Soil and Water

Conservation Engineering (IE-439)

IV SOIL EROSION

Soil is defined as upper most weathered and disintegrated layer of the earth’s crust which
is composed of minerals and several organic substances. In general, the depth of soil
varies from place to place. However; the top 30cm soil depth is very useful for human
being and wild life. This top layer is continuously exposed to the actions of atmospheric
activities. The wind and water are the two main active forces which always tend to
dislodge the top soil layer and to transport them from one place to another is termed as
soil erosion.
Soil erosion is three phase phenomena, consisting the detachment of individual soil
particles from the soil mass and their transport by erosive agents such as running water,
wind, glaciers, animals and vehicles. When sufficient energy is no longer available with
the erosive agents to transport the particles, then the third phase called as ‘deposition’
takes place.
The soil erosion may be defined as ‘detachment’ transportation and deposition of soil
particles from one place to another under influence of wind, water or gravity forces.

4.1 Factors Affecting Soil Erosion

The rainfall, runoff, wind, soil slope, plant cover and presence or absence of conservation
measures etc… are the factors which influence the rate of soil erosion from a particular
place or region. All these factors can be grouped under the following three heads. These
are Energy, Resistance and Protection.

Energy
It includes, the potential ability of rainfall, runoff and wind to cause erosion ;and those
factors which directly affect the power of the erosive agents such as reduction in the
length of runoff or wind blow through the construction of terraces, bunds etc in case of
water erosion and wind breaks or shelter belts in case of wind erosion.

Resistance
It referred to that group of factors, which affect the soil erodibility and thereby the soil
erosion. The chemical and mechanical properties of soil are counted as factors in this
direction. These factors, basically encourage the infiltration rate of the soil and thereby
reduction in runoff and ultimately decrease soil erodibility. Cultivation decreases the
erodibility of clay soil, but increases to that of sandy soil.

Lecture Note 2008 17

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)

Protection
This group of factors focuses on the plant cover. The plant cover intercepts the falling of
raindrops before reaching them on the ground surface and thus reducing their impact on
soil. In addition, the plant cover also reduces the runoff and wind velocity as a result the
soil erosion also gets affected accordingly.
If the soil properties such as nutrients, texture and thickness of soil remain unchanged
through out the time, then it is assumed that rate of soil loss and soil formation are in
balance.

4.2. Erosion Problems

Soil erosion which may be called the’ creeping death’ of the soil is a worldwide problem.
It affects the land from which soil is washed; damages the area downstream by floods and
sediments and is detrimental to the economy because it lowers the overall income of the
farm. There are many ways in which erosion causes damages. The main damages from
erosion are:
 Soil loss
 Loss of plant nutrients
 Change in soil texture
 Soil structure deterioration
 Field dissection
 Disease and public health hazard (water and air pollution)
 Damages on engineering structures
 Silting of irrigation channels and reservoirs
 Loss of crops
 Frequent Floods
Soil loss
The most apparent damage from either form of erosion is the removal of soil particle
from the eroding surface. Loss of any soil material calls concern, but top soil loss is the
most important. Top soil is generally more friable and contains more organic matter and
fertility than the sub soil.

Lecture Note 2008 18

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
Plant nutrient loss
Plant nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, etc. can easily be removed along
with the soil from eroding surfaces. The colloidal clay and organic matter are the seats of
most the soil’s fertility. The loss of colloidal materials, in suspension under water
erosion and in the clouds of dust blown under wind erosion from eroding fields, causes
considerable fertility loss from the field. Fertility loss is particularly severe in coarse
textured soils that become coarser as erosion progresses, but it also occurs in medium and
fine-textured soils that lose soil but do not show much change in texture with erosion.
Top soil which contains higher concentration of available nutrients than sub soil is lost
first by erosion. In this way eroding soils become progressively less fertile. Of course, a
high proportion of nutrient elements in eroded soil may not immediately be useful to
crops and may not become available for many years to crops.

Textural change
Water and wind erosion are selective. The coarser grains are left near the original
locations while the finer ones are transported some distance. The winnowing effect of
wind erosion makes the finest soil grains to be carried great distances in suspension. This
selective removal makes originally sandy soil sandier. However, medium- or fine-
textured soil may not be altered seriously because the water or wind sorts aggregates, but
not individual soil particles. Both small and large aggregates are usually of similar
textural composition. But the deposition of coarser soils of a field which was with fine or
medium texture soil is damage of soil texture of the field.

Soil structure damage

The beating action of raindrops disintegrates the aggregates and compacts a thin layer
into surface crust. This damages the structure of surface soil. Moreover, percolating water
carries suspended soil particles and grains into the surface pores that lodge in the pores
and reduce permeability.

Field dissection
A farmer can continue to farm a field as a unit in the normal way as long as the channels
formed by erosion are small. When the channels become gullies, too large to be crossed
with ordinary machinery, the field must be farmed in two or more smaller units, with
shorter lands and much more turnings. Therefore, formation of gullies in farm fields is
damage to the field.

Damage to Engineering structures

Erosion causes great damage to buildings, roads, bridges, and other engineering
structures. Foundations are undermined by washing and landslides and soil creeps.
Approaches to bridges, footing piles and supports near shore and in midstream are
affected by abrasion of soil particles in flowing water, causing structural weakening and

Lecture Note 2008 19

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
actual failure. Erosion in road ditches and culvert sites often causes gullies which cut
through or under the road and necessitate its closing.

Water and Air Pollution

The greatest single pollutant of surface water on a volume basis is soil sediment. The
muddying of streams and lakes reduces their value for home and industrial uses, for
recreation, and as habitats for fish and other aquatic life. The greater the sediment load,
the less suitable the water is for any of these uses. Another problem of more recent
concern involves the contaminants that are carried into the streams and lakes. Fertilizers
and pesticides may be dissolved in running water or carried with the soil into streams and
rivers. In some instances, these contaminants affect plants and aquatic animal lives, even
land animals and man. Atmospheric dust storms can be fatal to travelers caught in it. Dust
from agricultural activities seldom is the direct cause of fatalities, but it can and does
cause accidents and respiratory disorder that sometimes proves to be fatal. The dust may
also carry pathogens that cause skin disease.

Damages due to Sedimentation

Sedimentation raises stream beds, reducing the depth and capacity of the channels,
causing severe flooding and navigational problems. Sedimentation of lakes and reservoirs
reduce their capacity, value, and life expectance. In extreme causes sedimentation
changes an aquatic habitat into terrestrial.

Loss of Crops
Crop damage, particularly at the seedling stage, by runoff water on blowing soil often
causes serious concern. Under extreme conditions crops may be completely destroyed.
Covering of established crops or pasturage by drifting soil is another common result in
arid and semi-arid areas. Grass, trees, shrubs and hedges may be smothered or buried.
Insects and weed seeds are often carried to clean fields. As water continues to carry away
the top soil, the productivity of the land declines.

Frequent Floods
Increase in the rate of erosion beyond geologic norms, results in increased sedimentation
and thereby in the quick built up of the river bed with coarse material that can’t be
washed away readily, especially if it is covered by vegetation. The cross-section of the
bed thus decreases reducing the capacity of the stream to carry the increased runoff. This
often leads to the flow of water over the banks, flooding the low lands. Generally,
denudation of forests and pasture lands in the catchment of rivers, the degradation of
gullied lands and other waste lands contribute to floods and sediments raising the bed of
rivers cause an increased number of detrimental floods. Dikes are built to hold rivers in
place, but during severe runoff periods these are unable to confine the water. Raising the
bed of a river results in the build up of water table in the alluvial land of the river valley.

Lecture Note 2008 20

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
Frequently, alluvium has naturally a high ground water table. If the bed is raised, the
water level may come too close to the surface, so that the land becomes swampy and
unsuitable for agriculture. Coarse sediments in a river cause much of the water to flow
below the bed due to under cut, restricting the amount of surface runoff water. This
reduces its carrying capacity, and more sediment is deposited in this stretch of the river,
thus increasing the damage.
Other Effects
The dust storms cause great inconvenience and sometimes serious illness or death from
prolonged dust inhalation by man and animals in the area. Dust pneumonia and inflamed
eyes are frequently observed after severe wind erosion.
Fences, ditches and channels are blocked or buried and farmsteads are rendered
uninhabitable. Railways/Roads are sometime blocked by drifting sand or soil and require
expensive rehabilitation. In addition, soil gets into engines and other moving parts of
automobiles, tractors, and farm implements, thus wearing them out permanently. Soil
particles also cause air and water pollutions. Water erosion, which cuts gullies and finally
develop into ravines, creates economic as well as social problems.

4.3. Types of soil Erosion

In broad sense the erosion process can be classified in to two types: - geologic and
accelerated erosion. They represent contrasting type of soil removed. Geologic erosion
refers to the formation and loss of soil simultaneously which maintain the balance
between formation and various losses. Whereas accelerated erosion includes serious
deterioration and loss of soil by the nature and human beings. Both geologic and
accelerated erosions are described below.

4.3.1 Geologic Erosion

In its broadest sense it is a normal process, which represents the erosion of soil in its
natural condition without the influence of human being. It is sometimes known as natural
or normal erosion. This erosion is said to be in equilibrium with the soil forming
processes. The geologic erosion is long time eroding process. The various topographical
features such as existing of stream channels; valleys etc… are the results of geologic
erosion.

4.3.2 Accelerated Erosion.

Accelerated erosion is an excess of geologic erosion. It is activated by natural and man’s
activities which have brought about changes in natural cover and soil conditions. In usual
course, the accelerated erosion takes place by the action of water, wind, gravity and
glaciers. In which water causes the soil erosion through sheet flow, stream flow, wave
action and ground-water flow. Similarly, wind detaches and transports the soil particle
and causing a general mixing of the soil at the surface. The gravity force causes the mass

Lecture Note 2008 21

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
movement such as soil creep, rock creep, rock slide and subsidence of the soil surface.
These are examples of accelerated erosion.
In general, accelerated erosion is simply known as soil erosion or erosion only.
The water and wind are the primary agents to cause the accelerated erosion.
Thus, accelerated erosion can further be sub-classified as
i. Water Erosion, and
ii. Wind erosion

4.4 Estimating Soil Loss

In this section, prediction of soil loss by water erosion and wind erosion will be
discussed.

4.4.1 Prediction of Soil Loss by Water Erosion

Background
Wichmeir and Smith (1965) proposed an equation for estimating sheet and rill erosion
losses from cultivated fields. This has been called Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE).
The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) predicts the long-term average annual rate of
erosion on a field slope based on rainfall pattern, soil type, topography, crop system and
management practices. USLE only predicts the amount of soil loss that results from sheet
or rill erosion on a single slope and does not account for additional soil losses that might
occur from gully, wind or tillage erosion. This erosion model was created for use in
selected cropping and management systems, but is also applicable to non-agricultural
conditions such as construction sites. The USLE can be used to compare soil losses from
a particular field with a specific crop and management system to "tolerable soil loss"
rates. Alternative management and crop systems may also be evaluated to determine the
adequacy of conservation measures in farm planning. In USLE five major factors are
used to calculate the soil loss for a given site. Each factor is the numerical estimate of a
specific condition that affects the severity of soil erosion at a particular location. The
erosion values reflected by these factors can vary considerably due to varying weather
conditions. Therefore, the values obtained from the USLE more accurately represent
long-term averages. The equation was originally proposed for use on cropland in an area
of Unite States of America. It has, however, been tested and used in other sections of the
United States, in Europe, and in tropics especially West Africa. It has also been tested for
range lands and in forest areas. The equation been useful wherever tested, although some
factors have occasionally had to be modified for effective prediction. By application of
this equation the average annual soil loss can be computed for any region, but for using it
its validity should be verified.

Lecture Note 2008 22

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)

The USLE equation is expressed by the following expression

Erosion is a function of

Erosivity and erodibility

Rainfall Physical Management

Characteristics
Energy Land Cop
Management Management

A = R K LS P C
…………………4.1
Figure: 3.1.Diagram for erosion = f (erosivity, erodibility)

Lecture Note 2008 23

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)

Procedure for Using the USLE

1. Determine the R factor.
2. Based on the soil texture determine the K value. If there is more than one soil type
in a field and the soil textures are not very different, then use the soil type that
represents the majority of the field. Repeat for other soil types as necessary.
3. Divide the field into sections of uniform slope gradient and length. Assign an LS
value to each section.
4. Choose the crop type factor and tillage method factor for the crop to be grown.
Multiply these 2 factors together to obtain the C factor.
5. Select the P factor based on the support practice used.
6. Multiply the 5 factors together to obtain the soil loss per acre.
The different factors associated with equation (USLE) are described below.

Rainfall and runoff erosivity factor (R)

 It refers to the rainfall erosivity index, which expresses the ability of rainfall to
erode the soil particles from an unprotected field. The standard rainfall erosion
index (Erosivity) estimates the erosive forces of the rainfall and its directly
associated runoff, it doesn’t include the erosive forces from thaws, snowmelts and
irrigation.

Lecture Note 2008 24

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
 It is a numerical value. From a long time, observation, it has been obtained that
the extent of soil loss from a barren field is directly proportional to the product of
kinetic energy of storm and its 30-minute max m intensity.
 However, for the computation of EI 30 value, storm energy is expressed in
hundreds of foot-tons per acre. To have the prefix phrase “hundred of”,
therefore, energies computed by the published formula (which has united as,
{Foot-tons * (acre-inch)-1}) must be divided by 100 before multiplying by I30 to
compute EI30. The estimation of rainfall erosivity index (EI 30) has been described
in chapter 3.
 EI30 for a specified time period such as, week, month and annual value is the sum
of the computed value for all rain periods within that time. The EI 30 value for all
the storms occurring in a given year for a location are added to give an annual
erosivity index.
 Then Average annual R is determined by adding EI 30 units for all storms during
the year and obtaining a series of annual totals, which are averaged to obtain
average annual values. Usually, a 22-year rainfall period was used in the analysis.
Thus, Mathematically, R is,

……………………………

……………….4.2

Where; R = average annual rainfall erosivity in hundreds of ft-tons -in * (acre-h-Yr)

and the division by 100 is made for convenience of expressing the units.
E = total kinetic energy
I30 = maximum 30-min rainfall intensity
J = index of number of storms in each year
n = number of years used to obtain average R
m = number of storms in each year and
R = average annual rainfall erosivity.
K= rainfall amount in that rainfall event at d/t times.

Soil Erodibility Factor, K

It depends on soil physical and chemical characteristic. It is the soil loss per hectare per
erosivity index from a field of 9% slope and 22.1m slope length. It is determined by
considering the soil loss from continuously cultivated fallow land with out the influence
of crop cover or management.

Lecture Note 2008 25

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
The value of soil erodibility factor (K ) can be determined for a particular location, using
a set of run-off plots of above specification( i.e., 9% slope and 22m length) and
measuring the soil loss for a long time and using the following formula,
K = Ao ……………………………………………………………………4.3
S * (∑ EI) Where, K = Soil erodibility factor
Ao = Observed soil loss
S = Slope factor
∑EI= Total rainfall erosivity index

For soils containing less than 70% silt and very fine sand, it can either be calculated from
the following regression equation or determined from the nomograph developed from the
regression equation.

Where, K = soil erodibility factor (K) expressed as ton*acre-1per erosivity unit,

Or ton- acre-h*[hundreds of acre-ft-ton-in]-1.
M = particle size parameter (% silt +%very fine sand) x (100-%clay),
a = percent organic matter,
b = soil structure code (very fine granular, 1; fine granular, 2; medium or coarse
granular, 3; blocky or massive, 4),
c= Profile permeability class (rapid, 1; moderate to rapid, 2; moderate, 3; slow to
moderate, 4; slow, 5; very slow, 6)

Procedure to Estimate K from soil properties using Nomograph developed from the
regression equation
For estimating K from soil properties, You need to estimate,
• organic matter content
• percentage sand (0.1 to 2 mm)
• percentage of silt to very fine sand
• soil structure
• permeability
Starting with the percentage of, enter the diagram on the left vertical axis. Continue
horizontally until you meet the percent sand curves (running from top left to bottom
right) and stop when you reach the curve corresponding to the sample's value for sand.
Then go vertically until you reach the Organic Matter (OM) group of curves and stop
when you reach the sample's OM value. Then go horizontally into the second diagram
and stop when you reach the soil structure curves. Proceed downward until you reach the
permeability curves and stop when you intersect the curves estimated permeability. Then
turn horizontally going left until you reach the vertical axis of K. Read off the value.

Lecture Note 2008 26

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)

Example: 3.2.,
(a) Find K (erodibility factor) value using the nomograph, for a soil having
 silt + v. fine sand = 65%
 sand = 5%
 OM = 2.8%
 structure = fine granular
 permeability = slow to moderate
Answer, (K = 0.31)
(b) Using the regression equation and K value of the nomograph result of the above
example, determine the %clay for the same soil sample.

Lecture Note 2008 27

 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (IE-

Silt + very fine sand (%)

439)

Figure: 3.2. Nomograph for estimating soil erodibility (K) K=0.31

based on soil properties. From Morgan, p. 54, quoting Answer for
Wischmeier, Johnson and Cross, 1971. example: 3.2.

Lecture Note 2008 28

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)

The Topographic factors, LS

The topographic factors L and S adjust the predicted erosion rates to give greater erosion
rates on longer and/ or steeper slopes, when compared with a USLE ‘standard’ slope of
9% and slope length of 22.1m. The differences are attributed to increasing rill erosion
rates, as more runoff accumulates with longer slopes, and greater erosive forces occurring
with steeper gradients. The topographic factor is the product of the slope length and slope
steepness factor,
Slope length factor, L

Where; L = slope length factor,

= slope length, in meter,
m = dimensionless exponent

For conditions where rill and inter rill erosions were about equal on a 9%, 22.1m long
slope, m could be found from the equation:

………………………………………...…4.6

Where θ = field slope steepness in degrees or angle of the slope.

Otherwise, m = 0.2 for slope <1%
= 0.3 for slope 1< to 3%
= 0.4 for slope 3< to 5
= 0.5 for slope >5%

Slope steepness factor, S

S = (65.41 sin2 ß + 4.58 sin ß + 0.065) …………………………………….4.7
Where, S = percent land slope
ß = the angle of slope
Length and slope steepness of the above two factors are combined together, is termed by
a specific name as topographic factor, which is defined as the ratio of soil loss from a
field having specific steepness (9%) and length (22m) to the soil loss from a continuous
fallow land.

Lecture Note 2008 29

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
LS = ( /22.13) m (65.41 sin2 ß + 4.58 sin ß + 0.065)……………………….4.8
Where; LS = topographic factor, dimensionless
= slope length, m
ß = the angle of slope
m = variable that depends on steepness of land slope its value as stated at top.
Wischmeir and Smith (1978) derived the above relation from data obtained on cropland,
under natural rainfall, on slopes ranging from 3 to 18% in steepness and about 30 to 300ft
in length. Hence, it is safe to use the formula in the range in which it was derived.

Crop-cover –management factor, C

 The cropping factor is the ratio of the soil loss from land cropped under specified
conditions to the corresponding loss from continuously fallow and tilled land. The
C factor varies from 0.01 to 1.0 with 1.0 applied to continuously fallow, tilled
land.
 Sub-factors of the C- factor:
 In this approach, the C factor is divided into five independently computed sub-
factors, which are then combined. The sub-factors considered are prior land use,
the crop canopy, the surface cover, the surface roughness and soil moisture.

C = Cplu x Ccc x Csc x Csr x Csm……………………………………………….4.9

 Prior Land Use (Cplu):

Expresses the influence on soil erosion of:
- Prior cropping
- Dominant tillage practices
- Soil consolidation
- Time
- Biological activity
 Canopy Cover (Ccc):
It expresses the effect of vegetative canopy on changing the rainfall energy
impacting the soil surface. Usually decreases the energy. C cc is a function of
the fraction of surface covered by canopy and the average canopy height.
 Surface Cover (Csc):
Surface cover decreases erosion by reducing the transport capacity of the runoff
water [by reducing velocities and causing ponding for deposition] and by
decreasing the soil area exposed to raindrop action.

Lecture Note 2008 30

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
 Surface Roughness (Csr):
Surface roughness also affects erosion by influencing the amount of water
retained or detained on the soil surface and by reducing the runoff velocity.
Surface roughness tends to decrease with time even during a single rainstorm.
 Antecedent Moisture (Csm):
Influences soil loss through its influence on erosion and runoff.
 The influence of these sub-factors can be grouped under three general categories:
1. Above-ground effects [Ccc]
2. Surface effects, including ground cover [Csc] and surface roughness [Csr].
Function of the mass of crop residue remaining on the soil surface, the total
rainfall depth since the last field operation, and the total root and buried
residue mass [top 4 inches of soil].
3. Below-ground effects, including root mass as growth occurs, incorporated
residue and soil moisture [Csm and Cplu]
It includes the effects of
 Cover
 Crop sequence
 Crop productivity level
 Length of growing season
 Tillage practice
 Crop residue management
 etc…
As with most other factors, the C-factor is based on the concept of deviation from a
standard, in this case an area under clean-tilled continuous-fallow conditions. Hence C-
factor is the ratio of the amount of soil lost under specific crop management condition to
that lost when the same soil is fallowed and cultivated up-and-down the slope at regular
intervals. Soil loss from a continuously fallowed field is the product of R, K, and LS.
Loss from cropped field is far smaller. The C factor for a given crop rotation is found by
first multiplying the soil loss ratios for each growth stage in a crop rotation by the
percentage of annual erosion during each respective period. These products then summed
and expressed as a decimal value to give the C factor.

The conservation practice factor, P

Lecture Note 2008 31

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
It may be defined as the ratio of soil loss for a given conservation practice to the soil loss
obtained from field with plants rows up/ down the slope. The conservation practice
consists of mainly contouring, terracing, and strip cropping, in which contouring appears
to be most effective practice on medium slope ranging from 2 to 7 percent. The soil loss
from contouring ranges about one half of the total soil loss that occurs from up and down
hill farming system. In general, as land slope decreases from medium to zero, the
effectiveness of contour tillage to reduce soil loss decreases as compared to the contoured
tillage field. Similarly, when land slope increases from medium to steep slope, the
contour row diminishes its capacity to reduce soil erosion loss, because of having a very
little capacity to drain the water on soil. If neither contouring nor strip cropping practises
are used nor no other conservation measures are available, the value is 1.0.

In strip cropping, the meadow (grass land kept for hey) strips alternate with grain strips
tend to slow down the surface flow and thereby catching of eroded soil from cultivated
strips is achieved.

Similarly, the terraces in hilly area intercept the surface flow down the slope before
attaining to an erosive velocity to damage the land. From field observations, it has been
found that when strip cropping is adopted with the terracing practice, then it becomes
more effective to control erosion and soil loss.
The conservation practice factor, P, can be found from the following equation:

Where; Pc = contouring factor

Ps = Strip cropping factor
Pt = Terrace sedimentation factor
The values of conservation practices factor (P) for contouring, strip cropping and
terracing are given in table below.

Table: 4.1. The values of conservation practices factor (P) for contouring, strip cropping
and terracing

S.No. Slope (%) Values of conservation practices factor (P)

Contouring Strip cropping, Terracing
pc ps pt
Table:
1 4.2. Soil
1.1 –Loss
2.0 Tolerance
0.6 Rates 0.3 -
2 2.1 – 7.0 0.5 0.25 0.10
3 Soil 7.1
Erosion
– 12.0Class
0.6 0.30 Potential Soil0.12
Loss
4 12.1 – 18.0 0.8 0.40 (tons/acre/year)0.16
5 18.1 – 24.0 0.9 0.45 -
Very Low (tolerable) <3

Low 3-5

Lecture Note 2008 32

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)

Moderate 5 - 10

High 10 - 15

Severe >15

Table: 4.3. Management Strategies to Reduce Soil Losses

Factor Management Strategies Remark

R The R Factor for a field cannot be altered. It is caused by nature

K The K Factor for a field cannot be altered.It is caused by nature

Terraces may be constructed to reduce the Terracing requires

slope length resulting in lower soil losses. additional investment and will cause
LS some inconvenience in farming.
Investigate other soil conservation
practices first.

The selection of crop types and tillage Consider cropping systems that will
methods that result in the lowest possible provide maximum protection for the
C
C factor will result in less soil erosion. soil. Use minimum tillage systems
where possible.

The selection of a support practice that Use support practices such as cross
has the lowest possible factor associated slope farming that will cause deposition
P
with it will result in lower soil losses. of sediment to occur close to the
source.

Application of universal soil loss equation (USLE)

There are three main applications of the universal soil loss equation, given as: -
1. It predicts the soil loss;
2. It helps in selection of the agricultural practices and
3. It provides recommendations on crop practice to be used.

1. Prediction of soil loss: - for a given condition of the field regarding its soil type,
slope length, steepness of slope. Cropping system and climatic characteristics the
numerical values of each factor associated with the equation can be determined
and multiplied together. This gives the amount of soil loss for that particular
condition of the field.

Lecture Note 2008 33

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
2. Selection of agricultural practices: - from the universal soil loss equation, the
LHS of this equation represents the maximum soil loss which is taken from the
field and right-hand side consists of several factors in which some can not be
controlled and some can be controlled. The uncontrolled factors are the rainfall
erosivity index, slope length and steepness factor. Similarly, the factors that can
be controlled are crop management practices and conservation practices factor.
These two controlled factors (i.e., C and P) can be changed by using different
cropping systems and different conservation practices such as ploughing,
terracing, bunding, contouring, and strip cropping etc…

Limitations of universal soil loss equations (USLE)

The equation involves the procedure for assigning the values of different factors
associated on the basis of practical concepts, therefore there is probability getting
introduced with some errors in selection of their appropriate values. Particularly, care
should be taken for choosing those values, which are based on crop concept. Normally R
and K factors are constant for most of the sites in the catchment whereas, C and LS vary
substantially with the erosion-controlled measures, used. Apart from these, there are
several other limitations also introduced by researchers for USLE, given as under: -
1. It is empirical: - The USLE is very empirical. Mathematically it does not illustrate
the actual erosion process.
2. It predicts average annual soil loss: - This equation computes less value than the
measured, especially when rainfall occurs at high rate.
3. It does not compute gully erosion: - The USLE is employed for assessing the
sheet and rill erosion and not used for predicting the gully erosion. The gully
erosion caused by concentrated water flow is not counted by the equation and yet
can produce greater volume of eroded soil.
4. It does not compute sediment deposition: - This equation estimates only soil loss
but not the soil deposition.
Some of the things that USLE is not intended to do:
 Predicting the sediment yield from a catchment, because it does not include
deposition and delivery ratio
 Predicting soil loss from single storm, because the factors are all long-term
averages.
 Predicting soil loss in concentrated channel flow such as large rills and
ephemeral gullies
 Predicting gully erosion or stream bank erosion
 Predicting sediment movement in streams and rivers
 Separating the factors as if they were each independent
 As a mathematical equation which can be solved for one of the input factors.
Example

Lecture Note 2008 34

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
On the land which is continuously fallow and tilled, none of the conservation practices
(contouring, strip cropping and terracing) were practiced, determine the annual soil loss
per ha per year, using the following data of the area. Use universal soil loss equation.

i) Considering the following three storms to happen annually in an area. Assume

maximum 30-minutes intensities of storm (2) and storm (3) to be 18, and 22mm/hr,
respectively.
Table: 3.4. Chart reading

Storm (1) Chart reading Storm (2) Chart reading

Time Depth(cm) Intensity(mm/hr) Amount(mm)
4:00 0.0 0 -25 30
4:20 0.12 25 -50 35
4:27 0.30 50 -75 10
4:36 0.88
4:50 2.66 Storm (3) Chart reading
4:57 3.04 Intensity(mm/hr) Amount(mm)
5:05 3.17 0 -15 30
5:15 3.17 15 -30 35
5:30 3.30 30 -50 20

ii) Soil and topographic characteristics of the area

The soil has; Silt + very fine sand = 60%; sand, 5%; clay, 30%; OM, 2.8% and it is
medium granular having moderate permeability
Given: Slope length factor, L = 0.6
Slope steepness factor, S = 0.8

4.4.1 The wind erosion prediction equation

A wind erosion prediction equation was developed using wind tunnels and field studies in
the US and Canada, commencing in the 1950s, following pioneering observations in UK
and North Africa in the 1930s.
The wind erosion equation is not a simple product of erodibility parameters, but is a set
of complex relationships among these parameters that affect erosion. The present wind
erosion prediction equation is:

E = f (I, K, C, L, V) …………………………………………………………………..4.11
Where E = the estimated average annual soil loss (Mg/ha – year),
I = the soil erodibility index (Mg/ha –yr),
K = the ridge roughness factor,
C = Climate factor,
L = Unsheltered length of eroding field in meters,
V = Vegetation cover factor
This is the most widely used method for assessing average annual soil loss by wind from
agricultural fields in the US and probably some other countries. It is plainly beyond the

Lecture Note 2008 35

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
scope of any assessment that can be made quickly in the East Caribbean with the
prevailing lack of data, both instantaneous wind speeds and wind-erodibility of the soil,
to say nothing of field micro-relief which is highly variable and dependent on
management practices. This is a useful starting point, but quantitative estimates are
unnecessary in the present study.
This equation, like water – erosion prediction equation, takes into account the principal
factors that influence the amount of soil loss; however, the individual factors in the wind
erosion equation interact differently. Consequently, the solution to the equation involves
more than finding values for the various factors and multiplying them together to obtain
an overall product. But factor relationships are often so involved that complicated charts
or complex equations are necessary to make the prediction.
Onset of wind erosion and observations required for prediction
Soil erosion by wind is initiated when wind speed exceeds the saltation threshold
velocity for a given land surface condition, which is dependent on the erodible material
and surface roughness. The duration and severity of an erosion event depends on the
wind speed distribution and changes in the surface condition. To an extent we can
estimate the structures and processes that modify a soil's susceptibility to wind erosion
but to map them well require a good deal of field observation, a slow process. However,
simple field observations made over the years can give us a very good guide as to the
areas at hazard– quite sufficient to make recommendations for prevention or mitigation.
We are, in the case of these islands, in a situation very different from the continental
plains in which the research was largely carried out. We do not have vast expanses of
land with little cover for long periods and we do not have the dry winds of a continental
interior, which reduce both the mass and the adhesion of soil particles. Instead, our
periods of peak wind force, outside hurricanes, come with the Trade winds, which
although not highly humid are rarely really dry.

Soil erodibility index, I

It is a function of the soil aggregates greater than 0.84 mm in diameter. The following
regression equation was developed to estimate I.

I = 525 (2.718) (- 0.04 F) ……………………………………………………………….4.12

Where F = the percentage of dry soil fraction greater than 0.84 mm.

The fraction of dry soil can vary with season and changes in soil water content and
organic matter. Therefore, the following table summarizes soil erodibility index value for
different textures of soil

Table: 4.4. Soil erodibility index values for different soil textures

Predominant soil texture Erodibility group I – value

Loamy sands & Sapric organic material 1 360 – 700
Loamy sand 2 300

Lecture Note 2008 36

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
Sandy looms 3 200
Clays & clay loams 4 200
Calcareous looms 4L 200
Non calcareous loams silt loam < 20% clay 5 125
and hemic organic soils
Non calcareous loams, silt loam > 20% clay 6 100
Silt, non calcareous silty clay loam 7 85

Increased wind erosion has also been observed when there are knolls (small round hills)
in the fields. Therefore, I should be multiplied by adjustment factors to account for the
increased erosion on windward side and top of knolls.

Table: 4.5. Knoll erodibility adjustment factors

Slope change in prevailing wind Knoll adjustment to I Increase at crest area where erosion
erosion direction (%) ( factor) is most sever (factor)

3 1.3 1.5
4 1.6 1.9
5 1.9 2.5
6 2.3 3.2
8 3.0 4.8
10 3.6 6.8

Roughness factor, K,

It is a measure of the effect of ridges made by tillage and planting implements on erosion
rate. Ridges absorb and deflect wind energy, and trap moving soil particles. Too much
roughness, however, causes turbulence which may accelerate particle movement. Ridge
roughness can be estimated from the equation.

………………….…………………………………4.13
Where; Kr = ridge roughness, mm
h = ridge height, mm
d = ridge spacing, mm.

From ridge roughness, kr , the roughness factor, K, can be calculated by the equation
……………………………………….4.14

Climate Factor, C

Climate directly affects wind erosion through wind velocity and indirectly affects it
through its influence on plant growth which is determined by surface soil moisture and
atmospheric humidity. Soil moisture and atmospheric humidity affect plant growth and

Lecture Note 2008 37

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
plant material in turn reduces wind velocity close to the surface of the ground. The value
of C can be estimated by using the equation.

………………………………………………….4.15

Where; U = wind velocity, m/sec

P = precipitation, mm
T = mean temperature, Celsius
C = climate factor, dimension less.

Unsheltered length of field factor, L

The L factor represents the unsheltered distance in meters along the prevailing wind
erosion direction. L would be the same for all winds if all winds were from a prevailing
direction. Some winds, however, travel longer or shorter distances across a field because
winds come from different directions in a year to a field.

L = D50 – 10 B ……………………………………………………………….4.16
Where; L = unsheltered distance, m
B = the height of a barrier, m
D50 = K50 x D
K50 = median field width factor; a multiplying factor of geometric field width
for which half the erosive wind forces travel farther and half not as far
as the Prevailing wind.
D = geometric field width, m,
10B = sheltered distance for field hedges, tree shelter belts and similar
barriers.

Vegetation cover factor, V

The amount of protection offered by vegetation depends on the amount of dry matter it
contains, its relative texture, its height when standing, and whether it is living or dead,
standing or flattened.
The original work on the effect of vegetative material was done with flattened wheat
straw (small grain crop). Therefore, the effect of vegetative cover in the wind erosion
equation is expressed by relating the kind, amount, orientation, etc of vegetative material
to its equivalent of small grain residue. The small grain equivalent can be calculated
from the relationship:

V = a Rwb……………………………………………………………4.17
Where; V = vegetative cover factor expressed as the small grain equivalent in kg/ha
a, b = Crop constants that depend on the type, height & orientation (table
given below)
Rw = quantity of residue to be converted to small grain equivalent in kg/ha.

Table: 4.6.Crop residue coefficients for predicting vegetative cover factor

Lecture Note 2008 38

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)

Crop orientation Height Length Row Orientation a b

(mm) (mm) space to flow
(mm)
Cotton Flat – random - 250 - - 0.077 1.17
Cotton Standing 340 - 750 Normal 0.188 1.15
Forage sorghum Standing 150 - 750 Normal 0.353 1.12
Rape Flat – random - 250 - - 0. 064 1.29
Rape Standing 250 - 250 normal 0.103 1.4
Silage corn Standing 150 - 750 normal 0.229 1.4

Calculating Wind Erosion

The annual wind erosion, after determining the values of I, K, C, L & V can be estimated
as the following.
a) If the product of I, K, C, and L is less than 5.5 x106, then

………………………….4.18

b) If the product of I, K, C and L is equal to or greater than 5.5 x10-6, then

…………………………………………………….4.19

4.5 Soil Erosion Control Measures

Rain drop or splash erosion is the interaction of two basic components, one is rain the
other is soil. The amount of soil erosion at any circumstance will therefore be influenced
by both of these two parameters. In erosion control the main aim is to make the erosion
process very slow by modifying the factors affecting the two components.
By the definition of soil erosion, it is well clear that, if soil is covered, the water intake
capacity of soil is increased, stability of soil aggregates is improved and surface
roughness is increased, as a result the detachment and transport of soil particles by rain
splash or runoff and wind are significantly checked. The presence of soil cover, dissipates
the impact of rain drops and thereby reduction in the soil erosion. Increase in intake
capacity of the soil, makes the runoff rate to reduce, virtually the soil erosion also
reduced, accordingly. The surface roughness reduces the runoff velocity and also of wind
effect to detach the soil particles. The various practices adopted to control soil erosion are
based on above points. The widely accepted methods are as follows.

A) Agronomic/Biological /measures
To employ the conservation measures the preference is always given to this method due to :

Lecture Note 2008 39

 Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering (IE-439)
- It is less expensive
- Reduce the rain drop impact, increase infiltration rate, reduce runoff volume and
decrease the velocity of runoff and wind.
- It is easier to fit them into existing farming system.
B) Soil Management.
- This deals the way of preparing the soil to promote dense vegetative growth and
improve its structure so that, it can create more resisting surface for reducing the impact
of rain and wind and soil erosion, thereby.
C) Mechanical Measures.
Mechanical or engineering measures for protection of soil and water loss are all the
methods which involve earth moving, such as digging drains, building banks, leveling
sloping lands and soon. They are constructed by manipulating the surface topography.
The agronomic measures combined with good soil management practices provide better
influence on the detachment and transportation of soil particles in the process of soil
erosion, whereas mechanical measures are effective in controlling the transportation
process by creating checks at regular intervals along the water course
The reasons that the mechanical measures are not much preferred than agronomic
measure is:
They are ineffective on their own because they cannot prevent the detachment of soil
particles and its main role is in controlling the flow of any excess water and wind that
arise.
-Many mechanical works are costly to install and require regular maintenance.
-Structures like, terrace and bunds create problems for agricultural operation.
-At shallow soil depth, the terrace construction exposes the bed rock or less fertile sub-
soil and therefore results in low crop yield.
-There is a risk by sever storm with return periods of 20 years or more, of which terraces
can be failed.
- The agronomic measures combined with good soil management practices provide better
influence on the detachment and transportation of soil particles in the process of soil
erosion, whereas mechanical measures are effective in controlling the transportation
process by creating checks at regular intervals along the water course.

For further refer Section 6.4 and chapter-6.

Lecture Note 2008 40