Difference Between Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma

Collenchyma • Living Cells • Contains Protoplasm • Cell walls are cellulosic • Thickening of cell wall is
not uniform • Keeps the plant body soft • Sometimes it has chloroplast

Sclerenchyma • Dead cells • Do not have protoplasm • Cell walls are lignified • Thickening of cell wall is
uniform • Keeps plant body stiff and hard • Do not have chloroplast

The Tissue System

A group of tissues performing a similar function, irrespective of its position in the plant body, is called a
tissue system. In 1875, German Scientist Julius Von Sachs recognized three tissue systems in the plants.
They are:

1. Epidermal tissue system (derived from protoderm)

2. Ground tissue system (derived from ground meristem)

3. Vascular tissue system (derived from procambium)

In plants, tissues are organized into three major tissue systems, which work together to ensure
the plant's survival and proper functioning. These systems are:

* Dermal Tissue System (Epidermal Tissue System):

* Function: This system forms the outer protective covering of the plant body. It acts as the
first line of defense against physical damage, pathogens, and water loss. It also plays a role in
gas exchange and absorption (especially in roots).

* Components:

* Epidermis: The outermost layer of cells in young plants, usually single-layered, that covers
roots, stems, and leaves. It often secretes a waxy layer called the cuticle to prevent water loss
(absent in roots).

* Stomata: Small pores, typically on leaves, regulated by guard cells, that allow for gas
exchange (carbon dioxide intake, oxygen release) and transpiration (water vapor release).

* Trichomes: Hair-like outgrowths on the epidermis that can serve various functions like
protection, secretion, or absorption.

* Root hairs: Extensions of epidermal cells in roots that greatly increase the surface area for
water and mineral absorption.
 * Periderm: In older stems and roots, the epidermis is replaced by the periderm (bark),
which provides additional protection.

* Ground Tissue System (Fundamental Tissue System):

* Function: This system makes up the bulk of the plant body, filling the space between the
dermal and vascular tissues. It performs a variety of functions, including photosynthesis,
storage of food and water, and structural support.

* Components: This system is primarily composed of three basic simple permanent tissues:

* Parenchyma: The most common type of plant cell, found throughout the plant. They are
typically thin-walled, living cells involved in photosynthesis (e.g., mesophyll in leaves), storage
(e.g., starch in roots), and secretion.

* Collenchyma: Living cells with unevenly thickened primary cell walls, providing flexible
support to growing parts of the plant (e.g., in young stems and petioles).

* Sclerenchyma: Cells with thick, rigid, lignified secondary cell walls, providing strong
structural support and protection to mature parts of the plant. These cells are often dead at
maturity and include fibers and sclereids.

* Organization: The ground tissue is typically organized into distinct regions like the cortex
(below the epidermis in stems and roots) and the pith (the central region of stems and some
roots). In leaves, the ground tissue is called the mesophyll.

* Vascular Tissue System (Conducting Tissue System):

* Function: This system is responsible for the long-distance transport of water, minerals, and
organic nutrients (sugars) throughout the plant body. It also provides mechanical support.

* Components: This system is made up of two complex tissues:

* Xylem: Primarily responsible for the transport of water and dissolved minerals from the
roots to the rest of the plant. It also provides structural support. Xylem consists of tracheids,
vessel elements (which are dead at maturity), xylem parenchyma, and xylem fibers.

* Phloem: Primarily responsible for the transport of sugars (produced during photosynthesis)
from the leaves to other parts of the plant where they are needed for growth or storage.
Phloem consists of sieve-tube elements, companion cells, phloem parenchyma, and phloem
fibers.
 * Organization: Xylem and phloem are typically found together in structures called vascular
bundles. The arrangement of these bundles varies depending on the plant organ (roots, stems,
leaves).

These three tissue systems are present in all major plant organs (roots, stems, and leaves) and
are interconnected, allowing the plant to function as a whole.
What is Plant Tissue?

Plant tissue are organized into systems such as dermal, vascular, and ground tissues. Dermal
tissues form the outer protective layer of the plant, while vascular tissues facilitate the
transport of water, nutrients, and sugars. Ground tissues fill the interior of the plant and
perform various metabolic functions, including support and storage. Plant tissues can be further
categorized into permanent tissues, which are mature and differentiated, and meristematic
tissues, which are regions of actively dividing cells responsible for growth and development

Classification of Plant Tissue System

Classification of plant tissues based on location and the kind of cells they contain is given below:

Classification of Plant Tissues Based on Location in the Plant

Classification of Plant Tissues Based on Location in the Plant is given below:

1. Epidermal Tissues

• Location: Covers the outside of a plant in a single layer of cells.

• Function: Protects against water loss, pathogens, and physical damage.

2. Ground Tissues

• Location: Fills the interior of a plant.

• Function: Provides support, storage, and is involved in photosynthesis.

3. Vascular Tissues

• Location: Found throughout the plant, primarily in the roots, stems, and leaves. •
Function: Transports water, nutrients, and organic compounds.

Classification of Plant Tissues Based on the Kind of Cells They Contain

Classification of Plant Tissues Based on the Kind of Cells They Contain is given below:

1. Meristematic Tissues

• Characteristics: Composed of actively dividing cells.

• Types:

o Apical Meristems: Located at the tips of roots and shoots, responsible for primary
growth.

o Lateral Meristems: Found in stems and roots, responsible for secondary growth
(increase in girth).

o Intercalary Meristems: Located at internodes or the base of leaves, particularly in

monocots, facilitating growth in length.

2. Permanent Tissues

• Characteristics: Composed of cells that have ceased dividing and have differentiated.

• Types:

a. Simple Permanent Tissues:

o Parenchyma: Basic tissue type, involved in storage, photosynthesis, and wound healing.

o Collenchyma: Provides flexible support to growing parts of the plant.

o Sclerenchyma: Provides rigid support and protection; includes fibers and sclereids.

b. Complex Permanent Tissues:

o Xylem: Transports water and minerals; includes tracheids, vessel elements, xylem
parenchyma, and xylem fibers.

o Phloem: Transports organic nutrients; includes sieve tube elements, companion cells,
phloem parenchyma, and phloem fibers
Types of Plant Tissues

Plant Tissues, based on their physical structure and functionality, can be grouped into-
meristematic, permanent, and protective tissues.

1. Meristematic Tissues

2. Permanent Tissues

3. Protective Tissues

Meristematic Tissues

These cells undergo continuous division, contributing to the increase in both- the length and
girth of the plant. Upon maturation, these tissues have the ability to stretch, elongate, and
differentiate into other types of tissues. Meristematic tissues can be categorized into three
types: apical meristems, lateral meristems, and intercalary meristems.

• Apical Meristem: These tissues are found at the tips of shoots and roots, which help in
the increase of plant length.

• Lateral Meristem: These tissues are found at the radial fractions or a root. This
meristem helps in the structural development of the plant.
• Intercalary Meristem: These tissues are located at certain points along the stems or
internodes of plants. These meristems play an important role in plant growth and development,
contributing to the lengthening and branching of the plant.

Permanent Tissues

These tissues are also known as non-meristematic tissues, consisting of cells that have
undergone differentiation and have attained a permanent form and function. There are three
kinds of simple permanent tissues - parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.

• Parenchyma: These consist of living cells polygonal in shape with a large vacuole in the
center. The parenchyma tissues perform the following functions including storage,
photosynthesis, and buoyancy (flotation of plant on water). Additionally, they have large
intercellular spaces in between them.

• Collenchyma: These tissues consist of living cells and elongated in shape, and have no
intercellular space between them. These provide mechanical support and flexibility; they allow
different parts of the plant easy-bending properties.

• Sclerenchyma: This tissue is made up of dead cells that have lignin deposits on their cell
wall. These provide the plant with mechanical strength thus aiding the plant to survive severe
strains.
Complex Permanent Tissues

These tissues are made up of a combination of cell types. These cells work together to perform
specialized functions. There are two types of complex tissues- xylem and phloem.

• Xylem: This tissue is vascular & mechanical in form. Its primary function is the
transportation of water and minerals upwards from the roots to other parts of the plant also,
the xylem functions in only one direction i.e. vertical. Its secondary function is to provide
structural support. The xylem is composed of four components- tracheid, vessels, xylem
parenchyma, and xylem fibers.

• Phloem: Unlike the xylem, the phloem is bidirectional i.e. it can function upwards as
well as downwards. Phloem transports the food prepared via photosynthesis from the leaves to
the whole plant body.

Protective Tissues

These tissues offer support to a plant. These are mainly of two types: cork and epidermis.

• Cork: This tissue is made up of dead cells and acts as an outer protective layer of the
plant. Additionally, this tissue lacks intercellular gaps and is therefore impenetrable to gas and
water molecules.
• Epidermis: Present in the outermost layer of the plant i.e. on flowers, roots, stem, etc.,
this layer protects the plant from physical damage. Epidermis tissues are covered with cuticle, a
waxy, water-proof substance secreted by epidermal cells. Cuticle helps reduce evaporation of
water from the plant and entry of pathogens thus protecting the plant from desiccation &
infection.

Properties of Meristematic Tissues

Properties of Meristematic Tissues are:

• Meristematic tissues consist of cells that are actively dividing, contributing to plant
growth and development.

• Cells in meristematic tissues are undifferentiated and have the potential to differentiate
into various specialized cell types.

• Meristematic tissues are primarily located in regions of the plant where growth occurs,
such as the tips of roots and shoots.

• These tissues enable rapid growth and elongation of plant structures, allowing for the
formation of new roots, stems, leaves, and reproductive organs.

• Meristematic cells are pluripotent, meaning they have the ability to develop into
different types of cells depending on environmental cues and developmental signals.

• Cells in meristematic tissues are generally small and densely packed, with thin cell walls
and abundant cytoplasm to support active cell division.

• Meristematic tissues lack specialized structures such as chloroplasts and vacuoles, as

their primary function is cell division rather than specialized metabolic activities.

Properties of Permanent Tissues

Properties of Permanent Tissues are:

• Permanent tissues consist of mature, specialized cells that have ceased to divide and
have adopted specific functions.

• Permanent tissues comprise various cell types adapted to perform specific functions
such as support, storage, and photosynthesis.

• Some permanent tissues, like sclerenchyma and collenchyma, provide structural support
to plant organs, aiding in upright growth and resistance to mechanical stress.
• Parenchyma cells, a type of permanent tissue, are involved in essential metabolic
processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, and storage of nutrients.

• Permanent tissues exhibit adaptations to environmental conditions and plant

requirements, such as the ability to store water or withstand mechanical forces.

• Permanent tissues are distributed throughout the plant body, serving specific functions
in different organs and tissues.

• Cells in permanent tissues have stable cell walls and structures suited to their
specialized functions, allowing for long-term maintenance and integrity of plant tissues.

Vascular Cambium

The vascular cambium is a meristematic tissue layer found in the stems and roots of many
vascular plants, and is responsible for secondary growth or increase in girth. It is generally
located between the xylem and phloem in the stem and vascular bundles of the root. The
primary function of the vascular cambium is to produce secondary xylem (wood) and secondary
phloem (inner bark), thereby contributing to secondary growth. In addition to the vascular
cambium, several plants have a cork cambium (phellogen) that produces cork cells towards the
exterior, forming the protective outer bark layer.

Plant Tissue System and Their Functions

Plant tissue system function includes:

• Provides a protective barrier against physical damage, pathogens, and water loss.

• Facilitates the movement of water, nutrients, and sugars throughout the plant.

• Provides structural support to maintain the plant's shape and enable upright growth.

• Conducts photosynthesis to produce energy and organic compounds necessary for

growth and development.

• Stores nutrients, water, and energy reserves in various plant parts.

• Enables growth through cell division and differentiation, and assists in tissue repair and
regeneration.

• Regulates the exchange of gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide) necessary for photosynthesis
and respiration.
 • Produces compounds and structures (e.g., trichomes, secondary metabolites) that deter
herbivores and pathogens.

• Supports the development of reproductive structures such as flowers, fruits, and seeds.

Plant Cell :-
What is plant cell ?

A plant cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in plants. They
are eukaryotic cells, meaning they possess a membrane-bound nucleus and
other organelles, and are characterized by features like a rigid cell wall made
of cellulose, chloroplasts for photosynthesis, and a large central vacuole.
Here's a more detailed look:

Key Features of a Plant Cell:

 Eukaryotic:
Like animal cells, plant cells are eukaryotic, having a nucleus and other membrane-
bound organelles.
 Cell Wall: Plant cells have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, providing structural support
and protection.
 Chloroplasts:
These organelles are responsible for photosynthesis, the process by which plants
convert light energy into chemical energy.
 Large Central Vacuole:
This large organelle helps maintain cell turgor pressure and regulates water and
nutrient storage.
 Other Organelles:
Plant cells also contain organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, and Golgi apparatus, which perform various cellular functions.
Functions of a Plant Cell:
 Photosynthesis: Chloroplasts capture sunlight and convert it into energy through
photosynthesis.
 Structural Support: The cell wall provides rigidity and shape to plant cells and tissues.
 Nutrient Storage: The central vacuole stores water and other nutrients.
 Cellular Processes: Organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, and Golgi apparatus
perform essential cellular functions.

parts of the plant cell-

 Cell Wall:
A rigid outer layer made of cellulose that provides support and protection to the cell.
 Cell Membrane:
A thin, flexible layer that surrounds the cell and regulates the movement of substances
in and out.
 Nucleus:
Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) and controls cell activity.
 Cytoplasm:
The jelly-like substance that fills the cell and contains various organelles and other
components.
 Chloroplasts:
Organelles where photosynthesis occurs, converting light energy into chemical
energy.
 Vacuoles: Large, fluid-filled sacs that store water, nutrients, and waste products, also
playing a role in cell shape and support.

The graphic below illustrates the key parts of the plant cell.
Following are some of the different types of plant cells:

Collenchyma Cells
They are hard or rigid cells, which play a primary role in providing support to the plants
when there is restraining growth in a plant due to lack of hardening agent in primary
walls.

Sclerenchyma Cells
These cells are more rigid compared to collenchyma cells and this is because of the
presence of a hardening agent. These cells are usually found in all plant roots and
mainly involved in providing support to the plants.

Parenchyma Cells
Parenchyma cells play a significant role in all plants. They are the living cells of plants,
which are involved in the production of leaves. They are also involved in the exchange
of gases, production of food, storage of organic products and cell metabolism. These
cells are typically more flexible than others because they are thinner.
 Xylem Cells
Xylem cells are the transport cells in vascular plants. They help in the transport of water
and minerals from the roots to the leaves and other parts of the plants.

Phloem Cells
Phloem cells are other transport cells in vascular plants. They transport food prepared
by the leaves to different parts of the plants.

Plant cells come in various types, each with specific roles in growth, support, and metabolism.
Here are the main types:

 Parenchyma cells: The most common type, responsible for photosynthesis, storage, and
healing wounds.
 Collenchyma cells: Provide flexible support to growing parts of the plant, like young
stems and leaves.
 Sclerenchyma cells: Offer rigid structural support, containing thick walls made of lignin.
 Xylem cells: Include tracheids and vessel elements, which transport water and minerals
throughout the plant.
 Phloem cells: Include sieve tube elements and companion cells, responsible for
transporting nutrients.
 Epidermal cells: Form the outer layer, protecting the plant and regulating water loss.
 Guard cells: Surround stomata and control gas exchange and water loss.
 Meristematic cells: Found in growing regions, actively dividing to produce new cells.

Apical meristem :-
Apical meristem is a region of rapidly dividing cells found at the tips of plant
roots and shoots, responsible for primary growth and the elongation of plant
organs. It's a key source of new cells that differentiate into various plant
tissues.

Elaboration:
 Location:
Apical meristems are located at the tips of roots (root apical meristem) and shoots
(shoot apical meristem).
 Function:
They are responsible for the primary growth of the plant, which is the elongation of
roots and shoots, and the formation of primary tissues.
 Cell Type:
The cells in apical meristems are immature and actively dividing, giving rise to new
plant cells.
 Examples:
The root apical meristem produces the root cap, which protects the meristem as it
pushes through the soil. The shoot apical meristem produces leaves, buds, and other
aerial structures.
 Types of Meristems:
Apical meristems can be further classified into root apical meristem and shoot apical
meristem, both of which contribute to the overall growth and development of the plant.
 Significance:
Apical meristems are essential for plant growth and development, ensuring that the
plant can continue to grow in length and form new organs throughout its life cycle.

What is Stomata ?
Stomata are tiny pores or openings, primarily found on the epidermis of leaves
and stems, that play a crucial role in plant gas exchange and water
regulation. They facilitate the intake of carbon dioxide needed for
photosynthesis and the release of oxygen, a byproduct of
photosynthesis. Additionally, stomata regulate water loss through
transpiration.
 Here's a more detailed look at stomata:
 Location:
Stomata are most commonly found on the underside of leaves, but can also be
present on stems and other aerial plant parts.
 Function:
 Gas Exchange: Stomata act as pathways for the entry of carbon dioxide and the exit of
oxygen and water vapor, crucial for photosynthesis and respiration.
 Transpiration: Stomata regulate water loss through transpiration, a process where water
evaporates from the plant's surface and travels through the stomata.
 Structure:
Stomata are enclosed by two specialized cells called guard cells, which control the
opening and closing of the pore. The opening and closing of the pore is influenced by
various factors like light, humidity, and carbon dioxide levels.
 Importance:
Stomata are vital for plant survival and growth by enabling gas exchange and
controlling water loss, which are essential for photosynthesis and overall plant health.

Types of Stomata :-
 Diacytic Stomata – The stomata is surrounded by subsidiary cells, which are placed
perpendicular to the guard cells in the stomata.
 Anomocytic Stomata – Unlike other stomata, these have a fixed shape and size, and are
embedded in epidermal cells. However, it is very hard to find the number of anomocytic cells, or
their arrangement generally.
 Paracytic Stomata – This stomata observes two subsidiaries that surround the stomatal pore
parallelly, as well as the guard cell.
 Gramineous Stomata – Similar to the paracytic cell, the subsidiary cells are placed parallel to
the guard cells. More importantly, in these types of stomata, each single stomata consists of two
guard cells, which are in a shape similar to that of dumbbells.
 Anisocytic Stomata – This stomata are generally surrounded by three subsidiary cells, each of
different sizes.

Stomata are small pores on the surface of leaves and stems that help plants exchange gases and
regulate water loss. They can be classified into different types based on the arrangement of
surrounding cells:

1. Anomocytic Stomata (Irregular-celled type) – The guard cells are surrounded by a

variable number of cells that resemble other epidermal cells, with no distinct
arrangement.
2. Anisocytic Stomata (Unequal-celled type) – Three subsidiary cells surround the guard
cells, with one being noticeably smaller than the others.
3. Paracytic Stomata (Parallel-celled type) – Two subsidiary cells are positioned parallel to
the guard cells.
4. Diacytic Stomata (Cross-celled type) – Two subsidiary cells are arranged perpendicular
to the guard cells.
5. Gramineous Stomata – Found in grasses, these stomata have dumbbell-shaped guard
cells.
6. Coniferous Stomata – Sunken stomata with guard cells partially covered by subsidiary
cells, common in conifers.
What is vascular bundles?
 What is vascular bundles?

Vascular bundles are the plant's transport system, consisting of two main
types of tissue: xylem and phloem. These tissues are responsible for
transporting water, minerals, and nutrients throughout the plant. Vascular
bundles are also known as leaf veins.

Elaboration:
 Xylem:
Transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant.
 Phloem:
Transports sugars, amino acids, and other organic molecules (food) from the leaves to
other parts of the plant.
 Cambium:
A layer of tissue between the xylem and phloem that allows for growth and
development of new vascular tissue.
 Structure:
Vascular bundles are typically arranged in strands within the plant's stem, roots, and
leaves.
 Types:
Vascular bundles can be categorized into different types based on the arrangement of
xylem and phloem, including radial, conjoint (collateral or bicollateral), and concentric.
 Function:
The vascular system provides the plant with a network for transporting essential
substances and for support.
 Vascular bundles are structures in plants that contain xylem and phloem, responsible for transporting
water, nutrients, and food.They are classified into different types based on their arrangement:

1. Collateral Bundle – Xylem and phloem are arranged side by side on the same radius. It
can be:
o Open Collateral (with cambium, allowing secondary growth)
o Closed Collateral (without cambium, preventing secondary growth)
2. Bicollateral Bundle – Phloem is present on both sides of the xylem, with two cambium
layers. Found in plants like Cucurbita.
3. Concentric Bundle – One type of vascular tissue surrounds the other:
o Amphivasal Bundle – Xylem encircles phloem (Dracaena, Yucca).
o Amphicribral Bundle – Phloem encircles xylem (Selaginella).
4. Radial Bundle – Xylem and phloem are arranged in separate strands along different
radii, common in roots.

Vascular bundles, responsible for transporting water, minerals, and food in

plants, come in several types based on the arrangement of xylem and
phloem. The main types include radial, collateral, bicollateral, and concentric
bundles.

1. Radial Vascular Bundles:

 In radial bundles, xylem and phloem are arranged in separate patches, alternating along
different radii of the plant.
 These bundles are common in roots and are always closed.
2. Conjoint Vascular Bundles:
 Conjoint bundles have xylem and phloem arranged on the same radius of the vascular
bundle.
 Collateral Bundles: Xylem and phloem are arranged side by side, with xylem towards
the inside and phloem towards the outside. They can be either open (with cambium
between xylem and phloem) or closed (without cambium).
 Bicollateral Bundles: Phloem strands are present on both the outer and inner sides of
the xylem.
3. Concentric Vascular Bundles:
 In concentric bundles, one vascular tissue (xylem or phloem) completely surrounds the
other.
 Amphivasal: Phloem is in the center, surrounded by xylem.
 Amphicribral: Xylem is in the center, surrounded by phloem.
 Stele and its Evolution :-
The stelar system, or stele, is the central vascular cylinder in a plant, and its
evolution has been a topic of interest in botany. The earliest form of stele was
the protostele, which evolved into more complex types like siphonosteles and
eusteles. This evolution allowed plants to increase in size, complexity, and
adaptability.
Here's a more detailed look:

Protostele:
 Definition:
The simplest type of stele, characterized by a solid core of vascular tissue (xylem)
surrounded by phloem.
 Types:
 Haplostele: A single, solid core of xylem.
 Actinostele: A star-shaped xylem core.
 Plectostele: A xylem core with areas of vascular tissue that have been broken up.
Siphonostele:
 Definition:
A stele with a central pith region surrounded by a tubular vascular region.
 Evolution:
Evolved from protosteles, with the central xylem core being replaced by
parenchymatous pith cells.
 Types:
 Ectophloic: The phloem is located outside the xylem.
 Amphiphloic: The phloem is located on both the inner and outer sides of the xylem.
Eustele:
 Definition:
A stele with separate vascular bundles arranged in a ring or circle around a central
pith.
 Evolution:
Evolved from siphonosteles in higher plants like gymnosperms and angiosperms.
Key Evolutionary Trends:
 From Protosteles to Siphonosteles:
The development of a central pith, a region of parenchymatous cells, is a significant
step in stelar evolution.
 Development of Leaf Gaps:
The presence of leaf gaps, where the vascular tissue splits to supply the leaves, is
another important evolutionary feature.
 Breakdown of Vascular Tissue:
The stele can break down into separate vascular bundles, leading to more complex
stelar types like dictyosteles and eusteles.

The stele is the central vascular cylinder in plant stems and roots, consisting of xylem, phloem,
pericycle, and sometimes pith. It plays a crucial role in transporting water, nutrients, and food
throughout the plant.
Evolution of Stele

The evolution of the stele in plants, particularly in Pteridophytes, follows a progressive pattern:

1. Protostele – The most primitive type, where xylem forms a solid core surrounded by
phloem.
o Haplostele – A smooth, cylindrical xylem core.
o Actinostele – Xylem forms a star-like structure.
o Plectostele – Xylem is divided into separate plates.
2. Siphonostele – More advanced, with a hollow xylem cylinder and a central
parenchymatous pith.
o Ectophloic Siphonostele – Phloem is only on the outer side.
o Amphiphloic Siphonostele – Phloem is present on both sides of xylem.
3. Solenostele – A further development of siphonostele, with distinct leaf gaps.
4. Dictyostele – Found in ferns, where the vascular system is broken into multiple strands.
5. Eustele – The most advanced type, found in seed plants, where vascular bundles are
arranged in a ring.