TOPIC:Respiratory physiology and Function

Moderator:Dr Shikha sharma

Presented by:Dr Burhan ul Khursheed

Respiratory System Functions

 Supplies the body with oxygen and dispose of carbon

dioxide
 Filters inspired air
 Produces sound
 Clears the body from excess water and heat
 Control blood pH
 Primary function is to obtain oxygen for use by body's
cells & eliminate carbon dioxide that cells produce
Breathing

 Breathing (pulmonary ventilation). consists of two

cyclic phases:
a. Inhalation, also called inspiration - draws gases
into the lungs.
b. Exhalation, also called expiration - forces gases
out of the lungs.
Respiratory events

 Pulmonary ventilation = exchange of gases

between lungs and atmosphere
1. External respiration = exchange of gases
between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries
2. Internal respiration = exchange of gases
between systemic capillaries and tissue cells
LUNG VOLUMES and capacities
 TIDAL VOLUME (TV): Volume inspired or expired with each normal/breath.
= 500 ml
 INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (IRV): Maximum volume that can be
inspired over the inspiration of a tidal volume/normal breath. Used during
exercise/exertion.= Male 3100 ml/ Female 1900 ml
 EXPIRATRY RESERVE VOLUME (ERV): Maximal volume that can be expired
after the expiration of a tidal volume/normal breath. = Male 1200 ml/
Female 700 ml
 RESIDUAL VOLUME (RV): Volume that remains in the lungs
 after a maximal expiration. Male 1200 ml/ Female 1100 ml
 Inspiratory capacity is the sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve
volume, IRV + TV (500 ml 3100 ml 3600 ml in males and 500 ml 1900 ml
2400 ml in females).
 Functional residual capacity is the sum of residual
volume and expiratory reserve volume, ERV + RV
(1200 ml 1200 ml 2400 ml in males and 1100 ml
700 ml 1800 ml in females).
 Vital capacity is the sum of inspiratory reserve
volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume,
IRV + TV + ERV = IC + ERV (4800 ml in males and
3100 ml in females).
 Total lung capacity is the sum of vital capacity and
residual volume IRV+ TV + ERV + RV = IC + FRC
(4800 ml 1200 ml 6000 ml in males and 3100 ml
1100 ml 4200 ml in females).
Physiology of respiration
 The process of gas exchange in the body, called respiration, it has three
basic steps:
 Pulmonary ventilation or breathing
 It is the inhalation (inflow) and exhalation (outflow) of air and involves the
exchange of air between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs.
 External (pulmonary) respiration

 It is the exchange of gases between the alveoli of the lungs and the
blood in pulmonary capillaries across the respiratory membrane.
In this process, pulmonary capillary blood gains O2 and loses CO2.
 Internal (tissue) respiration
 It is the exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries and
tissue cells. In this step the blood loses O2 and gains CO2. Within cells, the
metabolic reactions that consume O2 and give off CO2 during the
production of ATP are termed cellular respiration
Inhalation

 Breathing IN is called inhalation (inspiration)

 Each inhalation, the air pressure inside the lungs is
equal to the air pressure of the atmosphere, which is
about 760 mmHg.
 Air to flow into the lungs, the pressure inside the alveoli
must become lower than the atmospheric pressure.
 This condition is achieved by increasing the size of the
lungs.
Exhalation
 Breathing out or exhalation starts when the inspiratory muscles relax. As the
diaphragm relaxes, its dome moves superiorly owing to its elasticity. As the
external intercostals relax, the ribs are depressed.
 The pressure in the lungs is greater than the pressure of the atmosphere.
Normal exhalation during quiet breathing
 It is a passive process because no muscular contractions are involved.
Instead, exhalation results from elastic recoil of the chest wall and lungs,
both of which have a natural tendency to spring back after they have
been stretched.
 Two inwardly directed forces contribute to elastic recoil:
A. The recoil of elastic fibers that were stretched during inhalation
B. The inward pull of surface tension due to the film of alveolar fluid.
External respiration or pulmonary gas exchange

 It is the diffusion of O2 from air in the alveoli of the lungs to

blood in pulmonary capillaries and the diffusion of CO2 in the
opposite direction.
 External respiration in the lungs converts deoxygenated blood
(depleted of some O2) coming from the right side of the heart
into oxygenated blood (saturated with O2) that returns to the
left side of the heart.
 As blood flows through the pulmonary capillaries, it picks up O2
from alveolar air and unloads CO2 into alveolar air, this process
is called an “exchange” of gases, this process is carried by
diffusion.
Internal respiration

 The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into the

aorta and through the systemic arteries to systemic
capillaries. The exchange of O2 and CO2 between
systemic capillaries and tissue cells is called internal
respiration or systemic gas exchange
Oxygen cascade
 It is the process of decreasing oxygen tension from atmosphere to
mitochondria
 Atmosphere Alveoli Arterial blood Capillary
Mitochondria

.
Humidification
Water vapour pressure at body temp = 47mmhg
.Thus pressure exerted by gas is saturated moist air Pb=760-47=713mmhg
.Partial pressure of 02in saturated moist air Po2=Pb*Fio2
713*0.21=149mmhg
ALVEOLI
 Down the respiratory tree O2 tension is further
diluted by the alveolar Co2
 The partial pressure of alvelolar oxygen (paO2)is
calculated by alvelolar gass equation
paO2=piO2-paCo2/Rq
 Rq is the propotion of Co2 produced to the o2
uptake
 paCo2=paCo2(49mmhg) as Co2 is freely diffusible
 paO2=149-(40/0.8)-100
Alveoli to blood
 paO2 100mmhg pcapO2 40mmhg
 Oxygen diffuses from alveoli to pulmonary
capilaries according to concentration fradient
 Oxygenated,blood moves to pulmonary vein left
side of heart arterial system system tissues
 Oxygen delivery to tissue

 Hb mediate +dissolved state

 O2 carrying capacity of blood ={(1.34 *Hb
*SaO2)}*Q
 O2 delivery to tissue depends on

1. Hb concentration
2. O2 binding capacity of Hb
3. Saturation of Hb
4. Amount of dissolved O2
5. Cardiac Output
Unloading of O2 at Tissue
 Intially the dissolved O2 is consumed.Then the
sequential unloading of Hb bound O 2 occur
 Pasteur point is the critical Po2 below the o2
delivery is unable to meet the tissue demands.
Oxygen Transport
 Oxygen does not dissolve easily in water, so only about 1.5% of
inhaled O2 is dissolved in blood plasma, which is mostly water.
About 98.5% of blood O2 is bound to hemoglobin in red blood
Cells. Each 100 mL of oxygenated blood contains the equivalent
of 20 mL of gaseous O2.
 The heme portion of hemoglobin contains four atoms of iron,
each capable of binding to a molecule of O2. The 98.5% of the
O2 that is bound to hemoglobin. Oxygen and hemoglobin bind
in an easily reversible reaction to form oxyhemoglobin. O2
+Hgb = 4HgbO2
 As blood flows through tissue capillaries, the iron–oxygen
reaction reverses. Hemoglobin releases oxygen, which diffuses
first into the interstitial fluid and then into cells.
Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hemoglobin for Oxygen

 Although PO2 is the most important factor

that determines the percent O2 saturation of
hemoglobin. The following four factors affect
the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 :
 Acidity (pH).
 Partial pressure of carbon dioxide
 Temperature.
 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG)
Acidity

 As acidity increases (pH decreases), the affinity of

hemoglobin for O2 decreases, and O2 dissociates more
readily from hemoglobin.
 When H+ ions bind to amino acids in hemoglobin, they
alter its structure slightly, decreasing its oxygen-
carrying capacity. Thus, lowered pH drives O2 off
hemoglobin, making more O2 available for tissue cells.
Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curves showing the
relationship of pH
Partial pressure of carbon dioxide

 CO2 enters the blood it is temporarily converted to

carbonic acid (H2CO3).
 It dissociates and form hydrogen ions and
bicarbonate ions. So in red blood cells the H+
concentration increases, pH decreases. Thus, an
increased PCO2 produces a more acidic
environment, which helps release O2 from
hemoglobin.
Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curves showing the
relationship of PCO2
Temperature

Heat is a by-product of the metabolic

reactions of all cells, and the heat
released by contracting muscle fibers
tends to raise body temperature.
Metabolically active cells require more
O2 and liberate more acids and heat.
Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curves showing the effect of
temperature changes.
2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (BPG)
(Diphosphoglycerate)

 BPG is formed in red blood cells when they break down

glucose to produce ATP in a process called glycolysis.
When BPG combines with hemoglobin, it unloads or
decreases the bonding with oxygen.
CO2 Transportation
 Normal resting conditions, each 100 mL of
deoxygenated blood contains the equivalent of 53
mL of gaseous CO2, which is transported in the
blood in three main forms
 Dissolved CO2. The smallest percentage— about
7%—is dissolved in blood plasma. On reaching the
lungs, it diffuses into alveolar air and is exhaled.
• Carbamino compounds:- About 23% of CO2,
combines with the amino groups of amino acids and
proteins in blood to form carbamino compounds. The
main CO2 binding sites are the terminal amino acids in
the two alpha and two beta globin chains.
Hemoglobin that has bound CO2 is termed
carbaminohemoglobin (Hb—CO2):
  Bicarbonate ions. The greatest percentage of CO2
about 70%—is transported in blood plasma as
bicarbonate ions (HCO3-).
 CO2 diffuses into systemic capillaries and enters red
blood cells, it reacts with water in the presence of
the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA) to form
carbonic acid, which dissociates into H+ and HCO3-.
CO2 Dissociation Curve

The arterial point (a) and the venous point (v)

Regulation of respiration
 Regulation of respiration control is the rate and
depth of respiration as per the physiologic demand.
Control of respiration primarily involves neurons in
the reticular formation of the medulla and pons.
Because the medulla sets the respiratory rhythm. The
purpose of Regulation of respiration are
 To maintain a constant O2 and CO2 level in blood
 It adjust the O2 supply as per the
metabolic demand of the body.
 It helps to regulate acid base balance or pH.
  The size of the thorax is altered by the action of the
respiratory muscles, which contract as a result of nerve
impulses transmitted to them from centers in the brain
and relax in the absence of nerve impulses. This
impulses travels along the phrenic and intercostal
nerves to excite the diaphragm and external intercostal
muscles
 These nerve impulses are sent from clusters of neurons
located bilaterally in the medulla oblongata and pons
of the brainstem.
 This widely dispersed group of neurons, collectively
called the respiratory center.

Mechanism of Regulation of respiration

There are two major mechanisms

 Nervous regulation of respiration
 Chemical regulation of respiration
Nervous regulation of respiration

 Respiratory Center
 The respiratory centers are divided into four major
groups, two groups in the medulla and two in the pons.
 The two groups in the medulla are
 The dorsal respiratory group
 The ventral respiratory group.
 The two groups in the pons are the pneumotaxic center
and the apneustic center also known as the pontine
respiratory group.

 Respiratory centers can be divided into three areas on
the basis of their functions:
 The medullary rhythmicity area in the medulla oblongata
 The pneumotaxic area in the pons
 The apneustic area, also in the pons
Medullary Rhythmicity Area

 The function of the medullary rhythmicity area is

to control the basic rhythm of respiration. It includes
two areas
1. Inspiratory medullary rhythmicity area or
inspiratory centre
2. Expiratory medullary rhythmicity area or
expiratory centre.
 Inspiratory centre:
• It establish the basic rhythm of breathing.
When its inspiratory neurons fire,a burst of
impulses travels along the phrenic and
intercostal nerves to excite the diaphragm and
external intercostal muscles.

 Expiratory centre:
• Impulses from the expiratory area cause
contraction of the internal intercostal and
abdominal muscles, which decreases the size of
the thoracic cavity and causes forceful
exhalation.
Pneumotaxic Area
 Ittransmits inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory
area. The major effect of these nerve impulses is
to help turn off the inspiratory area before the
lungs become too full of air.
Apneustic area
 This area sends stimulatory impulses to the
inspiratory area that activate it and prolong
inhalation. The result is a long, deep inhalation.

Chemical regulation of respiration

 There are three important chemical factors

controlling respiration

 Concentration of CO2 in blood

 Concentration of H+ ions or pH

 Concentration of oxygen In blood

Concentration of CO2 in blood

 When CO2 concentration in blood increases, it

stimulates the chemoreceptors. There are two group
of chemoreceptors
 Peripheral chemoreceptors – situated at the
carotid body and aortic body
 Central chemoreceptors – situated at the
medulla oblongata
 When CO2 concentration in blood increases

Stimulates the chemoreceptors

Transmission of sensory impulses to respiratory centers

Activation of respiratory centers

Increases the activities of respiration (rate and Depth)

Increase alveolar ventilation

Expulsion of CO2 and decreases the level of CO2 in blood

Concentration of H+ ions or pH

 When Concentration of H+ ions increases, it

stimulates the peripheral chemoreceptors. H+ ions
diffuses with CO2 and form carbonic acid, to cross
the blood brain barrier then dissociates into H+ and
HCO3. There by H+ ions stimulates the central
chemoreceptors then the respiratory centers,
resulting a reduction in the level of CO2 in blood.
This will inturn decrease concentration of H+ in
blood or increase the pH in to normal.
Concentration of oxygen In blood
When O2 concentration in blood decreases

Stimulates the peripheral chemoreceptors

Transmission of impulses to respiratory centers

Activation of respiratory centers

Increases the activities of respiration (rate and Depth )

Increase alveolar ventilation

Increases the uptake of O2



Thereby increases the level of O2 in blood