(CEC 108) SOIL MECHANICS 1

Soil mechanics is a branch of engineering mechanics that describes the behavior of soils.
Soil is a heterogenous mixture of fluid (air and water) and particles (clay, silt, sand and
gravel) but still contains organic solids, liquid and gases and other materials.

Soil mechanics provides basics for analysis in geotechnical engineering i:e sub discipline in
civil engineering and engineering geology. Soil mechanics is used to provide analysis for
building and bridge foundation retaining walls, dams application on a soil. The soil model is
given dimensional values for the solid, water and air components.

Total volume, V = Vs + Vw + Vv

SOIL FORMATION

Soil are formed from distingration (weathering) of rocks.

Weathered materials may either be found deposited at its own place of origin or get
transported by agent like water, wind, ice etc. before deposition.

Transport Soil Formation Stages

i. Weathering
ii. Transportation
iii. Deposition of weathered materials

History of Soil

Historical research work was carried out by Mr Karl Terzaghi from 1925-1965 pioneer
research on soil based on physical properties.

Different Between Engineering Soil and Other Soil Types

Engineering soil is applied science dealing with the application of principles of soil
mechanics to all pratical problem. It deals with problem related with soil such site
investigation, design and construction of foundation, earth retaining structures and earth
structures.

Engineering soil has vast application of various civil engineering works. Some application of
engineering soil e.g foundation (shallow and pile foundation).
Engineering soil is when the ground is prepared for a specific purpose and soil is a natural
ground foundation on earth.

Sandy soil has more sand and do not absorb water, it allows water to go through it. Clay soil
is thicker and has higher water retaining capacity. Soil has pores that hold nutrient, water and
oxygen for plant, sand is loose and cannot store or hold any nutrient.

Main Types of Soil

Clay – fine-grained natural rock contain one or more clay mineral like metal oxide and
organic matter

Sandy- granular material, definite size, finer than gravel and loose than silt. Its textural of
soil and contain 85% sand -size particles.

Silty- granular material between sand and clay. It contain quartz and feldspar. Usually found
body of river.

Peaty- known as turf partially decayed vegetation or organic matter

Chalky- soft, white, porous, sedimentary carbonate rock, it contain calcium carbonate
(CaCo3).

Loamy- contain mainly sand, silt and small amount of clay

Types of Soil Based on its Origin

I) Residual-formed by weathering of parent rock and occupies the place of formation

II) Transportation- transportation from its origin by wind, ice, water, redeposited.

Classification of Soil

Geotechnical engineering classify the soil particles type by test on disturbed (dried, pass
through sieve and remolded) sample of soil. It provided information about the characteristics
of soil grain themselves.

Engineering geologist also classify soil based on the genesis and depositional history.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION TEST

Sieve Analysis- fine grained distribution.

Water content Determination- measures the wetness of the soil. E.g

 I. Oven drying method
II. Sand bath method
III. Radiation method
IV. Alcohol method

Oven Drying Method; Soil sample in the air tight container, weigh the sample and
container separately and accurately measure in a weighing balance. The soil sample in the
container dried in an oven at temperature of 110 oC =5oc for 4hrs. good for most soil.
Temperature below may cause evaporation of water and higher temperature may burst the
container, note, soil containing organic matter is not suitable for this temperature because
loose water hydration. Temperature 60o to 80oc is ok.

Specific Gravity determination- using density bottle method gas jar method measuring
bottle density 50ml with a stoper having a hole, 50ml usually used. Density bottle is
usually at temperature 105oc to110oc and cooled. Mass of the bottle, stoper taking, take 5-
10g of oven dry sample in the bottle and weighted. If particles are large size.

Classification of Soil Grain

In the US and other countries, the (USCS) Unified soil classification system is often used for
soil classified other classification system include the British Standard BS5390 and the
AASHTO. Soil classification sand and gravel. (Grain classification)

SIEVE ANALYSIS: Sieve analysis otherwise known as particles size analysis is the method
by which we identify the number of particles of different sizes present in a soil sample .Sieve
analysis is mostly done for coarse grained soils. In this method, the soil is sieved through a
set of sieves. Sieves are basically wire screen (mesh) that have square openings. The size of
the opening gives the sieves their name which is called sieve number. A sieve with a mesh
opening of 4.75mm is called 4.75 mm sieve and similarity 0.6mm sieve has a mess size of
0.6mm. Sieve is usually done in two ways;

1. Wet sieve analysis

2. Dry sieve analysis

Grain-Size Distribution Curve:

The size distribution curves, as obtained from coarse and fine grained portions, can be
combined to form one complete grain-size distribution curve (also known as grading curve).
A typical grading curve is shown.
From the complete grain-size distribution curve, useful information can be obtained such as:

1.Grading characteristics, which indicate the uniformity and range in grain-size

distribution.
2. Percentages (or fractions) of gravel, sand, silt and clay-size.

Fine-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of the material has particle sizes less
than 0.075 mm. Clay particles have a flaky shape to which water adheres, thus imparting the
property of plasticity.

A plasticity chart , based on the values of liquid limit (WL) and plasticity index (IP), is
provided in ISSCS to aid classification. The 'A' line in this chart is expressed as IP =
0.73 (WL - 20).

Depending on the point in the chart, fine soils are divided into clays (C), silts
(M), or organic soils (O). The organic content is expressed as a percentage of the
mass of organic matter in a given mass of soil to the mass of the dry soil solids.
Three divisions of plasticity are also defined as follows.
 Low plasticity WL< 35%

Intermediate plasticity 35% < WL< 50%

High plasticity WL> 50%

The 'A' line and vertical lines at WL equal to 35% and 50% separate the soils into
various classes.

For example, the combined symbol CH refers to clay of high plasticity.

Soil classification using group symbols is as follows:

Group Symbol Classification

Coarse soils
GW Well-graded GRAVEL
GP Poorly-graded GRAVEL
GM Silty GRAVEL
GC Clayey GRAVEL
SW Well-graded SAND
SP Poorly-graded SAND
SM Silty SAND
SC Clayey SAND

Fine soils
ML SILT of low plasticity
MI SILT of intermediate plasticity
MH SILT of high plasticity

CL CLAY of low plasticity

CI CLAY of intermediate plasticity
CH CLAY of high plasticity

OL Organic soil of low plasticity

OI Organic soil of intermediate plasticity
OH Organic soil of high plasticity

Pt Peat
SAND (and coarser) particles are visible to the naked eye.

SILT particles become dusty when dry and are easily brushed off hands.

CLAY particles are sticky when wet and hard when dry, and have to be scraped or washed
off hands.
 Atterberg Limit

The Atterberg limit is a measure of critical water content of fine- grained soil.

The commonly used Atterberg limits are

I. Liquid limit-LL
II. Plastic limit –PL
III. Shrinkage limit- SL

Shrinkage Limit- water content below which a sample of soil will shrink or dries.

Liquid limit- it is determined by measuring the water content for which a groove closes
after 25blows in a standard test.

Plastic limit- this is the water content below which it is possible to roll by hand, the soil
into 3mm diameter cylinder. The soil cracks or breaks as it is rolled down the diameter.
Remold the soil at a plastic limit is quite stiff having an undrained shear strength of the
order of about 2kpa. The plastic index of a particular soil specimen is defined as the
difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit of the specimen. It is an indicator of
how much water the soil particles in the specimen can absorb.

Unit Weight- cumulative weight of solid particles of water and air in the material per unit
volume.

Porosity- ratio of the volume of voids. (containing air, water and other fluids) in a soil to
the total volume of the soil porosity of zero means no void in the soil. N=Vv/V

Void Ratio- the ratio of volume void to the volume of solid particles in a soil. E=Vv/Vs

Permeability- measure of the ability of water to flow through the soil expressed in unit of
velocity.

Compressibility- rate of change of volume with effective stress in the pores are filled
with water then the water must be squeezed out of the pores to allow volumetric
compression of the soil is called Consolidation.

Shear Strength- the shear stress that will cause shear failure.

Dry Unit Weight- the dry unit weight ( r d)is defined as the weight of solid per unit total
volume rd=WS/V.
Saturated unit weight- the saturated unit weight (rsat) is the bulk unit weight when the
soil is fully saturated rsat= Wsat/V.
Depending on its water content a soil may appear in one of four (4) state – solid, semi
solid, plastic and liquid.

Note; Atterberg limit, then are water content at critical stage of soil behavior. It defines
the boundaries of four states in terms of limits. The consistency limit also known as
Atterberg limits of a soil depends on the amount and type of clay in a soil and also form
the basis for soil classification system. The consistence limit consists of three basis
parameters which are;

i. Liquid limit (LL)

ii. Plastic limit (PL)
iii. The plastic index(PI)

Liquid limit: The liquid limit of a soil is defined as the lowest water content at which the
soil is still in liquid form but has a small settling strength which is against flowing and
which can be measured by standard procedure.

Plastic Limit: The plastic limit of a soil is defined as the moisture content when a soil just
begins to crumble when rolled through a thread that is approximately 1.5 millimeters in
radius.

Plasticity index: This is the difference between liquid limit of a soil and plastic limit of
same soil. It is given by

PI = LL - PL.

Classification of Silt and Clay

According to the unified soil classification system (USCS) silt and clay are classified by
plotting the values of their plasticity index and liquid limit in a plasticity chart.

The A-line on the lines chat separates clay (given the USCS symbol C) from silt (given
the symbol M) Ll==50% seperates high platicity soil(given the modified symbol H) from
low soil(given the modifier symbol l). A soil that plots above that A-line and has Ll

Grater than 50% would example be classified as CH. Other possible classification of silt
and clay are ML,CL and MH. If the Atterberg limit PLOT in the hatched region on the
graph near the region, the soil are given the dual classification “CL-m”
 DRAINAGE AND WELL

Drainage is well the removal of excess water from the saturated soil mass (dewatering). In
civil engineering construction, excavation of basement, foundation of dams, laying of sewer
line often carried out below water table. Such excavation or construction you have to lower
water table to get dry water condition. Drainage is required increase the stability of the soil
by reducing the seepage and pore water pressure. Drainage is essential to lower water table of
a water logged area to make it more suitable for cultivation.

Method to Lower Ground Water/Well

Ditches (shallow pit) and Slumps- water source close to ground surface.

i. well point system.

ii. Shallow well system.
iii. Deep well system.
iv. Vaccum method
v. Electro- osmosis method-dewatering loose soil. I,e solar drying.

i.WELL POINT SYSTEM

Complicated method of dewatering system based on gravity flow i.e., the installation of
well point i.e., perforated pipe 1m long, 5cm diameter.
 PRINCIPLE OF NEUTRAL AND EFFECTIVE STRESSES

Principle of effective stress introduced by Karl Terzaghi states that the effective stress
6 (i.e. the average intergranular stress between solid particles) may be calculated by a
simple substitution of the pore pressure from the total pressure is equal to 6-u, where

6 is the total stress and u the pore pressure. It is not practical to measure 6
directly, so in practice, the vertical effective stress is calculated from the
pore pressure and vertical total stress. In soil mechanics, compressive
stresses and pressures are considered to be positive and tensile stresses are
considered to be negative which is different from the solid mechanic sign
convention for stress.

DIAGRAM OF STRESS DISTRIBUTION ON A SOIL

Concentrated Load

Vertical stress caused by a strip load.

Vertical stress at point A can be determined by equation.

Distributed load

The vertical stress in the soil mass due to embarkment of height H may be expressed
as:

(a + b) (a

Where q = r + H

R = unit weight of embarkment soil

H = height of the embarkment

CONSOLIDATION

Consolidation is a process by which soil decrease in volume of water content of

sutured soil without replacement of water by air. It occurs when stress is applied to a
soil that causes the soil particles to pack together more tightly therefore reduce bulk
volume. Soil is tested with an oedometer to determine their compression index. It is
used to predict amount of consolidation.

A soil that is currently expressing its highest stress is called NORMAL

CONSOLIDATED. A soil could be considered under-consolidated immediately after
new load is applied but excess porewater pressure had time to dissipate.
 CONSOLIDATION ANALYSIS

SRING ANALOGY: Compose of a spring, a container with a cock in its cover and
water. Spring represents the impressibility or structure of the soil and water which fills
the container porewater on the soil.

STEPS FOR SPRING ANALYSIS

i. The container is completely filled with water and the hole is closed (fully
saturated soil).

ii. A load is applied onto the cover, while the hole is still unopened. At this stage,
only the water resists the applied load (development of excess porewater
pressure).

iii. As soon as the hole and the spring shortens, (drainage of excess porewater
pressure).

iv. After sometime, the drainage of water no longer occurs, now the spring alone
resist the applied load (full dissipation of excess porewater pressure. End of
consolidation.

MAJOR SOIIL/CLAY MINERAL GROUPS

 Kalinite ground -mostly clay minerals 1:1

 Mica (iolite group)

True micas and clays 2:1

 Expanded clays
Smectite-montmorillonite

Complex 2:1 clay mineral

 Chlorite group

 2.2 TOT with interlayer

Fe and mg-rich
 KAOLINITE: This is the most common mineral of the kaolinite group of minerals. Its
basic structural limit consists of alumina sheet(gibbsite)(G) combine with silica about
7 Angstrom (Ao), where one Angstrom Ao is equal to 10-10 mr10-7mm.The kaolinite
mineral is formed by stacking one over the other, several such basic structural units.
The structural unit join together by hydrogen bond and hydroxyls of alumina sheet. As
the bond is fairly strong, the mineral is stable. Moreover, water can not easily enter
between the structural units and cause expansion.

The basic kaolinite unit is a two-layer unit that is formed by stacking a gibbsite sheet on a
silica sheet. These basic units are then stacked one on top of the other to form a lattice of the
mineral. The units are held together by hydrogen bonds. The strong bonding does not permit
water to enter the lattice. Thus, kaolinite minerals are stable and do not expand under
saturation. Kaolinite is the most abundant constituent of residual clay deposits.

MONTMORILLONITE MINERALS: One of the most common minerals of the

montmorillonite group of minerals. The basic structure unit consists of an alumina
sheet sandwiched between silica sheets. Successive structural unit are stacked one over
another like leaves of a book. The thickness of each structural unit is about 10 Ao. The
two successive structural units are joined together by a link between oxygen ions of the
two silica sheets. The link is due to natural attraction for cation in the intervening space
and due to Vander Waal forces. The negative charged surface of silica sheet attract
water in the space between two structural units.

The bonding between the three-layer units is by van der Waals forces. This bonding is
very weak and water can enter easily. Thus, this mineral can imbibe a large quantity of
water causing swelling. During dry weather, there will be shrinkage.
 This results in an expansion of the minerals; it may also cause dissociation of mineral
into individual structural unit of thickness 10 Ao. The soil containing a large amount of
mineral montmorillonite exhibits high shrinkage and high swelling characteristics.
Montmorillonite mineral have later diameter of 0.1 to 0.5 and the thickness of 0.001
to 0.005. The specific surface is about 800m 2/gm. It attracts the soil water to form an
absorbed layer, which gives plastic characteristics of soil.

SOIL CHAIN
Soil chain is a feeding relationship that exist within the activities of microorganisms
and soil nutrients in relation with the atmosphere.

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5

Photosynthesis Decomposers Shredders High level High level
predators predators
Mutualists Predators
Pathogens Grazers
Root feeders
 Soil food web

Nematode s

Births
Bacteria
Fungi
Organic Matter
Rat

LATERITE: Laterite is a soil and rock type rich in iron and aluminum and is commonly
considered to have formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterite is rusty-red
coloration because of high iron content. The develop by intensive and prolonged weathering
of underlying parents.

Exercises:

1. If your community appointed you as the Environmental Engineer to oversee the

development of health Centre in your locality. Discuss the factors you will consider prior to
commencement of the construction project from the natural state.

2. Briefly discuss the stakeholders involve in actual construction of a project in your locality.

3. Distinguish between soil stabilization and sand fill.

4. Distinguish between compaction, consolidation, compressibility and drainage.