 4-6)
 Upper Basic (junior secondary 1-3)

In developing the curriculum, major stake holders like the curriculum experts, policy makers, school
teachers, subject specialists and other agencies include academic associations like (MAN. STAN, CON,

31
NBTE, NUC, and CCB) participate actively. In preparation for the development of curricular, for this level
the NERDC will hold a meeting with the agencies concerned to plan on what subjects will come in first,
who does a particular job, the goals and how it should be financed. This is followed by the planning
stage where the nation’s educational goals, aims and objectives together with the societal and individual
needs are addressed.

The next stage is writing the workshop. This is where experts are grouped according to their discipline,
each comprising 5-10 or more persons. During this period, they share ideas together from which they
select topics and units of lessons, state performance objectives, suggest teachers and students’
activities, teaching/learning resources and procedure for education. This is gradually followed by
critique workshop where the strengths and suggestions are made for improvement. This can be done by
two or three persons as the case may be. The corrected document will then be printed out and the draft
document sent to Joint Curriculum Conference (JCC) Referral. This group is made up of officials from the
Federal Ministry of Education (FME), its parastatals and officials of the tiers of education in different
states of the federation. They will examine the draft carefully to ensure that the document is in line with
the educational policy before sending it to the highest decision making body, the National Council on
Education (NCE) for approval. Members of (NCE) comprised the Minister of Education, State
Commissioner for Education, Chief Executives of Education, Parastatals, Vice Chancellors, Provosts and
Rectors selected from different institution of higher learning. They continue to labour to see that there
is curriculum improvement in our school system.

The curriculum is grouped systematically from primary 1-JSS 3 and should be reviewed every 5 years.

Features of the 9-Year Basic Education Curriculum

The basic features of 9-Year basic Education includes:

i. Compulsory subjects-English studies and one Nigerian Language, Mathematics, Basic Science
and Technology, Social Studies, Civic Education, Cultural and Creative Arts, Religious studies
(Christian/Islamic), Computer Studies.
ii. Introduction of French as a core subject from the middle Basic level (i.e.) Primary 4.
iii. Elective subjects-Agriculture, Home Economics, Arabic language, Business Studies
iv. Connection between the contents of primary and junior secondary school curriculum.

Post Basic Education (SS1-3)

This is another level of education in Nigeria. This level takes care of children between the ages of 14-16
or there about. At this age, this group of learners falls within the formal operational stage of Piaget’s
classification of stages of mental development. At this age and beyond, learners can easily understand
abstract concepts without necessarily seeing the real objects. In developing their curricular, it is the
Nigerian Education Research and Development Council (NERDC) that takes care of it. The steps and
procedures for developing the curricular are the same with 9-year basic education but some differences
exist in the subjects offered from level to level.

32
 Tertiary Level

This is the final level on the educational ladder. This is where the polytechnics, colleges of education
universities and other professional intuitions like National Teachers Institute (NTI) belong.

Learners at this level have no age limit since they are being prepared for various vocations and
professions. Development of curriculum for this group of people falls in the hands of these 3 agencies
namely;

i. National Commission for College of Education (NCCE)

ii. National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) and
iii. National Universities Commission (NUC)

The group published what we call Minimum Standard for each Programme or course of study.

At each level (College of education, Polytechnic, University, departments may be required by the board
responsible for each programme to contribute ideas either to increase or reduce content or to suggest
new course for the department. Having made it suitable, it will be sent to the board that takes care of
the programme (NCCE, NBTE, and NUC) as the case may be. They in turn will summon a meeting for all
HODs to harmonize their efforts; after the Deans of schools converge to deliberate on the harmonized
draft during which they will allot credit weights to course. They will equally point out areas that were
not done well and rectify them. The final work will then be submitted to the NERDC and a team of
consultants. These group will make sure that the curriculum especially that of college of Education,
schools of education 9university and polytechnics) to whom the preparation of teachers are entrusted
to are in line with that of basic and post basic education.

Having done this, the printed draft will be looked at by the Provost for (college of education) Rector for
(polytechnics) Vice Chancellor (universities) and the Officials of (NCCE NBTE NUC) before submitting it to
the JCC Referral for the final recommendation to the National Council on Education (NCE) for approval.
Once approved the document is known as the Minimum Standard. NCCE publishes the minimum
Standard for Colleges of Education, NBTE for Technical vocational education, NUC for Universities.

Curriculum Development Tasks Performed by Different Functionaries in Nigeria

Having considered the various factors in the process of planning the curriculum at the various levels of
the educational system, we are now ready to look into who actually does the development of the school
curriculum in Nigeria. As mentioned earlier, Nigeria has a centralized educational system and therefore,
the government controls all educational practices in the country.

Federal level

At the federal level, the Military of Education responsible for the following functions which are
curriculum related activities:

33
a) Policy Formulation: it is the Federal Ministry of Education that formulates the policy on
education and thereby-co-ordinates the educational practices in Nigeria. This is because
government realizes that education is an instrument for effecting national development. Since
the government invests massively in education, it would want to clearly spell out the policies
that will guide educational practices, and the organ of the Federal Government that is
responsible for this assignment is the Federal Ministry of Education.
b) Generating the Philosophy of Education: Related to the issue of policy formulation is the task of
generating the philosophy of education. As mentioned earlier in the chapter, the curriculum of
any educational system must be in conformity with the nation’s philosophy of education. This
task is also performed by the Federal Ministry of Education
c) Generating Broad National Educational Objectives: The goals and objectives of the curriculum
must first be identified before any meaningful planning can be done and it is the Federal
Ministry of Education that generates the objectives for every level of the educational system.
d) In planning the Core Curriculum: it is also the Federal Ministry of Education that plans the core
of curriculum for education below the university level; though it may do this using different
agency. Such agencies as the Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC),
West African Examinations (WAEC), National University Commission (NUC), National Board on
Technical Education (NBTE), Joint consultative committee on education that makes
recommendation to the NCE, Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN), National
Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE), National Primary Education Commission (NPEC),
Mathematics Association of Nigeria (MAN). All these and more are agencies of the Federal
Ministry of Education or subject specialized associations use to develop the curriculum or any
other curriculum related task at the different levels of the educational system.
e) Prescription of Evaluation Format: It is also the Federal Ministry of Education that prescribes
the examination format for the educational system in the country. For example, the use of
continuous assessment and final exam for certification at the secondary and tertiary levels are
all the prescriptions of the Federal Ministry of Education.
f) Prescription of Text-book Formats: In section 10 paragraph 84 (8), the National Policy of
Education stated that the Federal Government has established a National Book Development
Council whose job is the promotion of the development, production and distribution of books:
This implies that the Federal Government through the Federal ministry of Education is
committed not only to the prescription of textbook formats, but also the production and
distribution or provision of text-books. Other agencies that produce books include NERDC
(Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council) and STAN (Science Teachers
Association of Nigeria).
g) Purchase of Equipment: The Federal Government also provides equipment for the schools. The
equipment is used in the implementation of the curriculum. A typical example is the provision of
audio-visual and scientific equipment for the various teacher training colleges throughout the
federation in 1976 and later the provisions of Introductory Technology equipment for the
secondary schools throughout the federation. Even now, part of the Petroleum Trust Fund (PTF)

34
 has been earmarked for the provision of educational equipment for schools at all levels of the
educational system.
h) Prescription of Method of Teaching: The Federal Ministry of Education prescribes the method
of teaching. The National Policy on Education prescribes that teaching method should not
emphasize recall and regurgitation of facts (rote learning) but rather encourage discovery
learning.
i) Construction, Repair and Rehabilitation of Building: The Federal Ministry of Education performs
the function of providing conductive atmosphere and adequate accommodation for our
learners. In 1916 when the UPE was launched, the Federal government erected a number of
UPE building in many schools to accommodate the anticipated increase in the enrolment in
schools
Again when Professor Babs Fafunwa was made the Minister of Education, a number of new
schools “model” classrooms were constructed in many primary schools and the Federal
Government released grants to the states for the repair and rehabilitation of school building,
purchase of equipment, provision of books and teaching materials. Recently many buildings
have been erected in different primary, secondary and tertiary intuition as part of Petroleum
Trust Fund (PTF).
j) Supervision of Instruction: The Federal Ministry of Education carries out supervision of
instruction at the primary and secondary levels. The supervision is meant to ensure that the
curriculum is properly implemented in the schools and they also ensure that standards are
maintained. It is a known fact that teachers determine the success or failure of any curriculum
innovation or design since they are the ones who implement the curriculum. So, the Federal
Ministry of Education through its inspectorate division supervises instruction in primary and
secondary schools. Sometimes, they do so in conjunction with the state ministries of education
or just alone. They also check the learning environment to ensure that all the facilities required
for meaningful learning are provided by the schools. They check the qualification of the teachers
and all the school records including continuous assessment results of students to ensure
compliance to the provision of the National Policy on Education.

All that they have been discussed are curriculum related activities performed by the Federal Ministry of
Education. However, there is need to mention other functions that they perform as listed in the National
Policy on Education. These include;

i. Co-ordination of educational practices in Nigeria.

ii. Advisory services in respect of all levels of education below the university
iii. Planning and research on national scale.
iv. Co-ordination of non-formal education including adult education, vocational improvement
centre and correspondence courses, etc.
v. Co0ordination of educational services.
vi. International co-operation in education.
vii. Co-ordination of national school examination and relevant teachers’ examinations-testing and
evaluation.

35
Having said that, we are now ready to look at the curriculum development activities performed at the
state level.

Curriculum Development Tasks at the State Level

At the state level, the state ministries of education are the major actors in curriculum development.
They have Post Primary Schools Services Commission (PPSSC) manage the senior secondary schools.
However, the Anambra State Universal Basic Education Board and ASUBEB now act as the agencies of
the state ministries of education and they now perform different curriculum development functions.

a) Implementation of Policies: At that state level, the policies formulated at the federal level are
interpreted and implemented. Since all the commissions of education in all states in the country
belong to the N.C.E. (National Council of Education) which is the highest policy making body in
the country, all policies made at that level are taken down to the states for interpretation and
implementation. They also interpret and implement the provision of the National Policy on
Education as it affects the schools within that states.
b) Design of Syllabuses: The state ministries of education design the syllabuses in each subject
area from the national core curriculum. Some states do this through their curriculum
development centres. Such syllabuses are then sold pr distributed to the schools in the state.
c) Conducting Examination for the School in the State: The state ministry of education through
the Post Primary Schools Service Commission (PPSSC) conducts examinations for the senior
secondary schools in the state, either termly or annually.
d) Recommendation of Textbooks: The text-books used in each subject in the secondary schools
are recommended by the State Ministry of Education through the post primary schools services
commission in Anambra State. The name of the commission may vary from state to state, but
whatever they do, they do it on behalf of the state ministry of education.
e) Supervision of Instruction: The state ministry of education supervises the schools through the
Post Primary Schools Services Commission (for secondary schools) or Anambra State Universal
Basic Education Board (ASUBEB) for primary and junior secondary schools. They ensure that the
teachers are up and doing with respect to writing their lesson notes and keeping other records
that are necessary in the school system.
f) Provision of instructional Material/Equipment: The state Ministry of Education also provides
instructional materials/equipment for the secondary schools. A typical example in the supply of
introductory technology equipment for all the secondary schools in Anambra State.

Curriculum Development Task at the Local Government Zonal Level

At the zonal level (using Anambra State as the model) the zonal office of the Post PRIMARY Schools
Services Commission (PPSSC) headed by the chairman takes charges of the senior secondary schools
within the zone. The zone covers a number of Local Government areas, whereas the Local Education
Authority (LEA) headed by the Educational secretary takes charge of all the primary schools within the
Local Government Area. The Local Education Authority Reports to Anambra State Universal Basic

36
Education Board (ASUBEB). The curriculum development activities done at this level include the
following:

a) Recommendation of Text Books: At the zonal local government level, the zonal office of the
post primary schools services commission recommends the books that would be used in all
subjects’ areas, but those of primary and junior secondary schools are recommended by
ASUBEB.
b) Supervision of Instruction: The zonal office of the Post Primary Schools Services Commission
supervises instruction in the senior secondary schools while the zonal office of the Anambra
State Universal Basic Education Board supervises that of primary and junior secondary schools
to ensure that the quality is maintained and that of the teachers are efficient and effective in the
implementation of the curriculum.
c) Administration of Terminal/Annual Examination: In 1995, the zonal education commission began
zonal examinations for the secondary schools within their jurisdiction. A similar examination has
been going on for all the classes in the primary schools in the local government. At least the end
of year examination is now conducted by ASUBEB for all primary and junior secondary schools in
the state.
d) Distribution of Scheme of Work/Syllabus: The zonal offices of Post Primary Schools Commission
distribute the scheme of work/syllabus drawn up at the headquarters of the Post Primary School
Service Commission to the senior secondary schools. The equivalent of the senior secondary
school scheme of work is the school curriculum modules prepared under the auspices of the
national implementation committee on National Policy on Education and published by Evans
Brothers for the National Primary Education Commission. These curriculum modules could be
bought from the open market or from the Local Education Authority at the local government
level.
e) Allocation of Resources: The zonal offices allocate resources to the schools under their
jurisdiction .they recommend the school that will benefit from any special project proposed by
the federal or state government. A typical example is the building of model classroom blocks
constructed in different primary and secondary schools by the Minister of Education.
f) Working with the Community: The Post Schools Services Commission or the Anambra State
Universal Basic Education Board relate with the communities and mobilize them to provide
buildings/infrastructure for the schools. For example the communities were mobilized some
years ago to build Introductory Technology workshops for their schools, if they were to be
supplied with the workshop equipment.
g) Working with the Board of Governors of the Schools: It is the zonal level that the
reports/recommendations of the Board of Governors of the schools are looked into; for
implementation.

Curriculum Development Tasks at the School Level

a) Curriculum Co-ordination: At the school level, deans of studies and departmental heads are
appointed. These persons co-ordinate the teachers in the different subject areas allocating units

37
 or the entire scheme of work for their subject to them at the secondary school level. In the
primary schools; it is the appropriate curriculum models for each class that is allocated to the
class teacher by the headmaster or headmistress.
b) Curriculum Monitoring: At the school level, school diaries are kept. These diaries contain
detailed sequences of curriculum content as contained in the official schemes of work and when
they should be taught. Then, there is a separate column where the teacher indicates when these
prescribed content were actually taught. Such diaries are meticulously checked and monitored
by the different heads of department in the secondary schools or headmaster/headmistress in
the primary schools. Since this curriculum record (diary) is so important, supervisors always
insist on examining them when they visit schools.
c) Time Tabling: At the school level, time is allocated to the teaching of each subject and it is
tabulated for all to see and follow: The more important subjects like English and Mathematics
are allocated more time. They occur more frequently on the time-table.
d) Staff-In-Service Programme: All recommendations for in-service training eventually comes from
the Post Primary Schools Services Commission for senior secondary schools/or Anambra State
Universal Basic EDUCATION Board for primary and junior secondary schools. The in-service
programmes are designed to improve efficiency of the teachers as the implementers of the
curriculum.
e) Co-ordination of Evaluation Procedures: At the school level, the actual conduct of examinations
are done whether they be internal, zonal or state wide examinations which are actually
evaluation of the instruction given to the students. The proper recording of both the continuous
assessment of the students and the examination results are monitored at the school level.

Curriculum Development Task at the Classroom Level: It is actually at the classroom level that the
detailed implantation of the curriculum is done. The major factor here is the classroom teacher. The
curriculum development tasks of the teacher who actually determines the success or failure of the
entire educational system are outlined below;

a) Selection of Objectives: Though the broad national objectives have been clearly stated in the
National Policy on Education, it is at classroom level that the teacher breaks them down into
precise instructional objectives that can be achieved within a lesson period. At the primary
school level however, the specific instructional objectives are clearly outlined in the curriculum
modules, but a creative teacher can still modify or restate them to suit his pupil.
b) The Lesson Plan: At the classroom, the teacher draws up his lesson plan which is the blueprint
upon which his entire of necessity, contain the objectives has he generated, the content to be
taught, the activities of the teacher and that of the students, and of course, the strategies he
will use.
c) Instructional Strategies: The teacher then selects the appropriate techniques that will best
convey the meaning he wants his students to grasp. Such technique or strategy may be set
induction, stimulus variation, non-verbal communication, extra verbal communication, use of
examples, questioning skills (higher order question/lower order questions, probing questions)
planned repetition or even closure. The use of the appropriate strategy coupled with the

38
 correct media will ensure meaningful learning and the achievement of curriculum objectives in
a reception learning system like ours.
d) Instruction: The teacher carries on the instructional process in the classroom and evaluates his
students to crosscheck if learning has actually taken place.
e) Evaluation: In evaluation, the teacher employs different techniques to assess the extent to
which the states objective has been achieved.

Participants in the Curriculum Planning and Development Process

No more single person in a society is expected to plan and develop a curriculum for the society. This
is because the curriculum planning and development process is, as already noted, an elaborate and
involving task. Planning and developing a curriculum for a society or school system has always been that
of many individuals, though in the past, these individuals were drawn from the class of professionals,
embracing educational administrators, curriculum experts, subjects specialists, among others.

In this modern era, the planning and development process embraces both professionals and non-
professionals, including laymen. In fact, all segments of the society are expected to be represented in
the process. The idea of co-operative planning of curriculum as is widely the trend now has its basis
realization of the fact that all the segments of a given society benefit from education and the
educational system. They in addition expect education to serve them and lead to the up upliftment of
the individuals being educated and the society in general. Taking these into account, it follows that any
effective planning and development will include (1) curriculum experts (2) teachers (3) parents (4)
learners (5) psychologists (6) subject specialist (7) philosophers (8) administrators/ representatives of
ministries of education and other interested persons like ‘social workers, doctor’s, traders, among
others.

1) Curriculum Experts: The curriculum experts are to be involved in the planning and development
of curriculum because of the following reasons:
a) As experts in the field of curriculum will by implication, generally, perform essentially most of
the technical aspects of curriculum planning and development. This is because they posses’
additional skills that will be very much needed to organise and structure the curriculum so that
it turns out to be an adequate and effective instrument for the education of the learners.
b) In every human endeavour, leadership factor comes up. Thus in curriculum planning and
development, experts will provide the necessary leadership that will propel all involved in the
determination of the nature and scope of the curriculum needed.
c) When the curriculum has been cooperatively planned and developed, the experts also have the
important role of evolving, and executing a definite and concrete plan for the implementation of
the programme.
2) Teachers

39
a) The teachers must be involved in decision making and in actual planning, development and
production of the curriculum/curriculum materials, as they are the key agents for curriculum
implementation.
b) Feedback coming from teachers who have used a particular curriculum will be essential for
meaningful revision or renewal of that curriculum.
c) The teachers are in the position to determine the successor failure of any curriculum which has
been designed and hence can contribute much in the evaluation of the curriculum.
d) Teachers can give valuable advice regarding the content and learning experiences to be included
in the curriculum. They know the experiences that will motivate learners to learn and
subsequently achieve objectives.
e) Since teachers are more involved in teaching leaning situations that any of the other persons or
planners, they are in better positions to give useful suggestions about the appropriate
techniques and methods, and materials for the effective implementation of any designed
curriculum.
f) Involvement of teachers in curriculum development will enhance motivation for the teaching
profession and make them much more committed to the implementation of the curriculum. It is
important to note that a well planned and developed curriculum, if not well implemented by
teachers, can turn out to be most inadequate and irrelevant to learners.
3) Parents
a) Since the schools serve social purposes, the parents, if involved, will suggest some social
purposes that the schools should serve.
b) They have children in schools and naturally they will want to part of the planning of educational
programmes for them.
c) Parents can suggest and help to define objectives and desired outcomes of the school
experiences. Or they can suggest and advise on the kinds of behaviours which the society will
appreciate as appropriate, and desired for its citizens.
d) They can also help suggest subjects that they would want their children to learn.
e) Parents can make important contributions at the evaluation stage of curriculum planning as they
live and are in regular contact with the children. They are in a position to sense and see at close
quarters the real influence of the school on their children, and hence can help in assessing the
overall effectiveness of the school programme.
f) Their thinking and belief about the school experiences of their children can be a useful guide for
any future curriculum planning decisions and actions.
g) Involvement of parents in curriculum planning will bring them nearer the educational setting; or
rather make them become part of the school community.
h) It is obvious that if and when parents participate in curriculum planning, they will help enlighten
the public on the importance of curriculum planning, development and change or modification.
i) Since funding of education is a costly venture and takes much of government resources, parents
if involved in curriculum planning and development will be more disposed to help in financing
education-being a part to the designed educational programme, besides having children in the
school system.

40
 The reasons for inclusion of parents apply to lay citizens and some other members of the society.

4) Learners
a) Since the child’s education is the central, concern of curriculum planning it becomes necessary
that the child should be involved in curriculum planning and development.
b) The involvement of the learners in curriculum planning will give them the opportunity to suggest
areas of needs and interest them.
c) If learners are involved in planning they will be highly motivated to learn. With high motivation,
more learning will take place.
d) When learners are involved in curriculum planning, they will develop much interest in being
exposed to the curriculum content and learning experiences. Besides, they would want to see to
the effective implementation of the curriculum they helped to design.

With the teachers as guide they can select and acquire appropriate kinds of experiences. It is
these experiences. It is these experiences that represent the real curriculum-actualized curriculum. Also
with classroom teachers, learners can contribute in determining relevant instructional or performance
objectives and corresponding experiences, procedures and materials that will enhance attainment of
pre-specified objectives. In the classroom setting, learners, besides assisting in selecting relevant
instructional materials can assist in the design and production of these materials. Learners can also
participate in evaluating the effectiveness of the entire teaching-learning or instructional process.

5) Professional Educators: They are seasoned educators in different fields of education. They fall
under the area called educational foundation. They include the sociologists who understand and
deal with the societal needs, psychologists who specialize in human development and learning
process, philosophers who studied logic and reasoning, as well as educational administrators
who specialize in resources management. They offer their professional advice during curriculum
planning.

Psychologists

Psychologists have knowledge in areas of learning processes and human development, hence if
they are involved in curriculum planning and development they will:

i. Help to determine objectives that are feasible from those that are likely to take a very long time
or almost impossible of attainment at the age level contemplated.
ii. Help in grade placement of objectives which are educationally attainable; and also grade
placement of content learning experiences.
iii. Suggest conditions requisite for the learning of certain types of objectives
iv. Help in distinguishing changes in human beings that can be expected to result from a learning
process from those that cannot.

6) Subject specialist

41
 a) They are in the position to suggest the contribution their subjects can make in the education of
young learners who are not going to be specialists in the subject areas and also to laymen.
b) Since, they know the subjects well; they can contribute immensely in the placement or subject
matter for the different grade levels or classes.
c) They will help in fashioning out learning experiences for particular grade levels or classes. It
must be noted that since subject specialists are found within the teaching cadre some reasons
advanced for inclusion of teachers in curriculum planning and development can also apply to
them.

Objectives of Curriculum Planning and Development

1. The main objective for curriculum planning and development is that is fashioning out a
programme or education for a society. This programme of education is to foster worthwhile
ideas and values of the society, in addition to enabling the society to progressively attain its
social, economic, and political goals and other needs and goals. The other needs of children of
the society, by assisting and guiding them to acquire relevant aspects of its culture and general
life.
2. Because the society is dynamic and ever-changing and also because knowledge is expanding at a
very tremendous rate, effective curriculum planning and development becomes necessary. This
will bring about the need to carefully select what learners are to learn such that the materials to
be learned would reflect the changing nature of the society and knowledge.
3. Curriculum planning and development is also concerned with providing opportunities for an
individual student to benefit maximally from participating in selected learning activities.
4. In the present era, when many societies, including the Nigerian society, are growing in
complexity and emphasize advancement in science and technology/industrialization, curriculum
planning and development that will evolve the kind of curriculum that will meet this need
becomes imperative. This will prevent a situation that will breed dissatisfaction among learners
and citizens of the society with respect to the- content of education.
5. There is tremendous increase in enrolment in the school system. This has resulted in the
establishment of many schools as well as population explosion in existing schools. The schools
now have many individuals with diverse backgrounds and interests. All these will obviously have
impact on the curriculum, particularly in respect of learning experiences to be provided.

Effective curriculum planning and development will then cater for changing situations in the
schools.

The Marks of an Efficiently Planned Curriculum

Any planned curriculum is usually for a given society and in particular for the learners within the society.
The learners are supposed to be exposed to the planned curriculum so as to develop themselves, in

42
order to be useful to themselves and contribute to the advancement of the society. Taking these into
account it follows that an effectively planned curriculum will:

1. Reflect the society’s past life, including its future expectations. Usually, it is on the basis of the
knowledge of a society’s past and present life, that curriculum planner’s project and effectively
plan for its foreseeable future life.
2. Reflect the social and cultural setting of the society in which this education is being provided.
This implies that all aspects of the culture of the society will be catered for. Thus an effectively
planned curriculum will have to relate to the general aspects of the culture, in addition to its
special and unique characteristics. It is the core of a culture that embodies the society’s most
stable values and practices. Moreover, a good deal of curriculum decisions is based on the core
and it is also from the core that major choices of curriculum experiences that have relevance to
the society are made.
3. Evolve a society sufficiently congenial for man to live and work in.
4. Reflect the skill, ideals, habits, value patterns and other aspects of life of a given society that the
school is expected to transmit to the young learners.
5. Reflect the learners’ interest, needs, capabilities level of development disposition, other physical
and psychological characteristics and the way they, learn. In addition to these, an effectively
planned curriculum should also have bearing on the nature of knowledge, the general and
particular nature of the process of learning and also the changing state of knowledge and the
process of learning. This is necessary so as to provide learners with valid knowledge and
experiences. The curriculum should also be closely linked with philosophy. This is because
curriculum choices are rooted in philosophy. Invariably, the choices made about curriculum are
largely and at all times a result of value judgements. In most instances, the choices are society-
based or rather culturally influenced. It is important to note that every society has its own
philosophy and values. These are supposed to guide and shape the society’s curriculum choices

In conclusion, an effectively planned curriculum should consider the teacher. This is because
the success of any curriculum depends upon the teacher. His general level of education, professional
preparation, personal disposition, interests, need and capabilities have to be considered in structuring
any curriculum he is to execute or implement.

43
 MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

An educational programme is like any other activity depends on the proper planning for its success.
Teachers according to Onwuka (1981) need to establish very clearly what they are trying to achieve with
their pupils, then to decide how they hope to do this and finally consider how successful they have been
in their attempts (p.75). That this process of planned learning opportunities intended to bring about
certain changes in pupils and the assessment of the extent to which these changes have taken place, is
what is referred to in educational literature as curriculum development.

Achonye and Ajoku (2003) refer to curriculum development as the process of planned learning
opportunities intended to bring about certain changes in pupils and the assessment of the extent to
which these changes have taken place. It is not just an activity which is once undertaken and then
finished within school; rather is continuous process in which knowledge and insights gained from
evaluation are fed back to provide a fresh starting point for further study.

According to Taba (1962), curriculum development seeks to answer the following questions
systematically:

1. What is curriculum, what does it include and what differences are there between the issues of
curriculum and method of teaching?
2. What are the chief elements of curriculum and what principles govern the decision regarding
their selection and roles they play in the total curriculum?
3. What should be the relationship between these elements and their supporting principles and
what criteria and principles are applied in establishing these relationships?
4. What problems and issues are involved in organising a curriculum in making decisions about the
patterns and methods of organising it?
5. What is relationship of a curriculum pattern or design to the practical and administrative
conditions under which it functions?
6. What is the order of making curriculum decisions and how does one move from one to another?

The understanding of these questions and seeking answers to them explains what curriculum
development entails.

Curriculum Development Models

Nicholls and Nicholls (1972), states that the process of curriculum consists of a continuous cycle of
activities relating to consideration of elements in the curriculum and their interrelatedness. All
curriculum experts believe that curriculum consists of elements and that relationship exists between
these elements, the difference is in arrangement. Some writers believe that there are four major stages
in the process of curriculum development, while some identified five stages. Some see the activities
involved in the curriculum development as an activity undertaken once in a school and finished, while
others see it as a continuous process which makes use of feedback from evaluation for improvement

50
and modification. Also some see it as a process involving continuous assessment at each of the stages
for immediate modification before the end of the process is reached. All the different views about how
the curriculum should be developed formed different models of curriculum development.

Tyler’s Model

Tyler (1994) prescribes a rational model for curriculum, which emphasizes goal attainment. According to
him, any development of curriculum and plan of instruction must address four fundamental questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? (Aims, goals and objectives).
2. What educational experiences can be provided that is worthwhile to attain these purposes?
(Selection of content and learning experiences).
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? (Organization of learning
experiences).
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (Evaluation).

The Tylerian stage in curriculum development is four stages starting from the selection the selection of
objectives through selection of content and learning experiences, organization of learning experiences
to evaluation. The model is called a linear model because the stages are presented as being selected in a
straight line manner which is sequentially arranged. The curriculum planner at any level of planning
starts form objectives and continues with other stages and evaluation at the end.

These questions are to be answered in the order in which they are asked because the stating of
objectives is the crucial step for Tyler since the other three responses are given in the light of the
objective chosen.

Tyler puts this point about objectives clearly at the beginning of his book. These educational
objectives become the criteria by which materials are selected, content is outlined, instructional
procedures are developed and tests and examinations are prepared. We must first be sure as to where
the educational objectives are aimed at if we are to study an educational programme.

1. 2. 3. 4.
Organization
Selection of Selection of of Learning Evaluation
Objectives content and Experiences
Learning
Experiences

Criticism of Tyler’s Model

a. Curriculum scholars have criticized Tyler’s model as being too rigid, with objectives always at the
fore front.
b. There is no indication of use of feedback which is received from evaluation in order to modify
the curriculum it implies.

51
 c. There is no inter-relatedness between the steps in presenting the operations of the model in a
linear form.
d. The evaluation is not used for correction and modification of a programme but for judgement,
since evaluation as presented by the model is only done at the end of the process which is
purely summative.

The Wheeler’s Model

The Wheeler model which is cyclic maintains the curriculum should be a continuous cycle which is
responsive to changes in the education sector and makes appropriate adjustments in line with these
changes. It focuses on situational analysis which is the context that guides the curriculum decisions
taken. This model comprises five interconnected and cyclic stages:

 Aims, goals and objectives

 Selection of learning experiences
 Selection of content
 Organization and integration of learning experiences and content
 Evaluation.

Curriculum Process by D.K. Wheeler

Once the cycle has been followed, it begins again at step one and continues onward to improve the
curriculum in line with any changes that may be imposed or happened naturally (Carl, 2009). While
Wheeler’s model like other cyclical models has been popular in teaching practice for its flexibility and
relevance to learners. However, it is not always practical to use because of time constraints.
Undertaking a detailed situational analysis that D.K. Wheeler advocates is a time consuming process that
can be difficult to put into practice in the hectic conditions of modern educational practice.

Nicholls and Nicholls Model

Audrey and Howard Nicholls in their book ‘Developing a Curriculum: A practical Guide’ devised a straight
forward cyclical approach that covered the elements of curriculum briefly but succinctly. The model is
like a map for particular teaching and learning process. It is cyclical model that is logical and sequential.
All the elements of curriculum are interdependent in the model as follows:

 Situation analysis
 Formulation of objectives
 Selection and organization of content
 Selection and organization of method
 Evaluation.

52
Situation Analysis

The process starts with a situation analysis, which is a preliminary diagnosis of all factors that make up
the situation, such as, teacher, pupils’ homes and backgrounds, school building, school climate, staff and
equipment. From this assessment according to the authors, there will be suggestions about what the
teacher should be trying to achieve, and indication of factors which might enhance or limit what the
teacher can achieve.

Central to the situation are the pupils, whose diagnosis of strengths, weaknesses, abilities, interests and
their approaches to learning will indicate their needs, which will in turn indicate many suitable
behavioural objectives, for the pupils to attempt. A study of the local environment including the pupil’s
home might result in many possible objectives for the teacher. The general attitude of the pupils’ sub-
cultures towards education and their levels of language development which might be positive or
negative should be considered here, in situation analysis.

The school according to Nicholls and Nicholls will have an influence on what the teachers in it are able to
achieve, because curriculum in action is a controlled interaction between pupils, teachers, time, space,
facilities, content and activities. The physical environment of school and the attendant materials,
facilities and aspects of this relationship will either limit or enhance the objectives teachers set for their
pupils.

The school climate which includes the total attitudes of the teachers, pupils and the relationship
between them could be the greatest influence on the curriculum. This equally involves what the school
stands for, what its priorities are, what are important to it and what are its’ system of values developed
over a period of time? The teacher’s own philosophy of education and the ideas he has over how
teaching and learning should proceed can be helpful in curriculum planning, after the diagnosis of
situation.

Selection of Objectives

The second stage of Nicholls and Nicholls’ curriculum model is selection of objectives, after the diagnosis
of situation. It is generally concerned with what the teacher wants his pupils to achieve in a given period
of time and usually stated in observable and behavioural terms. Education can be described as a process
which is intended to bring about certain desirable changes in the behaviour of students. This implies
changes in what students think, or the way they act of feel. These changes expressed in the form of
what students are expected to achieve at the end of a lesson or course are referred to as behavioural
objectives. For example, one might say that at the end of a lesson of 40 minutes in green plant it is
hoped that the students will be able to:

1. Define a plant
2. Identify different parts of a plant.
3. Explain different functions of the part of a plant.
4. Identify plant’s food and how the plants make its food through photosynthesis.

53
These are typical examples stand in purely behavioural terms. But it must be stated here, that teacher
should not ignore unexpected opportunities that come their ways in tge process of a rigid compliances
to the already stated specific objectives. Rather, they can use such unexpected opportunities to create
unexpected important and desirable objectives. The authors are of the opinion that teachers should
have a wide range of objectives, which will be clearly assessed to enable them plan learning
opportunities that can easily be assessed, to determine the extent of the students’ achievements.
Finally, sources of objectives here include; the pupils, teacher, learning experiences from content and
method, school building and the school climate.

Selection and Organization of Content

This is the third stage of Nicholls’ model of curriculum process which implies the knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values to be learned by the pupils. Most times, these four important variables are
embedded in subject type of curriculum, being implemented by the wider society. With this in place, the
teacher is now faced with the task of selection and organization of content, in line with the stated
objectives. Certain, criteria of validity, significance interest and learn ability should be considered here,
by the professional teachers, in the selection of content.

The criterion of validity implies that the content selected must be authentic or real and not be obsolete,
due to knowledge explosion. Even when they are obsolete they must be seen as ideas, concepts,
principles, and theories that are still useful and effective in realising desirable changes in the pupils of
today. Teachers are advised to keep abreast with all the changes in their teaching subjects in order to
avoid the dangers of imparting obsolete and useless knowledge to the pupils who are in the
contemporary times, variously described as digital age and space age. Another aspect of validity is that
the content and method selected can only be valid if they help to realize the stated behavioural
objectives. If it the other way round, then the criterion of validity is not satisfactory.

Another useful consideration in the selection of content is the criterion of significance. This is primarily
concerned with the incontrovertible fact, that large bodies of materials learned in school must be in line
with the original ideas, concepts and principles expressed in various school subjects, in order to be
considered significant to teaching and learning. A number of carefully selected ideas, concepts and
principles must form the basis of study, with adequate time for full understanding and transfer to new
situations. There must be a relationship between the breadth of coverage of the curriculum and the
depth of understanding by the pupils, in order to meet the criterion of significance.

The criterion of interest indicates that the interest of the pupils are very important in the selection and
organization of content, in order not to run the risk of little or no learning taken place in the learners.
Even when the content selected is not interesting to the pupils, probably due to the high difficult
content must be seen to be interesting to the pupils and equally flexible. This raises the inseparable
relationship between the content and method, as elements of curriculum. Pupils’ interest can always be
widened and enriched in the selection of content, in order not to be totally influenced by the transitory
and limited interests of the pupils.

54
Lastly, the criterion of learnability implies that whatever is selected in the content must be learnable
and adjusted to the natural abilities of the pupils. Content should be derived in forms which are suitable
to the various pupils in the class, which may warrant different method of different pupils, in the same
classroom. This will obviously call for individualized attention strategy by the teacher, because children
learn at different rates. Certainly, all the four criteria discussed above must be considered before a good
content is selected for the curriculum at any level. Also, content must not be considered in isolation, but
in close relation to specific objectives and methods, because changes in one tend to affect the others.

Selection and Organization of Methods

This is the fourth stage of Nicholls’ model of curriculum process, which involves the relationships
between pupils, teacher, materials, content, manner of presentation and the activities of the pupils, in
an attempt to realize the objectives of the lesson. The greatest difficulties for professional teachers here,
is that no two persons in a learning opportunity will exhibit the same learning experience, due to the
uniqueness of individuals. Even in direct class discourse with a teacher speaking to the members of the
class, not all children hear the same things said by the teacher at the same time. Also, not all of them
understand what they hear in the same manner and not all of them can remember what the teacher
said, for a very long time. This problem calls for variety and different learning opportunities to be
provided, to take care of slow, normal and gifted pupils in the classroom.

Here, the teacher’s preparation would likely be carried out in advance and might consist of selection of
extracts from books, provision of lesson movement, selection of real objects, charts and software,
together with critical decisions on what the teacher and pupils would be doing, for example, talking,
reading, writing, watching, answering, asking, manipulating, comparing and contrasting etc. Any method
selected must be effective in realizing the objectives of the lesson and adequately stimulating to the
learners.

Evaluation

This is the fifth stage of the model of curriculum process under study and definitely one of the most
important elements of curriculum. “Both formal and informal attention is given by the teachers to the
matter of pupils’ progress and attainment”. Formal attention refers to the assessment or evaluation that
comes after the tests and examinations, while informal attention refers to the general observations and
judgements on the personality characteristics of the learners. These assessments are periodically sent
home to various parents and guardians, to observe the academic attainments of their wards. One
important aspect of this exercise is that at the point of evaluation, we are required to clarify the
objectives, in order to know pupils. This raises the question of clarity and precision in writing the specific
and general objectives of curriculum. These objectives must be stated in concise, observable,
measurable and behavioural terms.

The techniques of assessment here include; well designed rating scale, teacher observations, written
reports, pupils’ records, diaries, interviews, questionnaires, essays, examination of pupils’ work in
practical courses, etc. It is important to note that any device or instrument used in the assessment must

55
show considerable evidence of the behaviours indicated in the specific objectives, in order to be
relevant for use. For whatever purpose that the assessment is being conducted it is essentially to look at
the pupil’s attempts, towards the realization of the stated objectives. This again, shows the
interrelatedness between objectives and evaluation, with other curriculum elements.

The classic curriculum model has not ended with evaluation, due to the cyclic nature of the curriculum
process. The result of assessment or evaluation is fed back to enrich the situation analysis, which in turn,
determines the appropriateness of recycle with possible modification of stated objectives. This
curriculum model, no doubt, remains relevant to the contemporary curriculists and teachers, who see it
as a good point of departure for the planning and implementation of desirable learning opportunities.

Merits of Nicholls and Nicholls Cyclic Model

i. It shows a cyclic and continuous process

ii. Emphasis is laid on situational analysis in identification.

Demerits of Nicholls and Nicholls Cyclic Model

i. Only summative evaluation is made use of.

ii. It does not provide for inter-relatedness of the steps.

Hilds Taba’s Model

Taba believed that teachers who teach or implement curriculum should participate in developing it
(Yunus, 2016). Her advocacy was commonly called the ‘grassroots approach’ where teachers could have
a major input. She presented seven major linear steps;

1. Diagnosis of needs

The teacher (curriculum designer) starts the process by identifying the needs of the students for whom
the curriculum is to be planned.

2. Formulation of learning experiences

After the teacher has identified the needs that require attention, he or she specifies the objectives to be
accomplished.

3. Selection of learning content

The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or content of the curriculum. Not only
should objectives and content match, but also the validity and significance of the content chosen needs
to be determined.

4. Organized of learning content

A teacher cannot just select content, but must organize it in some type of sequence, taking into
consideration the level of maturity of the learners, their academic achievements, and their interests.

56
 5. Selection of learning activities

Content must be presented to pupils, and pupils must engage the content. At this point, the teacher
selects instructional methods that will involve students with the content.

6. Organization of learning activities/experiences

Just as content must be organized and sequenced, son must the learning activities. Often, the sequence
of learning activities is determined by the content. But the teacher needs to keep in mind the particular
students whom he or she will be teaching.

7. Evaluation and means of evaluation

The curriculum planner must determine just what objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation
procedures need to be considered by the teachers and students. The important feature of this model is
the idea of starting a whole process of curriculum development with diagnosis of needs of the pupils
and the society. This makes it possible for the designed curriculum at any level to be relevant to life and
capable of solving the numerous problems of the society.

Overview of the Curriculum Development Process

The curriculum development process systematically organizes what will be taught, who will be taught,
and how it will be taught. Each element affects and interacts with other elements. For example, what
will be taught is affected by who will be taught (i.e. their stage of development in age, maturity, and
education).

Essential considerations for curriculum development

1. Issues/problems/needs are identified (what).

2. Characteristics and needs of the learners (target audience who).
3. Changes intended for learners (intended outcomes /objectives-what the learners will be able to
(do)
4. The important and relevant content (what)
5. Methods to accomplish intended outcomes (how).
6. Evaluation strategies

Phases and Stages in Curriculum Development

Phase 1: Planning

1. Identify issues/problems, and needs.

The need for curriculum development often emerges from a concern about a major issue or problem of
one or more target audience. This section explores some of the questions that need to be addressed to
define the issue and to develop a statement that will guide the selection of the members of a curriculum

57
development team. The issue statement also serves to broadly identify the scope (what will be included)
of the curriculum content.

2. Form curriculum development team.

Once the nature and scope of the issue has been broadly defines, the members of the curriculum
development team can be selected. Topics covered in this section include: The roles and function of
team members; a process for selecting members of the curriculum development team; and principles of
collaboration and teamwork. The goal is to obtain expertise for the areas included in the scope of the
curriculum content among the team members and develop an effective team.

3. Conducted needs assessment.

There are two phases in the needs assessment process. First is the procedure for conducting a needs
assessment. A number of techniques are aimed towards learning what is needed and by whom, relative
to the identified issue. Techniques covered here include KAP-Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice survey;
Focus groups; and Environmental scanning.

Analysis- is the second part of this needs assessment which describes how to use the data and the
results of the information gathered. Included are: Ways to identify gaps between knowledge and
practice; trends emerging from the data; a process to prioritize needs; and identification of the
characteristics of the target audience.

Phase II: Content and Methods

4. State intended outcomes.

Once the issue is defined, the curriculum team is formed, the needs assessed, analyzed and prioritized,
the next step is to refine and restate the issue if needed, and develop the intended outcomes or
educational objectives. An intended outcome states what the learner will be able to do as a result of
participating in the curriculum activities.

This section includes: A definition of intended outcomes; (i.e. condition, performance, and standards;
overview of learning behaviours).

5. Select Content

The next challenge in the curriculum development process is selecting content will make a real
difference in the lives of the learner and ultimately society as a whole. At this point, the primary
questions are: If the intended outcome is to attained, what will the learner need to know? What
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours will need to be acquired and practiced?

The scope (breadth of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours) and the sequence (order) of the
content are also discussed.

58
 6. Design Experimental Methods

After the content is selected, the next step is to design activities (learning experiences) to help the
learner achieve appropriate intended outcomes. An experimental learning model and its components
(i.e. experience, share, process, generalize, and apply) are discussed in this section.

Phase III: Implementation

7. Produce Curriculum Product

Once the content and experiential methods have been agreed upon, the actual production of curriculum
materials begins. This section includes: Suggestions for finding and evaluating existing materials;
evaluation criteria; and suggestions for producing curriculum materials.

8. Test and Revise Curriculum

This step includes suggestions to select test sites and conduct a formative evaluation of curriculum
materials during the production phase.

9. Recruit and Train Facilitators

It is a waste of resources to develop curriculum materials if adequate training is not provided for
facilitators to implement it. Suggestions for recruiting appropriate facilitators are provided.

10. Implement Curriculum

Effective implementation of newly developed curriculum products is unlikely to occur without planning.
Strategies to promote and use the curriculum are discussed in this step.

Phase IV: Evaluation

11. Design Evaluation Strategies

Evaluation is a phase in curriculum development model as well as a specific step. Two types of
evaluation (formative and summative) are used during the needs assessment, product development,
and testing steps. Summative evaluations are undertaken to measure and report on the outcomes of the
curriculum. This step reviews evaluation strategies and suggest simple procedures to produce valid and
reliable information. A series of questions are posed to guide the summative evaluation process and a
sample evaluation format is suggested.

12. Reporting and Securing Resources

The final element in an evaluation strategy is ‘delivering the pay off (i.e. getting the results into the
hands of people who can use them). In this step , suggestions for what and how to report to key
stakeholders especially funding and policy decision makers are provided, and a brief discussion on how
to secure resources for additional programming.

59
Below is the summary of the overview:

PLANNING

 Identify Issue
 Form Curriculum Development Team
 Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

CONTENT and METHODS

 State Intended Outcomes

 Select Content
 Design Experiential Methods

IMPLEMENTATION

 Produce Curriculum Product

 Test and Revise Curriculum
 Recruit and Train Facilitators
 Implement Curriculum

EVALUATION

 Design Evaluation Strategies (formative and summative)

 Reporting and Securing Resources.

ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM

Any reasonable curriculum planning and development should start with a clear and specific aims/goal
and objectives. These aims/goals and objective are used inter-changeably by educators.

During curriculum development, once appropriate aims/goals and objectives are selected curriculum
developers focus on the means (ie) the content and learning experiences by which the stated objectives
will be achieved. It shows that there can be no curriculum without educational objectives. In our
discussion; it should be very necessary to first of all determine what education should aim to achieve
before pointing out what it should contain.

Aims/goals and objectives are used inter-changeably by experts. Downey and Kelly (1976) in Ughamadu
described educational aims as being very broad goals or purposes while educational objectives are quite
precise and specific intentions derived from such broad aims. In line with this, Romiszowski (1984)
defined educational aim/goals as a fairly general statement of intent, not necessarily stated in a
systematic way. And that educational objective is a precise statement of intent stated in a systematic
way. Based on these descriptions, the major difference between educational objective and an
educational goal is that educational objective is more specific than educational aims/goals.

60
Educational aims/goals

In the words of Ughamadu, educational aim/goal can be referred to as, A general statement of purpose
or intent of education that is stated as a broad long-range outcome to work towards. It can also be
viewed as an overall foreseen end of schooling that gives direction to activities and motivates behaviour.
According to Ughamadu, aims/goals are used basically in policy making and general programme
planning. They are usually decided by a national or state commission. Different countries or states
educational policies usually contain an outline of the general aim/goals they intend to achieve.

In Nigerian situation, their educational aims/goals as stated in the National Policy on Education (2004)
include:

 The inculcation of national consciousness and national unity

 The inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and the
Nigerian society.
 The training of the mind in the understanding of the world around, and
 The acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and competences both mental and physical as
equipment for the individual to live and contribute to the development of his society.

Looking at these statements of purpose of education, one can see that they are very broad and takes a
long time to be achieved. They are achieved through all the totality of experiences the learners are
exposed to in the school throughout the period he/she is in the school.

Educational Objectives:

Educational objectives are referred to as expected outcomes of an educational endeavour. It serves as a

major basis upon which content and learning experiences are selected. Some educators refer to it as
educational aims/goals, purposes and so on. Whatever words or terms that are used in describing it,
they virtually mean the same thing for there has not been any agreed terms to be used among the
educationists as to the precise meaning.

Ndubisi (1981) described educational objectives as general targets of education derived from needs,
problems and philosophy of the society. To Ughamadu, (2006), they are general statement of purpose or
intent of education which specify the kinds of changes in behaviour which have to occur in the learner
having gone through an educational programme Ughamadu maintained that the process of systematic
curriculum development rests on the analysis of the broad statements of purposes or intentions of
education goals into more specific objectives.

They are of two levels:

 General and

61
  Specific/behavioural objectives.

In classroom situation, we have them as general instructional objectives and specific instructional
objectives.

 General instructional objectives: are intended outcome of instruction stated in general terms of
the learner to achieve at the end of a unit of instruction which can be broken down to more
specific objectives. General objectives are not specific enough to be measured by the classroom
teacher for classroom lesson, rather they are stated in broad terms e.g. By the end of the unit of
instructional students should be able to understand, know, appreciate and so on.
 Specific/instructional objectives are explicit statement that describe what the learner should be
able to do after being exposed to classroom instruction/lesson objectives are concerned with
what the learner achieved at the end of instruction in line with Tyler (1949) learners learn from
what they do themselves but not what the teacher do for them. Objectives when stated well,
provides a public record of intent and facilitates open discussion regarding their appropriateness
and adequacy (Lechman & Mehrens 1993). Specific/instructional objectives are also referred to
as behavioural or performance objectives. Teachers’ effectiveness is wholly measured by the
extent to which the stated specific objectives are realized.

Characteristics of specific instructional objectives

A well stated objective consists of certain qualities represented thus: A, B, C, D. Analysis of this shows
that:

A: stands for Audience (learner) for within the objectives of instruction is being stated for

B: stands for Behaviour expected of the learner.

C: stands for Condition under which such behaviour will be exhibited.

D: stands for Degree/levels of the learners performance acceptable to the teacher as enough evidence
to show that the learner has actually learned what he has been taught.

Example, I: A typical social studies instructional objectives run thus:

By the end of the lesson on types of Social institutions, JSSIII students should be able to differentiate
clearly between legal institutions and political institutions.

Example II: By the end of the lesson on Biology given a lizard and dissecting set, SSII students should be
able to display and label all parts of the annuals digestive system.

In all educational endeavours, objectives become the basis on which content, learning experiences,
materials; methods and evaluation procedure are prepared. In educational system, variation exists in
what is taught and learnt, these prompts the curriculum experts to classify objectives to enable teachers
operate. The three classified educational objectives as referred to in the book: Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives (Bloom 1956, Krathwol (1964) are cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor domains.

62
 Categories of Objectives

Most of the objectives stated in our schools by the teachers fall into:

a) Cognitive (the head)

b) Affective (the heart) THE 3 Hs
c) Psychomotor (the hand)

Each of these domains is further divided into categories which are arranged in hierarchical order, i.e.
simple to complex.

1. Cognitive Domain
Objectives in this domain include objectives that are concerned with intellectual development and
mental abilities. They are mostly used by the teacher’s instruction in our school system. It
emphasizes remembering or reproducing of facts which have already been learnt, and equally
solving some intellectual task. Objectives in this domain are divided into six levels (Bloom et al
1956) and arranged from the simple to the complex they include:
 Knowledge simple
 Comprehension
 Application
 Analysis
 Synthesis
 Evaluation complex

1. Knowledge: This level involves the ability to recall previously what has been learnt. The students
are expected to be able to remember concepts, events, facts, principles etcetera. Action verbs
used in stating such objectives are: state, name, label, define, duplicate, list, memorize, recall,
recite, repeat, reproduce etc.
Example of objective under this category includes:
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
 Define the term authority
 Label parts of hibiscus flower
 List criteria for selecting learning experiences.
2. Comprehension: This refers to the ability of the learner to understand the material without
necessarily relating it to other materials. The learner is also expected to be able to translate
words to numbers, describe primary and secondary socialization, and is also expected to
recognize graphs, and charts. Other action verbs that can be used include: Classify, discuss,
explain, select, identify, paraphrase, locate, report, and visualize.
Example: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
Classify between clay and loamy soil; describe the process of pollination.
3. Application: This refers to the ability of the learner to use acquired information in a novel
situation. The students are expected to apply such things as concepts, principles, methods,
rules, formulate, theories to solve a particular problem. Verbs used for this category include:

63
 Use, change, demonstrate, construct, apply, modify, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret,
operate, produce, sketch, write and translate etc.
Example: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
Demonstrate the process of producing palm oil,
Apply the knowledge gained in social studies to solve a problem of the society.
4. Analysis: Requires the ability of breaking down learned materials into its component part such
that is organizational structure may well be understood. In this instance, the learner is expected
to understand both the content and the structural form of the material to enable him identify,
analyze and recognize the organizational principles involved. Verbs used for this category
include: Categorize, compare, contrast, distinguish, examine, question, separate, and test, etc.

Example: By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

Analyze each of the (8) eight micro-lessons; identify four countable nouns in the classroom

5. Synthesis: This deals with the ability of the learner to form a new whole putting together various
components. It requires the learner to show creativity on combining elements. Action verbs
used for this category include: creating, assemble, develop, compose, invent, formulate,
construct, etc.
Example: By the end of the lesson students should be able to:
Develop the details of the research work titled “Factors Affecting Preparation for Retirement
among Teachers and Civil Servants in Onitsha North L.G.A of Anambra State.”
Compose a poem of our beloved country. This is the highest and most complex level in the
cognitive hierarchy of Blooms taxonomy of educational objectives.
6. Evaluation: It entails the ability of the learner to judge the value of material for a given purpose
using definite criteria. Action verbs used here include: criticize, evaluate, appraise, argue,
decide, judge, select, rate, prioritize and defend etc.
Example: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Evaluate the use of constructional materials in teaching and learning
Appraise a particular chapter of a given literature book
Argue for or against, who is more important in the Family? Father or Mother.

2). Affective Domain

Objective in this domain deals with emotional adjustments, feelings, attitude, interest, habits, values
etc. This objective lays much emphasis on emotions, feeling, tone or a degree of acceptance and
rejection. Objectives in this domain contain five levels which include: receiving, responding, valuing,
organizing and characterizing.

1. Receiving: This contain the lowest level in the affective domain. It refers to the ability of the
learner to willingly attend or conform to a particular phenomenon or stimuli. It concerns itself
with directing and holding studies attention to classroom activities.

64
 Examples: By the end of lesson, students will be able to;
Listen attentively when lessons are going on
Show awareness of the need for learning and reading.
Attend to lesson and partake in classroom activities.
Other action verbs used here include: Ask, choose, describe, follow, give, identify, locate, name,
select, erect, reply, and use.
2. Responding: Entails that students should be able to demonstrate active participation and feeling
of satisfaction in response. This behaviour could only be shown by a learner after reading a
particular material assigned to him or after reading for pleasure. Instructional activities classified
as interest falls in this category. This interest one has in a particular activity propels him to
partake and enjoy such activities that show why some students volunteer for special tasks while
some absent themselves.

At this stage students are expected to answer meaningful questions during classroom discussion

Example: By the end of instructional process student should be bale to;

Discuss the role of an efficient teacher,

Write a detailed report on their visit to museum.

Other action verbs that can be used for responding include: answer, assist, comply, conform,
label, perform, practice, present, recite, read and tell.

3. Valuing: This deals with the intrinsic value or worth attached to the particular objects by
learners. This could only be visibly seen when the learner might have acquired and internalized
set of specific values. Those values can easily be identified through his behaviour. On this note,
students might be expected to associate with peers, initiate a programme, value group work,
etc.
Example: By the end of instructional process, students should be able to;
Explain the use of countable and uncountable nouns in making sentences.
Initiate a programme for the schools convocation ceremony.
Other action verbs that can be used for valuing under effective domain include: complete,
describe, differentiate, follow, invite, join, justify, propose, read, select, share, study and work.

4. Organization: This deals with issue or organizing different values, finding a satisfactory solution
between them and then building up an internally consistent value system. Its main focus is on
comparing, relating and synthesizing values. Learning outcomes in this category deals with
establishing a set of values like recognizing ones responsibility as regards to improving his
relationship with others.
Example;
Students should be able to relate the rate of examination malpractice with the contemporary
educational system.

65
 Students should be able to defend the idea of using instructional materials during instruction.
Other action verbs used here include: Alter, arrange, combine, complete, explain, generalize,
modify, order etc.

5. Characterization
This is last level in the affective domain. At this level the individual learner has developed a
controlled behaviour become consistent and so pervasive that when exhibited, emotions are no
longer effected unless when challenged. Its main focus is on the peculiar behaviour of the
individual student.
Example: Student should be able to adjust no matter the situation he/she finds him/herself.
Action verbs used here include: Act, discriminate, display, influence, listen, modify, perform,
practice, propose, qualify, question, revise, serve, solve, use, and verify.

3). The Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain consists of objectives which emphasize some muscular or motor skills,
some manipulation of material and objects or some act which requires a neuromuscular
coordination (Krathwol et al 1964). The behaviour objectives involved in this domain is manipulating
skills already acquired or developed by the students under cognitive and affective domains.
However, the objectives in this domain relate to mental activity with physical, movements.

Objectives in this domain contain five levels which include: Imitations, manipulation, precision,
articulation and naturalization (Kretchmar, 2019).

Action verbs used in this domain include weigh, sketch, construct, list, design, construct, paint, draw
etc. In this domain, for a learner to adapt, he should observe imitation. He must be able to imitate
before actual practice is done for adaptation.

Sources of Educational Objectives

Educational objectives refer to ones intention for an educational endeavour. Indeed, they
represent the desired behaviour a learner acquired as a result of going through an educational
programme. These objectives are derived from various sources which if not considered by
curriculum planner during planning, will have tremendous influence on the curriculum. The sources
include:

 The learner
 The society
 The subject
 The philosophy guiding the education for the particular nation or society
 Psychology of learning.

66
The Learner: Learners are the recipient and major source of all curriculum plans. The fundamental
function of educational system is to provide functional education for its products so that they can be
employable, or become self employed. In other to achieve these goals, educational planners must have
knowledge of the learner’s need, towards affecting a change in their behaviours, for no individual can
claim to have acquired adequate knowledge, except when there is evidence of changes in the
individual’s behaviour. Educational objectives therefore represent that type of changes in behaviour an
institution is expected to expose their students to, for useful living in the society. Based on this, no
functional curriculum should be designed without considering the learners needs and interest, for they
are directly involved in all educational plans of any given society. Studying them will reveal the actual
changes needed in their behaviour patterns which could be psychological, physical, social and
integrative needs. Also of importance is studying their interests, for according to progressive view, about
learner centred curriculum, learners learn more when they are interested in the learning situation and
this motivates them to participate actively. This then implies that for a learner to acquire desired
knowledge, value, skills and attitude they ought to be engaged in varieties of activity which they find
interesting. These conceptions should be considered by curriculum planners while determining what
should constitute the curriculum objectives. Information concerning learner’s needs and interests may
be collected by using instruments like interviewing the learning or their parents, administering
questionnaire/observation test, to test learner’s present status in the skills of writing, reading or ability
in solving mathematical or science problems. Relevant information collected from such study can form
the basis for selecting objectives.

The Society: This is another variable for deriving educational objectives. Society in our present
discussion refers to the particular environment in which the school is built. On the other hand, the
school is an institution meant to serve the needs of the society that established it with that in mind; it
becomes pertinent to study the society so as to include those important aspects of their culture, beliefs
values, ethnic, hopes, interests and aspirations in the curriculum objectives. Though there are some
societies that are made up of different ethnic and linguistic group but still, there are some commonly
acceptable “cultural chores” which bind them together. The school preserves those ways of life and
enhance it thereby becoming a veritable tool for the actual realization of such objectives. Studying the
society will enable the students to see and understand the relationship that exists between the society
and the school.

Another reason for studying the society is that it is dynamic (ever changing), and not static. For this
reason emphasis should be laid towards solving the problems of contemporary society by exposing
learners to contemporary issues rather than dwelling on obsolete contents that will not be of value to
the recipients. Doing this will however enable them to transfer what they have learnt in school to life
situations in the contemporary society.

Indeed, studying the society furnishes the curriculum planners with relevant information in selecting
objectives of education, and these objectives if successfully achieved by the school will make the
products of education promising members of the society.

67
Subject matter specialists: The ideas expressed by subject matter specialists regarding their subjects’
areas provide a good source of educational objectives. Subject’s specialist is members of professional
association like Curriculum Organization of Nigeria (CON). Mathematical Association of Nigeria (STAN)
etc. They contribute their wealth of knowledge in writing textbooks used in schools in different subjects
and suggest behaviours to be achieved through the use of those materials. They plan school
programmes or course of study in different levels of educational system. They equally advice curriculum
planners on objectives worth pursuing in their different subject area through concepts, facts, theories
and principles they discover through researches which are presented in journals and textual materials.
All these suggestions and contributions are considered when selecting curriculum objectives.

Philosophy Screening of Objectives

Philosophy of a society is connected to the ideals and values of what is good that is supposed to be
transferred from generation to generation. It then becomes a vital instrument for screening the
objectives derived from the learner, the society, and suggestions from the subject specialist. Objectives
derived from these three groups will be too many for the school to incorporate them in their
programmes and too, some may not be consistent with the other. This requires adequate selection of
highly important and consistent objectives that can be achieved within a given period and that which
will conform to the societal values. To do this, educational and social philosophy will be used first be
screen and formulate educational objectives. This will help the experts to uphold those that are
consistent with the values, habits, norms, ideas, beliefs and aspirations of the society and discard the
inconsistent ones. Normally, the social philosophy is reflected in the educational goals are formulated.
The curriculum experts, when planning curriculum should study the philosophy of the school, and the
community in which the school exists, the state, and the nation and the select objectives from each of
them. This however requires thorough analysis of the philosophy of the school, community, state or the
nation by curriculum planners.

In Nigeria, the overall education objectives are derived from the philosophy of education which was
spelt out in the National Policy on Education (2004) to include:

 To live in unity and harmony as one individual indissoluble, democratic and sovereign nation
founded on the principles of freedom, equality and justice
 To promote inter-African solidarity and world peace through understanding.
From this philosophy is derived the five main national goals of Nigeria which include:
 A free and democratic society
 A just and egalitarian society
 A united, strong and self reliant nation
 A great and dynamic economy
 A land full of bright opportunities for all citizens.

It is based on these national goals that the National Policy document on education was formulated.
From the national goal which is the national philosophy is derived the national education goals which
include:

68
  The inculcation of national consciousness and national unity.
 The inculcation of right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and the
Nigerian society.
 The training of the mind in the understanding of the world around.
 The acquisition of appropriate skills and the development of mental, physical and social abilities
and competences as equipments for the individual to live in and contribute to the development
of his society.

The above shows that these goals of different levels of education ie. (Early childhood (pre-
primary) Basic Education (lower basic, middle basic & upper basic) Post Basic and tertiary derived from
the national philosophy are the expectations of what Nigeria education will pursue and so each level
strives to interpret and achieve these objectives.

Psychological Screening of the Objectives

The proposed objective after surviving the philosophical screening cannot be regarded as the
educational objective until they are further subjected that should be used in school must agree with the
philosophy of learning. Psychologists are those that study about human growth and development,
learning process, and how to make learning effective. The outcome of their studies have affected
learning tremendously and so in carrying out philosophical screening of the objectives, it requires
considering whether the objectives selected for a particular level can be achieved the said objective,
condition of learning that should be met for achieving the objective, relatedness of the objective to the
learning experiences etc. Objectives that are feasible and attainable with regards to all these are
selected.

Functions of Objectives

A well stated objective serves the following functions:

i. They provide the criteria for evaluating the outcome of instruction: A well stated objectives
describe the behaviour expected of the learner and it is what the teacher stated in the
objectives that he evaluates. Since the purpose of teaching is to affect a change in the behaviour
of learners, teachers should expose them to varieties of activity to enable them perform the
expected behavioural objective in order to achieve learning.
ii. They help the teacher to plan instructions: Statement of objectives gives the teacher a sense of
direction of what he wants to achieve before he sets about planning to achieve it. Teachers are
thus given sense of direction through these objectives which enable them to avoid wasting time
on irrelevant ideas and statements.
iii. Objectives help to clarify educational intentions: When objectives are clearly stated, it becomes
more instructive to both the teacher and students, for any teacher who knows the objectives
can take up the lesson and teach even if he is not the one who drafted it. So also, learners who
knows the objectives can study on their own to achieve the stated objectives

69
 iv. Objectives serve as a guide in the choice of appropriate teaching materials, methods and
instructional strategies.
v. Objectives also provide the basis for selecting, analyzing and revising learning experiences.
vi. Clearly stated objectives help to enlighten supervisors, teachers, principals/head teachers on the
actual thing the teacher and students do.
vii. When the stated objectives are clearly spelt out, the supervisor and school heads will be in a
better position to offer help to teachers.

Demerits of Objectives

i. Statement of objectives restrict teachers to select the learning experience outside the already
stated one thereby denying the students the opportunity of all round education.
ii. At times, it becomes difficult to state behavioural objectives when it involves the highest level in
cognitive domain. E.g. synthesis, creative thinking and analysis.
iii. Some aspects of learning in some subject areas like literature, psychology and music cannot be
easily expressed in behavioural terms.
iv. Fragmentation of human traits is possible when objectives are stated in behavioural terms of
each particular piece is seen as an end itself.

Criteria for Formulating Appropriate Educational Objectives

In trying to formulate appropriate educational objectives, consideration should be given to the fact
that the school is often regarded as a vehicle through which the young ones or members of a society are
let into the culture of that society. Also consideration should be given to the fact that it will not be
possible to organise and conduct the school in such a way as to be able to expose the young ones to the
totality of their culture or to attain all possible objectives. These being the case, it is necessary to have
some criteria that can guide planners in formulating objectives. These criteria can also serve as the basis
for a selection of objectives.

The criteria or factors to be taken into account include:

1. Relevance to Culture of the People: In formulating objectives, it is necessary to reflect on or

analyse the culture of the people. This is because it is very vital for the school to concentrate or
teach those kinds of behaviours, those ways of feeling and acting that have value in the society
and which help or assist the learner to become an effective individual in the society. Objectives
to be formulated should be in fact be the ones recognized as desirable in the cultural system to
which the school belongs. They should be related to some degree to the social circumstances
currently facing the people or to those that faced them in the past.
2. Learners’ Present Status: Under this criterion, the questions: “What are the learners ready for?”
“What are the learners ready for?” are answered. Thus curriculum planners need to determine
first, the entry behaviour of the learners’, that is, where they are in their educational
development and what abilities they bring to the class so that they can know whether the
objectives to be formulated are appropriate for the next stage of development of the learners,

70
 3. Advanced in Knowledge: Knowledge as already noted is dynamic and not static. The increase in
the body of knowledge available presently is quite tremendous. There is currently explosion of
knowledge. On the basis of this, curriculum planners will have to formulate objectives that will
be enable learners to keep abreast of the new knowledge and resources in the various subjects.
In other words, curriculum planners will have to study on a continual basis, the developments in
a given field of study before formulating objectives.
4. Relevance to Philosophy of Education: The philosophy of education is regarded as the
cornerstone on which the curriculum is built. The educational objective of any nation or society
is based on its philosophy of education. Taking these into account, objectives to be formulated
for any curriculum will have to reflect the guiding educational philosophy. All objectives
inconsistent or contradictory with the philosophy of education should be discarded. Only the
consistent or non-contradictory ones will have to be formulated.
5. Psychological Theory of Learning: In formulating objectives, curriculum planners should consider
certain psychological theories of learning. Objectives consistent with the theories of learning are
usually taken once formulated. The inconsistent ones are expected to be dropped.
6. Behaviouristic Interpretation: Objectives to be formulated should be those that are capable of
being reduced to behaviouristic terms. This is because the meaning of an objective is not clear
until its meaning in terms of actual behaviour is clarified and known. If for example, we consider
the objective; “to develop democratic way of living” we will see that this objective will become
clear only when democratic way of living is defined by reference to concrete ways of behaving in
actual situations.
7. Economy or Manpower Needs: In formulating objectives, curriculum planners should consider
the present economic situation and manpower needs of the nation or society. This criterion has
relevance to the concept of utility. If objectives are formulated taking into account economy and
manpower needs of a society then subject matter to be selected will obviously have utility. It is
expected that schools should expose learners to experiences that will make them functional in
the society; experiences that will be relevant in the prevailing economic situation and
manpower needs of the society; and experiences that will make them secure job in the society.
All these forms of experiences are dependent on the nature of objectives formulated.

Curriculum of any system is expected to reflect the economy and manpower needs of a society.
In the Nigerian-situation, emphasis is now on science and technology system have shifted to those that
will enable the nation to produce the necessary manpower needed in this technological age.

8. Feasibility: This criterion is concerned with whether the objective in question is practicable in
the prevailing situation. In formulating objectives, feasibility of such objectives must be given
adequate consideration. It is important to note that lack of basic materials, adequate space or
sufficient time will frequently make well-developed objectives non-feasible.
9. Attainability: This criterion means keeping the objectives to be formulated within the realm of
possibility for the learner, given his readiness, background, capacities, and interest. If an array of
beautifully stated objectives is developed, they will be rendered useless if they are beyond the
reach of the learners.

71
10. Comprehensiveness: This criterion refers to whether the objectives cover fully all the behaviours
and content intended. It is not unusual to find out that some developed curricula stress
cognitive behaviours to the disregard of psychomotor and in particular, affective behaviours.
Also informational content is stressed to the neglect of values. In formulating objectives, the
challenge planners should face should be that of including all the components that are intended
to develop the learner as a whole person. The cognitive, affective and psychomotor behaviours
should be stressed in a balanced manner. In conclusion, it must be noted that objectives to be
formulated, should satisfy the criteria discussed. The objectives should also be valid, precise and
consistent.

72