UPH013 – Physics

Diffraction

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 What is diffraction?
Diffraction is phenomenon which is defined as the bending of
waves around corner by an obstacle or through an aperture into
the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle/aperture.

Bending
of wave
around the
corner

How does it occur?

❖ The obstacle, aperture, slit or object become a secondary source

of the propagating wave.

❖ Then the wave emanating from secondary source interfere to

give rise to diffraction.
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 Condition for diffraction

Condition for diffraction

aperture size or slit width a ≈ λ

Can we use the fact that minima occurs for asin θ=mλ in
order to explain the condition a ≈ λ ?
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 Our experience with diffraction in daily life

Side view Top view

Q1: Can we observe diffraction
due to door or window for
Ultrasonic wave?

Another example

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 Diffraction: water wave

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 Q2: Why cannot we experience
diffraction of light wave in our
daily life?

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 Wavefront
The wavefront is the set or collection of all points on
a wave which are in phase with each other (phase
difference is strictly zero).

Direction of movement for traveling wave

Wave

Wavefronts

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 Type of wavefronts
1. Planar
2. Circular
3. Cylindrical
4. Spherical

➢ White arrows denote direction of wave motion

➢ Yellow lines denote wavefront

Spherical wavefront Planar wavefront

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 Huygens’s principle:
Each and every point of a wavefront of light may be regarded as
new sources of wavelets that expand in every direction at a rate
equal to the velocity propagation.

Ray

Secondary
wavelet

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 Difference between interference and diffraction:

➢In interference, minima may be perfectly dark while

this may not be the case for diffraction.

➢In interference, all maxima can be of same intensity

but they have varying intensity in diffraction.

➢Fringe width could be equal in some cases in

interference while they are never equal in diffraction.

➢ Two separate wavefronts originating from two

different coherent sources interact in the interference,
while secondary wavelets originating from same
wavefronts interact with each other to give rise to
diffraction.

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 Diffraction is a special case of Interference

Diffraction is simply the N → ∞ limit of interference, where N is the

number of secondary source defined on a single wavefront. It may
seem thus that there is no need to introduce a new term for it. But
on the other hand, a specific type of patterns occur for specific
reason. That is why a separate term “diffraction” is often used.

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 Fresnel class and Fraunhofer class of diffraction

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 Diffraction at single slit:

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 Diffraction due to slits
Assumptions: (i) the source of light is a coherent source of light
(ii) single slit is a one dimensional object (like a line segment without
much width). Each point of line segment is acting as a source of light.
Our aim: to calculate intensity due to single slit and multiple
slits placed at equal distance.
Strategy: consider equally spaced points along the slits. Let
these points to be acting as secondary source of light. Light
emanating from these point sources interfere. We want to
obtain the resultant electric field due to all the points and
hence the Intensity.

Light emanating from these points turn out to have these form
a cos (ωt)
a cos (ωt – φ)
a cos (ωt – 2φ)
............................
.............................
a cos (ωt – (n-1)φ)
where a is the amplitude of electric field, ω is the frequency, φ
is the phase difference due to path difference from two neighb
oring points.
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 A qualitative way to understand the condition
for diffraction minima

Divide the slit in two parts.

Suppose we are interested in
minima. Then, for each point A in
one part, there exists a point A’ in
θ
other part so that path difference
P at angle θ is λ/2
A’P=
Thus,
which is the condition for first
minima

Note: this is only to give an qualitative idea

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 Calculation of resultant intensity in
diffraction (single slit)

➢ Consider n equidistant points (A1, A2, A3 ….. ) along the slit.

➢ According to Huygens principle, secondary wavelets emerge
from these n points.
➢ These wavelets interfere, which results into diffraction.
➢ Let the distance between two consecutive points be
A1A2 = A2A3 = A3A4 =............= Δ.
➢ Then, slit width b = (n – 1)Δ.
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 Phase difference ϕ between two
consecutive points

θ θ
❖ Consider rays A1B1, A2B2
, A3B3, etc making an angle θ
with the line perpendicular to
the screen.

❖ A1A’2 is perpendicular to A2B2

❖ Additional path traversed by the ray from point A2B2 in

comparison to A1B1 will be A2A’2, where A2A’2 = Δsin(θ).
❖ Phase difference between rays A1B1 and A2B2 is φ = (2π/λ)Δsin(θ)
❖ If the field at point P due to point source A1 is “acos(ωt)”, then the field
due to the A2 will be “acos (ωt – φ)”.

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 Calculation of resultant intensity in
diffraction (single slit) ?
❖ Similarly, field due to the disturbance emanating from A3 is “acos
(ωt – 2φ)” and so on. For An it will be “acos(ωt – (n-1)φ)”.
❖ Resultant field at point P will be,
E= a cos (ωt)+a cos (ωt – φ)+a cos (ωt – 2φ)+…… +a cos(ωt
– (n-1)φ) where φ = (2π/λ).Δ.sin(θ)
❖ But mathematically,
acos(ωt)+a\cos(ωt – φ)+acos(ωt – 2φ)+…….…..+acos(ωt – (n-
1)φ)
=

Note: the whole exercise is to obtain the amplitude of resultant

electric field.

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 Calculation of resultant intensity in
diffraction (single slit) ?

Thus,

where the amplitude Eθ of the resultant field is given by

with

When number of points n very large

In the limit of n→∞ and Δ→0, we can see that nΔ→b,

Therefore,
Also, if n→∞ then φ→0; sin(φ/2)=φ/2
Recall

Note: the whole exercise is to obtain the amplitude of resultant

electric field

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 Calculation of resultant intensity in
diffraction (single slit)
Therefore,

Thus,

and nϕ/2 ≈ (n-1)ϕ/2

Intensity distribution for this will be given by :

where I0 ( I0 = A2) gives intensity at θ=0.

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 Minima

For minima, intensity should be zero, which is

possible when sinβ= 0 or β = mπ, m≠0
Thus, because,
which implies b sin θ=mλ, with m=±1,±2,±3,......(for
minima)

❖ First minimum occurs for θ = ± sin-1(λ/b),

Second minimum occurs for θ = ± sin-1(2λ/b)
and so on.

❖ Maximum possible value of sin(θ) is 1, therefore

maximum possible value of m is integer close to b/λ.

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 Central maximum

❖ If m = 0, or β = 0. sinβ/ β will have an

indeterminate form.

❖ In the limit β → 0 or θ = 0, (sinβ)/β = 1 and I =

I0 , which corresponds to the maximum of value of
intensity. This point corresponds to center of central
maxima.

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 Other maxima

Differentiate intensity in order to find maximum or minimum

Intensity due to
single slit

Differentiating with
Respect to β

Condition tan(β) = β gives maxima. β=0 gives central

maxima. Rest of roots are found by intersection of
curves y = β and y = tan(β). (Note sin(β) = 0 gives
minima condition)

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 Intensity pattern on the screen
will look like this
Intensity distribution.

Roots of equation tan(β) = β.

Few roots are: β=1.43π, 2.46π
and so on.

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 Calculation of intensity patterns due to double slits

❖ Two slits each of width

b and separated by distance
d.
❖ Consider n equidistant
points (A1, A2, A3 ….. ) along
the slit 1 and (B1, B2, B3 ….. )
along slit 2.

Resultant intensity distribution will be a combination of the single-

slit diffraction pattern and the interference pattern produced by
two point sources separated by distance “d”.

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 Calculation of intensity patterns due to double slits
❖A1P is perpendicular
to ray emanating from B1
❖ Path difference
between rays emanating
P from A1 and B1 is B1P
❖Phase difference
between rays from A1
and B1 , ϕ1 = (2π x
B1P)/λ

The electric field produced by first slit at point P,

The field produced by second slit at point P,

where

Φ1 gives phase difference between disturbances reaching point

P from pair of points such as ( A1, B1 ), ( A2, B2 )… separated by
distance d.
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 Calculation of intensity patterns due to double slits
The resultant field will be given by:

The intensity distribution will be given by

(squaring the amplitude of electric field)

In this expression, (sin2β)/β2 represents diffraction pattern produced

by single slit of width b. Second term cos2(Φ1/2) represents
interference produced by two slits sources separated by distance d.

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 Intensity patterns due to double slits

If slit widths are very small (b→0, sin(β)→β) so

that there is no variation of the term (sin2β)/β2
with θ, then one simply obtains Young's
interference pattern.

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 Positions of minima
Intensity in double slit

where

Intensity is zero wherever β = π, 2π, 3π …..

which means bsin(θ) = mλ, m = 1,2,3…….
or
When Φ1 = π, 3π, 5π ….., it means dsin(θ)
= (n-1/2)λ, with n = 1,2,3…….

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 Positions of maxima

where

Interference maxima:
When Φ1/2 = 0, π, 2π ….. or (π/λ)dsin(θ) =0,π,2π……
which means dsin(θ) = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ…….

This can be used to calculate fringe width for double slit

interference maxima.

This will be approximate positions of maxima provided

variation of diffraction pattern is not too rapid.

A maximum may not occur at all if θ corresponds to diffraction

minimum (b sin(θ) = λ, 2λ, 3λ…..). These are called missing
orders. Missing order will occur when d is integral multiple of
b so that the diffraction minimum coincides with interference
maximum.
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 Missing order of interference maxima

Slit width b = 2λ, slit separation d = 6λ, Since d = 3b, the third
order interference maxima will be missing as it coincides with the
first order minima, similarly 6th order maxima, 9th order
maxima….. so on will be missing.

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 Calculation of intensity patterns due to N slits

b is the slit size

d is the slit separation

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 Calculation of intensity patterns due to N slits
The resultant field at any arbitrary point P will be :

Using same triganometric relation as used in single

slit

where

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 Intensity distribution due N slits

Intensity due
N Slits:

In this expression, sin2β/β2 represents diffraction

pattern produced by single slit of width b.

Second term sin2(NΦ1/2)/ sin2(Φ1/2)) represents

interference produced by N equally spaced point
sources separated by distance d.

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 Special cases

Intensity distribution
due to N slits:

Single slit result

Substituting N = 1:

Double slit result

Substituting N = 2:

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 Position of principal maxima due to N slits
From intensity
distribution due
to N slits:

The condition for principal maxima

(maximum possible intensity) is :

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 Intensity at Maxima
Resultant electric field due to N slits

L’Hospital’s rule

But

where we used L' Hospital's rule.

Thus, the net electric field at Maxima

Physically, at these maxima fields produced by each of the

slits are in phase and hence resultant field (E) is N times of
field produced by single slit

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 Intensity at Maxima
Intensity at maximum positions

where

Intensity has large value unless sin2β/β2 itself is small.

➢ Since sin(θ)≤1, m can not be greater than d/λ.
➢ It means more is the number of slit (N), intensity of
maxima will be more.
➢ This concept is used in diffraction grating where you have
10000 or so many slits per inch!

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 Minima
Recalling the intensity due to N slits

where

Intensity is zero when

β = π, 2π, 3π ….. (minima for single slit!)
bsin(θ) = nλ, n = 1,2,3…….
Or
Intensity is also zero when NΦ1 /2 = pπ, but p≠ N,2N,3N……
(Note: intensity has indeterminate form for p = N,2N,3N……
As numerator and denominator both vanish, they ccorrespond to principle maxima)

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 Or

➢ Notice the missing terms! They correspond to principal

maxima. There are (N-1) minima between 2 principal
maxima.

➢ Between two consecutive minima, intensity has to have a

maximum. These maxima are called secondary maxima.
There will be (N-2) secondary maxima between two
principal maxima.

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 Principle maxima

Secondary maxima

How many secondary maxima for double slit?

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 Missing order
What if angle of principal maxima is same as diffraction minima?

In that situation, following conditions are satisfied

simultaneously,

d sin(θ) = mλ, m=0,1,2,…….. (Principal maxima)

bsin(θ) = λ, 2λ, 3λ….. (Diffraction minima)

Thus, certain principal maxima cannot be observed when distance or

separation between the slits is integral multiple of slit width. These
maxima coincide with diffraction minimum and thus cannot
be observed and therefore are referred as missing order.

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 Diffraction grating:
A system of very large number of equidistant slits is called
diffraction grating. The diffraction pattern formed due to
diffraction grating is defined as the grating spectrum.
It is used as monochromators, spectrometers etc.
❖ Principal maxima can be obtained using d sin(θ) = mλ,
where m=0,1,2,…(This is the same expression for N slits.)

❖ Principal maxima (m ≠ 0) for different λ are observed at

different angles.

❖ The order of principle maxima and the angle at which it is

observed can be used to measure the wavelength.

❖ More is number of slits, narrower will be principal maxima.

(Usually 15,000 per inch slits are there. Lines should be as
equally spaced as much as possible.)

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 Dispersive power of grating
Dispersive power of a grating is defined as the diffraction
or spread in angle for a unit spread in the wavelength.
This is an important quantity when light consists of a spectrum.

We know that the principal maxima is given by

d sin(θ) = mλ, m=0,1,2,……..
Differentiating with respect to λ on both side of this equation

Dispersive power is defined as

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 Points to note:
❖ Dispersive power is proportional to “m” (order of principal
maximum). Higher is m, well separated will be maxima
corresponding to 2 close wavelengths like sodium doublet.
Zeroth order principal maxima will overlap.
❖ Dispersive power is inversely proportional to “d” (the grating
element). Smaller is “d”, larger will be angular dispersion.

❖ Dispersive power is inversely proportional to cos(θ). If θ is very

small then cos(θ)≃1,

Such spectrum is known as normal spectrum. For this dθ is

directly proportional to dλ.

becomes

Sodium doublet consists of wavelengths 589.0 nm and 589.6 nm

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 Resolving power of grating
❖ The capacity of an instrument to resolve two closely
spaced objects or spectrum is called it’s resolving power.

❖ Minimum separation at which two objects look separate is

called “limit of resolution”.

Smaller is separation between 2 objects an instrument can

resolve, higher is its resolving power and better is the
Instrument.

❖ In case of diffraction grating, resolving power is power of

distinguishing two nearby spectral lines.

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 Rayleigh's Criterion

According to Rayleigh's Criterion, if the principal maximum

corresponding to wavelength λ + Δλ falls on first minimum
(on either side) of the wavelength λ, then the two
wavelengths λ and λ + Δλ are said to be just resolved.

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 dθ = Angular separation between the principal maxima of 2 patterns
Δθ = half angular width of principal maxima of each pattern

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 Resolving power of grating

❖ If angle θ is the angle corresponding to mth order

spectrum then these conditions are satisfied
simultaneously :

❖ Principal maximum for wavelength λ+Δλ :

d sin(θ) = m(λ+Δλ)

❖ Minimum for wavelength λ:

d sin(θ) = mλ+λ/N

❖ Equating both sides: m(λ+Δλ) = mλ+λ/N

or m Δλ = λ/N
or λ/Δλ = mN
λ/Δλ is called the resolving power of a grating.

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 Resolving power λ/Δλ = mN
❖ Resolving power depends on total number of lines in
grating exposed to incident light (N).
❖ Resolving power is proportional to “order of
spectrum”.

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