John Dalton's Atomic Theory

John Dalton, a British scientist, proposed the Atomic Theory in the early 1800s to explain the nature
of matter. His theory includes these main points:
1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
(Atoms cannot be created, divided, or destroyed in chemical reactions.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties, but different from atoms of other
elements.
3. Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.
(For example: H₂O has 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom.)
4. In chemical reactions, atoms are rearranged, not created or destroyed.

Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment – Detailed Explanation for Grade 10

Background: In 1909, Ernest Rutherford, along with his students Geiger and Marsden, conducted an
experiment to understand the structure of the atom. At that time, J.J. Thomson's plum pudding
model suggested that atoms were like a positive "pudding" with negative electrons scattered inside.

Aim of the Experiment:

To study how alpha particles (positively charged particles) pass through a thin sheet of gold foil.

Experimental Setup:

1. Alpha particle source (like radium or polonium) emitted alpha particles.

2. These particles were directed at a very thin sheet of gold foil (only a few atoms thick).

3. A fluorescent screen coated with zinc sulfide surrounded the foil. Whenever an alpha particle
struck the screen, it produced a tiny flash of light (called a scintillation), which could be observed
under a microscope.

Observations:

1. Most alpha particles passed straight through the gold foil without any deflection.

2. Some were deflected at small angles.

3. A very few (about 1 in 20,000) alpha particles bounced back, even at angles greater than 90°.

Conclusions:

1. Most of the atom is empty space, since most alpha particles passed through without any
obstruction.

2. There is a small, dense, and positively charged region at the center of the atom which repelled the
alpha particles. This was called the nucleus.

3. The nucleus contains most of the atom’s mass.

Rutherford’s Atomic Model:

Atom has a small, dense, positively charged nucleus.

Most of the volume of an atom is empty space.

Limitations:

Rutherford’s model couldn't explain why electrons don’t fall into the nucleus due to attraction.

It also didn’t explain the stability of atoms or atomic spectra, which was later addressed by Niels
Bohr’s model.

Summary (In Simple Words):

J.J. Thomson’s Experiment and Atomic Model

Name of the Experiment:

Cathode Ray Tube Experiment (1897)

Apparatus Used:

A vacuum tube (also called a discharge tube)

Cathode (negative electrode) and anode (positive electrode)

Fluorescent screen to detect rays

A magnetic and electric field

What He Did:

1. Thomson passed high voltage through gases at low pressure inside a glass tube.

2. Rays were emitted from the cathode (negative electrode) and traveled to the anode.
3. These were called cathode rays.

4. When a magnetic or electric field was applied, the rays bent towards the positive side.

Observations:

Cathode rays always bent towards the positive plate, showing they were negatively charged.

The same rays were produced regardless of the gas used.

These rays could move a paddle wheel, meaning they had mass.
Conclusions:

1. Atoms contain tiny negatively charged particles — later named electrons.

3. Atoms are not indivisible, as Dalton had believed.

Thomson’s Atomic Model:

Known as the “Plum Pudding Model” or “Watermelon Model”

The atom is a sphere of positive charge.

Electrons (negative charges) are embedded within it like seeds in a watermelon or plums in a
pudding.

The atom is electrically neutral because the positive and negative charges cancel each other.

Limitations:

This model couldn’t explain Rutherford’s gold foil experiment.

It did not explain how electrons are arranged or the stability of the atom.

In Simple Words:

J.J. Thomson discovered the electron using a cathode ray tube and proposed that atoms are like a
soft ball of positive charge with electrons stuck inside — like chocolate chips in a cookie.

Niels Bohr’s Atomic Model (1913)

Background:

Bohr improved upon Rutherford’s model, which could not explain the stability of atoms or the line
spectra of elements like hydrogen.

Main Postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model:

1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular orbits called energy levels or shells (denoted
as K, L, M, N...).

2. Each orbit has a fixed energy, and as long as an electron stays in its orbit, it does not lose energy.

2. Each orbit has a fixed energy, and as long as an electron stays in its orbit, it does not lose energy.

3. Electrons can jump from one energy level to another:

Jump to higher level (excited state) – by absorbing energy.

Fall to a lower level (ground state) – by emitting energy in the form of light.

4. The energy difference between the levels determines the wavelength of light emitted or absorbed.
This explains the line spectrum of hydrogen.

Bohr’s Model (Structure):

Atom has a central nucleus (positive, contains protons and neutrons).

K shell – 2 electrons

L shell – 8 electrons

M shell – 18 electrons

N shell – 32 electrons

Success of Bohr’s Model:

Explained the stability of atoms.

Explained atomic emission spectra (especially of hydrogen).

Laid the foundation for modern atomic theory.

Limitations:

Couldn’t explain multi-electron atoms (like helium or lithium).

Didn’t account for the wave nature of electrons (later explained by quantum theory).

In Simple Words:

Bohr said electrons move in fixed paths (orbits) around the nucleus and don’t lose energy while
moving. They can jump between levels by absorbing or releasing energy.