Chapter - 8 Dam and Dam Sites: Earth Works;

Reservoir Engineering Geology

• Dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious
material built across a river to create a reservoir on
its upstream side for impounding water for various
purposes
• Dam is constructed for the following purpose
• Hydropower Generation
• Irrigation Purpose
• Domestic and industrial water supply
• Flood Controlling
• Ground Water Recharge
• Water Diversion
• Fish Farming and Recreation facilities
Different parts and terminology's of dam
• Crest: it is the top parts of the dam structure that use to
providing a roadway or walkway over the dam.
• Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the
roadway or walkway on the crest.
• Heel: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-
bed at upstream side.
• Toe: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-
bed at downstream side.
• Spillway: It is the structure near to the top of structure for
the passage of surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.
It use to control the overflow of reservoir water when the
reservoir is full. Its size and location with respect to the
dam is determined by the size and kind of dam, local
topography, geology and History of stream flow at the site
of the dam.
• Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of
the dam wall to which the left & right end of dam
are fixed to.
• Sluice way: Opening in the structure near the
base, provided to clear the silt accumulation in
the reservoir.
• Gallery: it is the gently sloping tunnel like
passage at transverse or longitudinal within the
dam with drain on floor for seepage water. These
are generally provided for having space for
drilling grout holes and drainage holes. These
may also be used to accommodate the
instrumentation for studying the performance of
dam.
• Free board: The space between the highest level
of water in the reservoir and the top of the
structure.
• Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage
below which the water will not be withdrawn.
• Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert
or change the direction of water to bypass the
dam construction site. The hydraulic structures
are built while the river flows through the
diversion tunnel.
1. Classification of Dam
• Dams can be classified in number of ways
• Based on the construction material dams can have
three major classes.
• 1.Concrete dams
• 2.Embankment Dams
• 3.Composite dams
• Based on theirs structural features (design) concrete
dams can be classified as:
• Gravity Dams: It is a concrete or masonry dam that
has Trapezoidal cross section and resists the forces
acting on it by its own weight (gravitational force). As
the entire load is transmitted on the small area of
foundation, such dams must be constructed on a very
competent foundation rock.
 Advantages Gravity dams
• It is quite strong, stable and durable
• It is quite suitable across moderately wide valleys and
gorges having steep slopes where earth dams is not suitable
• It can be constructed to very great heights, if good rock
foundations are available.
• It is well adapted for use as an overflow spillway section.
• The maintenance cost of a gravity dam is very low.
• The gravity dam does not fail suddenly. There is enough
warning, so the valuable property and human life can be
saved to some extent.
• The sedimentation in the reservoir on the upstream of a
gravity dam can be somewhat reduced by operation of
deep-set sluice way
 Disadvantages of Gravity dams
• Gravity dams of great height can be constructed
only on sound rock foundations.
• The initial cost of a gravity dam is usually high
• It require more concrete than arc and butters
dams
• It usually take a longer time in construction
• It require more skilled labor than that in earth
dams.
 Arch Dams
• It is a curved concrete dam, convex upstream and resists the forces acting on
it by arch action.
• Relative to other concrete dams it need Less material (cheaper)
• It is suitable in narrow valley or V-shaped valley, having very steep slopes
and with strong abutment rocks.
• It transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to the abutments by
arch action.
• Advantages of Arc Dam
• It requires less concrete as compared to a gravity dam
• It is more suited to narrow, V-shaped valley, having very steep slopes.
• Uplift pressure is not an important factor in its design
• It can be constructed on a relatively less strong foundation
• Disadvantages of Arc Dam
• It requires good quality rock in the abutments side
• It requires sophisticated formwork, more skilled labor and better concrete.
• It cannot be constructed in very cold climates because of spalling due to
alternate freezing and thawing.
• The speed of construction is relatively slow
 Buttress Dams
• It can call as hollow gravity dam because it
require only 35-50% of the concrete used by solid
gravity dam.
• It is supported by equally spaced triangular
masonry or reinforced concrete walls what we call
buttresses.
• This triangular concrete walls (buttress) is use to
transmit the water pressure from the deck slab to
the foundation
• Advantages of Buttress Dam
• It require less concrete than gravity dams
• The uplift pressure is not a major factor in its design
• Power house and water treatment plants, etc. can be housed
between buttresses.
• The vertical component of the water pressure on deck
prevents the dam against overturning and sliding failures.
Disadvantages of Butters Dam
• Buttress dams require higher formwork, reinforcement and
more skilled labor. Consequently, the overall cost of
construction may be more than that of a gravity dam.
• It cannot be constructed in very cold climates because of
spalling of concrete.
• Because the upstream deck slab is thin, its deterioration
may have very serious effect on the stability.
2. Embankment Dams
• It is a non-rigid dam which resists the forces acting
on it by its shear strength and to some extent also by
its own weight (gravity)
• They are constructed where the foundation material
are weak to support the rigid dams or where the
suitable competent rocks are at greater depth.
• They are relatively smaller in height and broad at the
base
• They are not suitable for narrow gorges with steep
slopes
• It have high resistance to deferential settlement, so it
can be constructed on a great variety of foundations
ranging from weak unconsolidated stream or glacial
deposits to high-strength rocks.
• Cannot be designed as an overflow section. A spillway has
to be located away from the dam.
• Embankment dams have high resistance to damage from
earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during
construction such as poor compaction can lead the
Liquefaction problems.
• To minimize the Liquefaction potential of embankment
dam keeping material from being saturated and providing
adequate compaction during construction time
• The embankment dams have impervious zone which can
be constructed from concrete, clay material and asphalt.
• Based on size of construction material it can be:
• Earth Fill Dams
• Rock Fill Dams
• Earth Fill Dams
• They are mainly built with clay, sand, gravel and
rocks
• It can be zoned or homogeneous structure
• A zoned dam composed of several zones that
increase in permeability from the core towards the
outer slopes (shells or shoulders)
• They have the waterproof layer called core that
prevents water from seeping through the structure.
• To prevent internal erosion of the core clay layer due
to seepage forces we use a filter layer which
designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil
particles.
• If the earth dam is built on a pervious foundation, a
concrete cut-off wall or a steel sheet pile line is also
provided in the continuation of the core section.
Rock Fill Dams
• It is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size
• Its an impervious membrane which is usually made of
cement concrete or asphaltic concrete is placed on the
upstream side to reduce the seepage through the dam
• It require foundation stronger than those for earth dams
• If we use the earth core as impervious layer it is necessary
to provide adequate filters between the earth core and the
rock fill on the upstream and downstream sides of the core
so that the soil particles are not carried by water and
piping does not occur
• It require heavy machines for transporting, dumping and
compacting rocks
• Advantages Embankment Dams
• It is usually cheaper than gravity dams if suitable
construction material is available near the site.
• It can be constructed on almost all types of foundations
• It can be constructed in a relatively short period of time
• The skilled labor is not required in construction
• It has more earthquake-resistant than others dams.
• Disadvantages of Embankment Dams
• It is not suitable in narrow gorges with steep slopes
• It cannot be designed as an overflow section. A spillway
has to be located away from the dam.
• Its maintenance cost is quite high. It requires constant
supervision.
• Sluice way cannot be provided in it to remove silt.
• It can be fails suddenly without any sign
Composite dams
• It is the type of dam which have both concrete
and embankment sections within it .
• It is design for the sites that are geologically
unsuitable for a specific type of dam
• For example, a broad valley that has strong
rocks on one side and weaker ones on the other
can be suitable for gravity and embankment
composite dam
 RCC Dams
• The development of Roller Compacted Concrete
(RCC) caused a major shift in the construction
practice of mass concrete dams and locks.
• The first successful application of RCC
technology was demonstrated in 1974.
• The repair of the collapsed intake tunnel of
Tarbela Dam proved that the material had more
than adequate strength and durability.
• The concrete mixture in its unhardened state must
support a roller while being compacted.
• Thus RCC differs from conventional concrete
principally in its consistency requirement.
• For effective consolidation, the concrete mixture
must be dry enough to prevent sinking of the
vibratory roller equipment but wet enough to
permit adequate distribution of the binder mortar
in concrete during the mixing and vibratory
compaction operations
Typical applications of RCC include:
• Dam/Gravity Dam Constructions
• Industrial access roads and parking areas
• Shipping yards and ports
• Truck and freight terminals and distribution centers
• Bulk commodity storage and compost areas
• Aircraft parking areas
• Urban, rural and park roadways
• Large commercial parking lots
• Temporary travel lanes
GRD
Mixed concrete
Evenly distributed and compacted
Benefits of RCC
• Costs: Depending on the complexity of the structure, RCC costs 25 to 50% less
than conventional concrete.
• Rapid Construction: For large projects, RCC dams can be finished 1 to 2 years
earlier compared to regular mass concrete dams.
• Spillways: Compared to embankment dams which normally require that
spillways be constructed in an abutment, RCC dams offer the attractive and
cost-effective alternative of constructing the spillway in the main structure of
the dam.
• Durability and resistance to chemical attack
• High freeze-thaw durability even without the use of air entrainment
• High strength capable of supporting heavy repetitive loads without failure
• Reduced cracking and shrinking
• Rigid surface eliminating rutting except in areas of heavy tire chain or studded
tire use
• Resists abrasion even under heavy traffic loads and volume
• Light colored surface reduces the required lighting for parking and storage areas
• Light vehicles and cars can travel on RCC soon after completion
 Benefits
• Cement consumption is lower because much
leaner concrete mixtures can be used.
• Formwork costs are lower because of the layer
placement method.
• Pipe cooling is unnecessary because of the low
temperature rise.
• Cost of transporting, placement, and
compaction of concrete is lower, because
concrete can be hauled by end dump trucks;
spread by bulldozers and compacted by vibratory
rollers.
 limitations of RCC
• Adjacent slabs and multiple horizontal lifts must be
place within an hour to ensure good bonding unless
a cold joint is planned
• Pavement edges are more difficult to compact
causing most specification to require 96% modified
proctor density on cold joints
• Admixture usage on RCC may be higher than
traditional concrete because of the dryness of the
material
• RCC paving in hot weather requires extra attention to
reduce the possibility of water loss and evaporation
 Materials used in RCC
• The consolidation by a roller does not require special
cements; however, when RCC is to be used in mass
concrete, the recommendation of selecting cements with
lower heat generation should be followed.
• In the United States, Class F fly ash is the most common
mineral admixture used in dams, however, in other parts of
the world Class C fly ash , slag , and natural pozzolan have
also been used.
• Air-entraining and water-reducing admixtures are used
in RCC compositions that contains higher volume of paste.
• Set-retarding admixtures can extend the time up to
which the concrete lift should remain unhardened,
reducing the risk of cold joints with the subsequence lift.
In RCC mixtures of dry consistency, however, chemical
admixtures show rather a limited effectiveness.
• Aggregates greater than 76 mm in diameter (3in.)
are seldom used in RCC because they can cause
problems in spreading and compacting the layer.
• The use of material finer than 75 mm (No. 200
mesh sieve) produces a more cohesive mixture by
reducing the volume of voids.
• Based on theirs height dam can be classified as
• Large Dam: If the height of the dam is bigger than 100m
• Medium Dam: If the height of the dam is between 50m and
100m
• Small Dam: If the height of the dam is lower than 50m
• Based on theirs functions dam can be classified as
• Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during
the rainy season for later use in dry season. It can use for a
water supply, irrigation and fish farming, for hydroelectric
power generation, for a flood control project. It is the most
common type of dams.
• Diversion dams: It is constructed to diverting water of the
river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). It is usually of
low height and has a small storage reservoir on its
upstream.
• Detention dams: It is constructed for flood
control. It retards the flow in the river on its
downstream during floods by storing some flood
water. Thus the effect of sudden floods is reduced
to some extent and the water retained in the
reservoir is later released gradually at a
controlled rate according to the carrying capacity
of the channel downstream of the detention dam.
• Debris dams: It is constructed to retain debris
such as sand, gravel, and drift wood flowing in
the river with water. The water after passing over
a debris dam is relatively clear.
• Coffer dams: It is a temporary barrier constructed to
exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. It
is made commonly of wood, concrete or steel sheet and
used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent
dams, bridges, and similar structures.
• Based on Hydraulic Design
• Overflow dams: It is designed to act as an overflow
structure. The surplus water in the reservoir is permitted to
pass over the crest which acts as a spillway. Most of the
time it is common for the concrete dams
• Non-overflow dams: there is no overflow water on the
crest the surplus water in the reservoir is permitted to pass
over the spillway. It is common for the Embankment
dams, however it is possible for any type of dams
• Some roles of engineering geologist on dam construction
• Dam site investigations such as: Location of dam axis,
Location of diversion tunnel, Location of spillway,
Location of powerhouse and etc
• Field Surveying and Laboratory testing of the construction
materials
• Slope stability investigations for the abutment side and dam
reservoir rim.
• Earthquake hazard evaluation & risk analysis
• Investigating the environmental impact of the dam
• Investigating the Leakage possibilities from reservoir area
and from dam site
• Investigating erosion susceptibility of the catchment areas
and degree of sedimentation or siltation at the reservoir
areas
•Common factors controlling the dam site
selection
The type and size of dam constructed depends on:
the need for and the amount of water available,
Topography and valley shape, foundation
condition of the site, the availability of suitable
construction materials at the site, accessibility of
the site, Good Site for reservoir, Spillway
position, Earthquakes magnitude, Climatic
conditions, overall cost of the project, Diversion
problems and etc.
Geological condition those control the site of
Embankment dams
• The existence of adequate construction material
at the reasonable distance
• The permeability condition of foundation
material
• the availability of suitable site for outlets and
spillways
• The slope angle at the abutment side
Dam Reservoirs
• A reservoir is a large, artificial lake created by
constructing a dam across a river
• It use to regulate the water supplies during rainy and
dry season for different purposes Basic Terms of the
reservoirs
• Full Reservoir Level (FRL): it is the highest water
level to which the water surface will rise during
normal operating conditions. It is the level at which
the effective storage of the reservoir is computed. It
is equal to the crest level of the Spillway
• Minimum Pool Level: it is the lowest level up to
which the water is withdrawn from the reservoir
under ordinary conditions which is corresponds to
the elevation of the lowest outlet of the dam
• The storage below the minimum pool level is not useful for
hydroelectric power and is called the dead storage
• Useful storage: it is the volume of water stored between the full
reservoir level (FRL) and the minimum pool level
• Surcharge storage: it is the volume of water stored above the
full reservoir level up to the maximum water level. It is an
uncontrolled storage which exists only when the river is in flood
and the flood water is passing over the spillway.
• Yield from a reservoir: it is the volume of water which can be
withdrawn from a reservoir in a specified period of time
• Safe yield: it is the maximum quantity of water which can be
supplied from a reservoir in a specified period of time during a
critical dry year. To determine it the history of natural flow of
the river for a number of years was recorded
• Secondary yield: It is the quantity of water which is available
during the period of high flow in the rivers which is more than
the safe yield
• Average yield: It is the arithmetic average of the firm yield and
the secondary yield over a long period of time
Geological problems associated to the Dams
Reservoirs
• Characteristics of the catchment area
• Storage Capacity which can be controlled by
topography of the site and dam height
• The water tightness condition of the reservoir
basin to control the seepage and leakage.
– E.g due to the existence of solution channels, fault
zones, buried channels, permeable strata and etc.
• The slope stability condition of the valley
(reservoirs rims), which can reduce the volume of
the reservoir or produce a tidal wave that may
over-top the dam and cause flooding downstream.
In addition to the water tightness condition of the reservoir material the
total head of groundwater in the reservoir area can control the leakage
condition of the dam reservoir. That mean if the total head of ground
water exceed the reservoir level there is no leakage of reservoir water.
In general when we select the dam site we must
consider the following things
• The competent of foundation rock to withstand the
static and dynamic forces
• The slope stability of reservoir rim and abutment
side
• the resistance of foundation rock to weathering,
sliding and differential settlement
• The water tightness of foundation and reservoir rim
• The topography and strength of abutment rock
• The suitability and availability of construction
material
• The location of spillway, diversion tunnel and
powerhouse
• Envıronmental impacts of dam construction
• It can cause river pollution, air pollution and
Noise pollution
• It cause loss of land, Loss of archeological and
historical places, Loss of mineral deposits, Loss
of special geological formations
• It can cause reservoir induced seismicity
(earthquake)
• It can cause flooding problems
• Geological problems on dam site
• Fissile rocks such as shales, slates and phyllites those,
interbedded ashes in a sequence of basalt lava flows
cause the sliding of concrete dams.
• The highly permeable rock masses can cause
excessive seepage beneath a dam may damage the
foundation
• Seepage rates can be lowered by using cut-off beneath
the dam which can lengthens the flow path and
reducing the hydraulic gradient
• young igneous rocks with highly permeability via
their open joints, pipes, cavities and contact zone
• weak beds of ash and tuff may occur between the
basalt flows that cause problems of differential
settlement or sliding
• Fresh metamorphosed rocks such as quartzite
and hornfels and gneiss are suitable dam
foundation
• Joints and shear zones are responsible to permit
leakage through foundations and abutments.
• Foliated regional metamorphic rocks
• Sandstones frequently interbedded with shale
• kahrastic areas
• Fault zones