LABORATORY COPY

WORKSHOP/MANUFACTURING
PRACTICES LAB
ME(EC)291

2nd Semester

NARULA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(An educational initiative of JIS group)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
 NARULA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(An educational initiative of JIS group)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Machine Shop
(Lathe)

Submitted by
Name:
Stream:
College Roll no:
Paper name: - paper code:-
Year: - Semester:-
Co-students
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
…………………………
Signature of Teacher
 Index
Exp. Name of the Experiment Date of Date of Page Signature
No Experiment submission No
 Machine shop
Introduction:-The shop where machining operations are performed is called machine shop. Machining
is a manufacturing process in which the raw material is processed by removing unwanted material with
the machine. Different machine or machine tools are used in machine shop like –Lathe machine, shaper,
milling machine , Drilling machine, grinding machine etc.

Basic concept on lathe

Block diagram of lathe

Lathe:-Lathe is the machine tools which is used to perform several operations on the work piece. Lathe
is useful in making several parts which is further assembled to make new machine. Hence lathe is known
as mother of machine.
Description of Lathe:-Lathe has several parts, the major parts of lathe are as followes:-
Bed:-It is the base of the machine. On its left side, the head stock is mounted & on its right side a
movable part known as tailstock is located.
Head stock:-It consist of spindles, gears, speed changing levers. It is used to transmit the motion from
main shaft to the job holding device through belt pulley arrangement. It has two types, one is the head
stock driven by the belt & the other one is the gear drive.
Tail stick:-It is located at the right end of the lathe bed& it can be positioned anywhere in the bed. It is
being used for supporting lengthy jobs & also carries the tool & other mountings to carry out the
operations such as tapping, drilling etc.
Carriage:-It is used to carry a tool post as it appears with cutting tool to bring in contact with the
rotating work piece. It operates on bed ways between the head stock & tail stock.
Saddle:-It has H shaped part fitted on the lathe bed. There is a hand wheel to move it on the bed way.
cross slide ,compound rest, tool post is fitted on the saddle.
Cross slide:-It is on the upper side of the saddle. It permits the cross wise movement of the tool
movement.
Compound rest:-It is fitted over the cross slide on the turn table .It permits both parallel & angular
movements to cutting tool.
Tool post:-It is on the top most part of the compound rest .Tool is mounted on this tool post.Cutting tool
is fixed in it with the help of screws.
Apron:-It is the hanging part in front of the carriage .It accommodative the mechanism of hand & power
feed to the cutting tool for carrying out different operations.
Feed rod: The feed rod is a long shaft that has the key way extending from the feed box across in front
 of the bed. Its function is to transmit power from the lathe spindle to the apron gear via large number of
gears. It is used to move the carriage or cross slide for turning, facing & all other operations except
thread cutting.
Lead screw:-it is a long screw with ACME threads. It is used for transmitting power form automatic
feed to feed for thread cutting operation.
Lathe machine accessories & attachment:- 1. Live centre/dead centre 2. Job or dog carrier
3. Mandrel 4.collect chucks 5. Drill chuck 6. Steady rest 7.Face plate 8. Angle plate 9. Three /Four jaw
chuck.
Cutting Tool used in lathe:-1.Single point cutting tool 2. Internal/external threading
tool.3.parting off tool 4.Boring tool 5. Knurling tool, 6. Tap set 7. Twist drill , 8. Taper shank drill etc.

Nomenclature of single point turning tool

Lathe operations involved in job

(i) Facing: Facing is used to cut work piece to the desired length and to prduce a surface from which
accurate measurement may be taken.
In this operation the position of the cutting tool is perpendicular to the lathe axis.

(ii) Turning:
a) Straight Turing: It is performed when the cutting tool movement is longitudinal to lathe axis
Turning is the operation of removing the excess material from the workpiece to produce
cylindrical surface to the desired diameter.
b)Step turning: It is the process of turning with different diameter in a single work piece.
.

(c) Taper Turning: It is a operation to produce a conical surface by gradual reduction or increased
diameter from a cylindrical work piece.

Formula of taper turning,

(iv) Chamfering:

It is the operation to removes the burrs and sharp edges does make the handling safe.
Terms related with the operations:-
(a) Cutting speed(V):- It is the speed at which the metal is removed by the tool form the work piece. It
πDn
is expressed by m/min. Mathematically, V= m/min, where D= Dia of work piece in mm, n = r.p.m.
1000
of work piece.
(b) Feed:- It is the distance, the tool advance for each revolution of the work piece, is expressed as
mm/revolution. Increased feed reduce the cutting time & greatly reduce the tool life. It depends upon the
factor such as size, shape, strength, speed,& method of holding.
(c) Depth of cut(t):- It is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface to the uncut
surface of the work piece .In a lathe the depth of cut is expressed as follows: Depth of cut =(d 1-d2)/2,
where d1 & d2 are work surface diameter before machining and after machining.
 LABORATORY EXERCISE- 1
LATHE

1 (a) Expt. No.: ME192/ME292-01(I) 1 (b) Date:-

2 Title of the Experiment: To make a pin from mild steel rod in a lathe.
3.Objective of the experiment: To make a pin on lathe involving facing, outside turning, taper turning,
step turning chamfering operation on a mild steel rod of dimension ϕ30mm X 100mm.
4. Theory of the job experiment:-
5 .Block Diagram:-

6(a).

Equipment and Apparatus required: Engine lathe, Power saw, Outside caliper, Steel Rule.
Specification of used equipments:
(i) Engine lathe:
 Bed length – 4 ft 6 inches
Width of bed – 11 inches
Height of centre – 9 inches
Swing over the bed – 10 inches
(ii) Power saw:
Maximum diameter to be cut – 6 inches
Blade length – 350mm X 32mm X 1.6mm
Teeth per inch - 6
(iii) Outside caliper:
Maximum diameter to be measured – 6 inches
(iv) Steel rule:
length of the scale – 1 ft
Material – Stainless steel
Job specification:
Mild steel cylindrical rod.
Material – Mild Steel (c % : 0.15-0.3)
Size – ϕ30 mm X 100 mm

Job sketch (Not to scale)

Work Chart

Sl Operations Sketch Used tools

No. Involved
Measuring Marking Cutting Holding
tool tool tools tool

01 Marking(105
mm of length)

02 Parting of the
marked portion

03 Centering
04 Facing

05 Straight
Turning(ϕ32mm
to ϕ30mm)

06 Step turning

07 Chamfering
2X 45˚(for 2mm
length)

08 Taper
turning(Length
of taper is
20mm)

Safety precautions/conclusions:

(a) We should take proper measurement at that time of parting off of the work piece.
(b) We should use sharp cutting tools otherwise job will be damaged.
(c) We should take proper measurement at the time of facing and turning operations.
(d) Wear short sleeve shirts, loose sleeves can catch on rotating work & quickly pull your hand or arm in
harms way.
(e) We should wear the cover shoes.
(f) We should not use Wrist watch, necklaces, chains & other jewelries. Tie, ID card, loose fittings
garments etc.should be avoided at the time of engaging with job .

Questions:

1. What is machine and machine tools?

2. What are the different parts of lathe?
3. Draw the block diagram of a lathe and level its parts.
4. How is a lathe specified?
5. Explain the term- cutting speed, feed, depth of cut in relation to turning.
 6. Write the function of the lead screw and feed rod of a lathe.
7. Which material commonly used as cutting tool material? What are the good characteristics of cutting
tool materials?
8. What do you mean by tool nomenclature? Draw a neat sketch of a single point cutting tool and
describe its function? What are the difference between single point cutting tool and multi point cutting tool?.
9. What is cutting fluid? What is its purpose?

NARULA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(An educational initiative of JIS group)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Machine Shop
(Shaping machine)
 Submitted by
Name:
Stream:
College Roll no:
Paper name: - paper code:-
Year: - Semester:-

Co-students
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Introduction:-The shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool used for producing small flat
surfaces with the help of a single point tool reciprocating over the stationary work piece .The flat surface
may be horizontal, inclined or vertical .Thee reciprocating motion of the tool is obtained either by the
crank & slotted lever quick return motion mechanism or with worth quick return motion mechanism.
 Major parts of a shaper:
1.Base: It is a heavy structure of cast iron with supports other parts of a shaper
2.Column : It is a box like structure made up cast iron and mounted upon the base. It contains the
driving mechanism and is provided with two machined guide ways on the of it on which the ram
reciprocates.
3. Ram: It is the reciprocating member which reciprocates on the guide ways provided above the
column. It carries a tool slide on its head and a mechanism for adjusting the stroke length.
4. Tool head: It attached to the front portion of the ram with the help of a nut and a bolt. It is used to
hold the tool rigidly, It also the vertical and angular movements to the for cutting.
5. Cross-Rail: It is attached to the front vertical portion of the column. It is used for following
two purposes.
a) It helps in elevating ting the table over the column in the upward direction.
b) The table can be moved in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the Ram over this cross
rail.
6. Table:-It is used for holding the work piece .It can be adjusted horizontally & vertically with the help
of spindles
.Classification of shaping machine
1.According to the type of mechanism used for given reciprocating motion to
the ram:-
a) crank shaper :- in a crank shaper, a crank and a slotted lever quick return motion mechanism is used to
give reciprocating motion to the ram. The crank arm is adjustable and is arranged inside the body of a bull
gear (crank gear)
b) geared shaper :- in a geared shaper the ram carries a rack bellow it , which is driven by a spur gear.
c) Hydraulic shaper :- in a hydraulic shaper, a hydraulic system is used to drive the ram.
This type of shaper is more efficient than the crank and geared shap
2) According to the position & travel of ram:-
a) Horizontal shaper :- in a horizontal shaper the ram moves in a horizontal direction. This type of
shaper is mainly used for producing flat surfaces.
b) Vertical shaper :- in a vertical shaper the ram reciprocates vertically in the downward as well as in
upward direction. This type of shaper is very convenient for machining internal surfaces, keyways, slots, or
grooves.
3) According to the type of design of table :-
a) standerd shaper :- In a standerd shaper the table has only two movements that is horizontal and vertical
to give the feed. It can not be swiveled.
b) universal shaper :- in universal shaper in addition to the above two movements the table can be swiveled
about a horizontal axis parallel to the ram and the upper portion of the table can be tilted about the other
horizontal axis perpendicular to the first axis. This type of shaper is commonly used in tool room work.
4) According to the type of cutting stroke :-
a) push type :- In push cut shaper the ram pushes the tool approach the work during cutting operation. In
otherwards forward stroke is the cutting stroke and the backward is an idle stroke. This is the most general
type of shaper used in common practice.
b)draw type :- In a draw cut shaper the ram draws or pulls the tool across the work during cutting operation.
In otherward the backward stroke is the cutting stroke and forward stroke is the idle stroke
Working principle of a shaper
In a shaper a single point cutting tool reciprocates over the stationary Work piece. The tool is held in the
tool post of the reciprocating ram & performs the cutting operation during its forward stroke. It may be
noted that during the backward stroke of thev ram, the tool does not remove4 material from the work
piece.Both these stroke i.e forward & backward stroke from one working cycle of the shaper.For shaping in
horizontal direction as shown in figure a)The clamped work piece in feed against the reciprocating tool after
every cutting cycle.The depth of cut is adjusted by moving the tool downward towards the work piece for
shaping in vertical direction ,as shown in figure b) trhe tool is fed vertically towards the work piece after
every cutting cycle.The depth of cut is adjusted by moving the work piece sideways.
Shaper mechanism:

Quick Return Motion Mechanism

In a shaper, rotary motion of the drive is converted into reciprocating motion of the ram by the ram
mechanism housed within the column or the machine. In a standard shaper metal is removed in the forward
cutting stroke, while the return stroke goes ideal & no metal is removed during the period. The shaper
mechanism is so designated i.s moves the ram holding the tool at a comparatively slower speed during
forward cutting stroke where as during the return stroke it allow the ram to move at a faster speed to reduce
the ideal return time.This mechanism is known as quick return mechanism.
Specification of shaper:
1. Maxmimum lengthy of stroke in mm.
2. Size of the table i.e. length, width& depth of the table
3. Maximum vertical & horizontal travel of the table.
4. Maximum number of strokes per minute.
5. Power of the drive motor.
6. Type of quick return mechanism.
7. Floor space & required weights

Shaper Operations :- a shaper is a versatile machine tool primarily designated to generate a flat
surface by a single point cutting tool but it may also be used to perform many other operations. Which are as
follows---
a) Machining horizontal surface. b) Machining vertical surface c) Machining angular surface d) cutting
slots, grooves and keyways. e) Machining irregular surfaces. f) Machining splines or cutting gear.

Shaper Tools :- The cutting tool used in a shaper is a single point cutting tool having rake clearance
and other angles similar to the lathe tool. Some of most common cutting tools are 1) left hand roughing tool
for planning 2) left hand finishing tool for planning 3) The left hand side facing tool for vertical shaping and
for shaping sharp corner. 4) A left hand side facing tool (finishing) 5) A left hand dovetail cutting tool
(finishing) 6) A left hand dovetail cutting tool (roughing) 7) A parting or slotting tool.
Terms related with shaping operations :-
1) Cutting speed(v) : The ratio between the length of the cutting stroke to the time required by the
cutting stroke.
1000× v
The cutting speed may be obtained from following equations:
L(1+m)
Where,
L= length of cutting stroke in mm
m= the ratio between the return time to cutting time.
n= the number of double stroke of the ram per minute of the bull wheel
v= the cutting expressed in meter per min
Feed(s):- it is the relative movement of the tool or work in a direction perpendicular to the axis of
reciprocation of the ram per double stroke and its expressed in mm.
Depth of cut (t):- It is the thickness of metal that is removing in one cut. It is the perpendicular
distance measured between machined surface and non machined surface of the work piece.
Machining time (T):- We can calculate the machining time by the following formula

L× B(1+ m)
Where,
1000 × v × s
L= length of stroke in mm
B= breadth of the work in mm
s= the feed expressed in mm per double stroke
m= the ratio between return time to cutting time
v= cutting speed in meter per min

LABORATORY EXERCISE-2
SHAPER
JOB TITLE:-To make a vee slot on cast iron block in shaping
 AIM:-To prepare horizontal surface/vertical surface/slots or V-grooves on a shaper.

Equipment and Apparatus required: shaping machine, machine.

vernier height gauge, odd leg caliper, steel rule scriber, surface plate, hammer, dot punch

Specification of used apparatus& equipments:-

Shaper: - stroke capacity 12 inches, cone pulley type, Motor H.P, 1.5 HP
Venire Height Gauge: - least count 0.02 mm, maximum height to be measured 300 mm.
Odd leg caliper: - 6 inches wide
Steel rule: - Maximum length to be measured 300 mm.
Scriber: - 6 inches
Surface plate: - 4 sq ft
Hammer: - ball peen hammer of 500 gm.
Dot punch: - 4 inches
Job size: - 50mm3
Job sketch:-
Job specification: - Job material cast iron (C % -2.5—4)

Work Chart

Sl Operations Sketch Used tools

No. Involved
 Measuring Marking Cutting Holding
tool tool tools tool/devi
ce

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

Result:

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:-
1) We should not use Wrist watch, necklaces, chains & other jewelries. Tie, ID card, loose fittings
garments etc.should be avoided at the time of engaging with job.
2) We should wear the cover shoes.
3) We have to use sharp cutting tool.
4) We should use proper stroke length.
5) Proper depth of cut, feed has to be used for matching top surface angular surface etc.

Question:-
1. What do you mean by shaper? Discuss the main parts of shaper with sketch.
2) Name the mechanism used in shaper? Write short note on Quick return mechanism with sketch.
3) Discuss the specification of shaper?
4) Discuss various shaper operations on shaper?
5) What do you meant by cutting speed ,feed, Depth of cut & machining time? Discuss with sketch?

NARULA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(An educational initiative of JIS group)
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Machine Shop
(Milling machine)

Submitted by
Name:
Stream:
College Roll no:
Paper name: - paper code:-
Year: - Semester:-

Co-students
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Milling machine
Introduction:-milling is a machining process in which a rotary cutting tool fixed on the spindle or
arbor of machine is rotated & work piece fixed on machine table or vice is fed against the tool to remove
the extra material. In doing so, the teeth of the cutter remove the metal, in form of chips, from the surface
of the work to produce the desired shape.
 Major parts of vertical milling machine:-

1. Column & Base

Column including base is the main casting that supports all other parts of milling machine. The column
contains an oil reservoir and a pump which lubricates the spindle. The column rests on the base and base
contains coolant reservoir and a pump which is used during machining operation that requires coolant.

2. Knee
It is a casting that supports the saddle and table. All gearing mechanism is enclosed within the knee. It is
fastened to the column by dovetail ways. The knee is supported and adjusted by a vertical positioning screw
(elevating screw).The elevating screw is used to adjust the knee up and down by raising or lowering the
lever either with the help of hand or power feed.

3. Saddle and Swivel Table:- Saddle is present on the knee and supports the table. It slides on a
horizontal dovetail on the knee and dovetail is parallel to the axis of the spindle ( in horizontal milling
m/c).The swivel table (in universal machines only) is attached to the saddle that can be swiveled (revolved)
horizontally in either direction.

4. Power Feed Mechanism :-It is the knee which contains the power feed mechanism. It is used to
control the longitudinal ( left and right), transverse ( in and out) and vertical (up and down) feeds.To get the
desired rate of feed on the machine, the feed selection lever is positioned as indicated on the feed selection
plates.On some universal knee and column milling machine, the feed is obtained by turning the speed
selection handle until the desired rate of feed is indicated on the feed dial.Most of the milling machines have
a rapid traverse lever that can be engaged when a temporary increase in the speed of the longitudinal,
transverse or vertical feeds is required. For example this lever would be engaged when the operator is
positioning or aligning the work.
5. Table :-It is a rectangular casting which is present on the top of the saddle. It is used to hold the work
or work holding devices. It contains several T-slots for holding the work and work holding devices (i.e. jigs
and fixtures).The table can be operated by hand or by power. To move the table by hand, engage and turn
the longitudinal hand crank. To move it through power, engage the longitudinal direction feed control lever.

6. Spindle :-It is the shaft which is used to hold and drives the cutting tools of the milling machine.
Spindle is mounted on the bearings and supported by the column. Spindle is driven by the electric motor
through gear trains. The gear trains are present within the column. The face of the spindle which lies near to
the table has an internal taper machined on it. The internal taper at the front face of the spindle permits only
tapered cutter holder or arbor. It has two keys at the front face which provides positive drive for the cutter
holder or arbor. The draw bolt and jam nut is used to secure the holder and arbor in the spindle.

7. Over Arm / Overhanging Arm:-

It is a horizontal beam present at the top face of the column. It may be a single casting which slides on the
dovetail ways present on the top face of the column. The over arm is used to fastened arbor support. It may
consist of one or two cylindrical bars which slide through the holes in the column.

8. Arbor Support:-
It is a casting with bearing that supports the outer end of the arbor. It also helps in aligning the outer end of
the arbor with the spindle. It prevents the springing of outer end of the arbor during cutting operations.
There are generally two types of arbor supports used in the milling machine. The first one has small
diameter bearing hole, 1-inch in maximum diameter. And the other one has large diameter bearing hole,
usually upto 23/4 inches. The arbor support has an oil reservoir that lubricates the bearing surfaces. It can be
clamped anywhere on the over arm. The arbor support is used only in the horizontal types of milling
machine.

Ram:-The overhanging arm in the vertical machine is called ram. One end of the ram is mounted on the
top of the column and on the other end milling head is attached. The ram can be a moved transversally ( in
and out) on the column by a hand lever.

Specifications of milling machine:-

1. Work surface size

2. Vertical Movement of the screw

3. Spindle bore diameter

4. Taper of spindle nose

5. H.P of driving motor.

6. Number of spindle of speeds.

7. Feeds

8 Drive type
9 Gross Weight of shaping machine

1. Classification of milling machine:-

a) Column Knee type & milling machine.

1) Hand milling machine 2) plain or horizontal milling machine.3) Vertical milling machine 4) Universal
milling machine 5) Omniversal milling machine.

b) Fixed bed type or manufacturing type milling machine.

1) Plain type 2) Duplex head 3) Triplex head 4) Rise & fall type.

c) Planer type milling machine

d) Production milling machine

1) Rotary Table or continuous Type 2) Drum Type 3) Tracer controlled

Working principle in milling: A milling machine is used for drilling, slotting, making a circular
profile and gear cutting by having suitable attachments. Here The work piece holds on the worktable of
the machine. The table movement controls the feed of work piece against the rotating cutter

Milling Methods:-

There are two distinct methods of milling classified as follows:

1. Up-milling or conventional milling− In the up−milling or conventional milling, the metal is removed in
form of small chips by a cutter rotating against the direction of travel of the work piece .

2. Down milling or climb milling− Down milling is also known as climb milling. In this method, the metal is
removed by a cutter rotating in the same direction of feed of the work piece.
Types of Milling Cutters Used in Machining Process :- Milling is a cutting process
where we use a cutter to remove the material from the surface of a metal or work piece. This cutter
which we use has multiple rotating cutting surfaces. Milling cutters play an important role in the
milling process and they are used in several milling machines. Milling cutters are of many sizes and
shapes. They are as follows:

Rough End mill:- More beneficial commercially and are used in various industrial applications.
Slab mill cutter:-They are more beneficial commercially and are used in various industrial applications .
End mill cutter:-The end mills are mostly used in plunging, tracer milling, face milling, etc. Torus cutters,
etc. are the different cutters which are involved in the term end mill.
Hollow milling cutter: - Hollow milling cutters are used in the screw machines.
Ball milling cutter:-Whenever there is need of cutting three dimensional shapes then, there is a use of ball
cutters to perfectly cut those three-dimensional shapes.

Nomenclature of milling cutter:-

Milling machine operation:

As we know that milling can perform various operations to convert the work piece into desire shape. It is
a very useful machine and mostly used in die making industries. The most popular operation done on
milling machine is described below.

Plain milling : As the name implies, this operation used to get place surface. In this milling, the
cutting tool axis is parallel to the machining surface or the face of the machining surface. This
operation is very common and done on almost all jobs. This can be carried out on every milling
machine.

End milling:
This operation is also used to get plain surface. In this operation, the cutting tool axis is perpendicular to
the machining surface or the face of the machining surface. It is also used to slot cutting on the milling
axis.
Gang milling:As the name is gang, in this milling operation more than one milling cutters are
used to machining. It is a horizontal milling operation, more than one cutter with different shape
and sizes are fixed at the arbor, which cut the desire shape in one pass. This milling operation can
save most of time of milling.

Straddle milling :
In this operation, two or more parallel vertical surface machined in a single pass. In this milling the work
piece is situated between the two cutters which can machined the surface vertically. The cutter are fixed
on the same arbor and cut the metal in one pass.

Slotting:

In this operation slots are cut by a cutter on the work piece. The
slots are in various shapes like circular, rectangular etc. and sizes
according to the requirement.

Angular milling:
In this operation, surfaces which are at an angle to the axis of the cutter, is machined by the rotary
cutter. Milling machine can perform all other common operations like turning, facing, fillet making,
chamfering, drilling, gear cutting, planning, slot cutting etc. These are all main milling machine
operation. If you have any query, ask by commenting. Thanks for reading it.
 INDEXING: Indexing is the operation of dividing the periphery of a piece of work into any number of
equal parts. In cutting spur gear equal spacing of teeth on the gear blank is performed by indexing.
Indexing is accomplished by using a special attachment known as dividing head or index head as shown
in Figure below

Cutting speed (v):- Cutting speed of a milling cutter is a distance travelled per minute by the cutting edge
πDN
of the cutter. V= m/min or feed per minute.where,D= diameter of cutter,N =no of teeth in cutter.
1000

Feed:- It represents the table travel in any direction. It can be expressed in three ways

1) Feed per minute:-The table travel in millimeters in one minute in any direction .its unit is mm/minute.

2) Feed /tooth:-The table travelled in millimeters during the period when the cutter revolves through an
angle corresponding to the distance between the cutting edges of two adjacent teeth.

3) Feed /revolution:-The travelled in mm during the period when the cutter make one full revolution .Its unit
mm/revolution. Feed /revolution=feed/teeth ×T

Feed per revolution=feed per teeth ×T; T=no of teeth in cutter

Feed per min=Feed per revolution ×N; N=no of teeth in the cutter.

Feed per min=Feed per min ×T×N

 LABORATORY EXERCISE-2
Milling machine
JOB TITLE:- To make a vee slot on cast iron block in shaping
AIM:- -To prepare horizontal surface/vertical surface/slots or V-grooves on milling machine
Specification of used apparatus& equipments:-
MILLING MACHINE:-
ʺ
Universal milling machine with longitudinal feed of table size :-30 ×7ʺ
Dividing head:-5ʺ
Motor H.P:-AC/440V with RPM 1440.
Push button starter, V Belt type.
Milling cutter:-
Face milling cutter:-4×1.3/4×1.1/8
End milling cutter:- Diameter (10 -12) mm.
Involutes Gear cutter:-10 DP, NO 6,14 Teeth
Job sketch:-

Job specification: - Job material cast iron (C % -2.5—4)

Work Chart:-

Sl Operations Sketch Used tools

No. Involved
Measuring Marking Cutting Holding
tool tool tools tool/devi
ce

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08
 Result:

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:-
1) We should not use Wrist watch, necklaces, chains & other jewelries. Tie, ID card, loose fittings
garments etc.should be avoided at the time of engaging with job.
2) We should wear the cover shoes.
3) We have to use sharp cutting tool.
4) We should use proper stroke length.
5) Proper depth of cut, feed has to be used for matching top surface angular surface etc.

Questions:-1.What is the working principle involved in milling operation?

2. How is a milling machine specified?
3. How are the milling machines classified?
4. Write short note:-1) the spindle nose. 2) Milling arbors 3) the draw bar arrangement
An adaptor.
5. What is the basic difference of up milling & down milling?
6. How do you classify different type of milling cutter?
7. What do you meant by indexing methods? Classified them with discussion?
8. Discuss milling operations with neat sketch?

Reference books:-

Manufacturing technology (volume I&II) Tata McGraw Hill, Rao P.N

Process of Material of Manufacture 4 th edition; Roy A .Lindberg

Manufacturing science by A.Ghosh & A.K Mallick, Wiley Eastern

Workshop Technology (volume I&I), S.K Hazra, Chowdhury.

Work shop technology B.S Raghuwanshi, Dhanpat Rai & co.

 NARULA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(An educational initiative of JIS group)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FITTING SHOP

SUBMITTED BY
Name:
Stream:
College Roll no:
Paper name: - paper code:-
Year: - Semester:-

Co-students
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
 6)

Fitting Shop:-
The mechanical meaning of fitting refers to assembly or fitting together of component of product. The
processes of fitting does involve processes, such as removal of burs, leveling of surfaces, a bit of
filling ,a bit of drilling & tapping or manual thread cutting ,fitting of bush bearing & ball or roller bearing
etc.
In the conventional fitting practice, students have to have good practice of follow ing operations.

Some common fitting operations:

1. Measuring 8. Hack sawing

2. Marking 9. Chipping
3. Punching 10.Filing
4. Drilling 11.Scraping
5. Reaming 12. Tapping
6. Boring 13. Dieing
7. Counter Boring 14. Grinding

1. Measuring: It is a process of finding the dimensions of the work piece by using steel scale,
calipers, micrometer, gauge etc.

2. Marking: Making a series of definite lines on the job. These lines act as guidelines to the fitter
who works on the job.

3. Punching: It is the operation of making series of dent or punch marks on the line of marking
using center punch and ball peen hammer.

4. Drilling: It is the operation of producing holes in the solid materials using Drilling Machine
with suitable drill bit.

5. Reaming: It is the operation of smoothening the inner surface of the drilled hole with a reamer.

6. Boring: Boring is the operation of enlarging the size of previously drilled hole.

7. Counter Boring: It is the operation of increasing the size of the hole at one Boring end through
a small depth using counter bore tool.

8. Cutting: It is the operation of cutting flat, round rods, pipes etc. using hacksaw frame with
suitable blade.

9. Chipping: It is the operation or removing thick layer of metal using cold chisel.

10. Filing: It is the operation of removing thin layer of metal using using different types of files.

11. Scraping: It is the operation of producing a precision surface or smooths a accurate surface.
This is done with tools called scrapers, which have very hard with no rake
.
12. Tapping: It is the operation of cutting internal threads with a thread cutting tool called taps.
Drill size for taping= size of the tap- pitch of the thread.

13. Dieing: It is the operation of cutting external threads using die set.

14. Grinding: Grinding is the process of removing metal using grinding wheel. Grinding is a
finishing
Operation used for accuracy and smoothness. The accuracy in grinding is in the order of 25
microns.

V Block:-It is a rectangular or square block with a v groove of one or both sides

opposite to each other.
 Laboratory exercise -01
FITTING SHOP
Title:-To make a Gauge from MS plate.

Job specification:- Material – Mild Steel (c % : 0.15-0.3)

Length ×width thickness=(60×50×6) mm3
Job sketch:-

Work Chart:-

Sl Operations Sketch Used tools

No. Involved
Measuring Marking Cutting Holding
tool tool tools tool/devi
ce

01

02

03

04

05
06

07

08
Questions:-1) What do you mean by fitting shop? What kind of jobs is prepared in fitting shop?

2) What is pitch of Thread? What do you mean by M 12×1.75?

3) What are common fitting tools that you have used during the job preparation in the shop?
Give details of each & every tools with material specification & applications?

4) How do you classify drills? Give a sketch of a twist drill? Why flutes provided in twist
Drill?

5) What is taping? What are the different types of taps used for making on the job?

6) Describe different type of fit? What do you mean by shaft size & Hole size?

CARPENTRY SHOP
Introduction:- Carpentry may be defined as the process of making wooden components. It starts
from a marketable form of wood and ends with finished products. It deals with the building work,
furniture, cabinet making. Etc. joinery, i.e., preparation of joints is one of the important operations in all
woodworks. It deals with the specific work of carpenter like making different types of joints to form a
finished product.

Timber: Timber is the name given to the wood obtained from well grown trees. The trees are cut, sawn
into various sizes to suit building purposes. The word, ‘grain’, as applied to wood, refers to the
appearance or pattern of the wood on the cut surfaces. The grain of the wood is a fibrous structure and to
make it strong, the timber must be so cut, that the grains run parallel to the length.

Timber Sizes:- Timber sold in the market is in various sizes and shapes. The following are the common
shapes and sizes.
a.) Log ‐ the trunk of the tree which is free from branches
b) Balk ‐ the log, sawn to have roughly square cross section.
c). Post ‐ A timber piece, round or square in cross section, having its diameter or side from 175 to
300mm.
d.) Plank ‐ A sawn timber piece, with more than 275 mm in width, 50 to 150 mm in thickness and 2.5 to
6.5 meters in length.
e.) Board ‐ A sawn timber piece, below 175 mm in width and 30 to 50 mm in thickness.
f.) Reapers‐ Sawn timber pieces of assorted and non‐standard sizes, which do not confirm to the above
shapes and sizes.

Classification of Timber:- Wood suitable for construction and other engineering purposes is called
timber. Woods in general are dividing into two groups:
1) Soft woods:-It is obtained from conifers, kair, deodar, chir, walnut and seemal.
2) Hard woods:- Woods obtained from teak, sal, oak, shisham, beach, ash mango, neem and babul are
known as hard wood, but it is highly durable.
Another classification of woods is based on the name of the trees like teak, babul, shisham, neem, kair,
chir, etc.

Seasoning of Wood:- A newly felled tree contains considerable moisture content. If this is not removed,
the timber is likely to wrap, shrink, crack or decay. Seasoning is the art of extracting the moisture content
under controlled conditions, at a uniform rate, from all the parts of the timber. Only seasoned wood
should be used for all carpentry works. Seasoning makes the wood resilient and lighter. Further, it
 ensures that the wood will not distort after it is made into an object.
Characteristics of Good Timber:- The good timber must possess the following characteristics
a). It should have minimum moisture content, i.e., the timber should be well seasoned. b.) The grains of
wood should be straight and long.
c.) It must retain its straightness after seasoning.
d). It should produce near metallic sound on hammering.
e) It should be free from knots or cracks.
f) It should be of uniform color, throughout the part of the wood.
g). It should respond well to the finishing and polishing operations.
h). During driving the nails and screw, it should not split easily.
Marking and Measuring Tools: Accurate marking and measurement is very essential in carpentry work,
to produce parts to exact size. To transfer dimensions onto the work; the following are the marking and
measuring tools that are required in a carpentry shop. Steel Rule and Steel Tape Steel rule is a simple
measuring instrument consisting of a long, thin metal strip with a marked scale of unit divisions. It is an
important tool for linear measurement. Steel tape is used for large measurements, such as marking on boards
and checking the overall dimensions of the work.

Steel rule & steel tape

Marking Gauge: It is a tool used to mark lines parallel to the edge of a wooden
piece. It consists of a square wooden stem with a sliding wooden stock (head) on it.
On the stem is fitted a marking pin, made of steel. The stock is set at any desired
distance from the marking point and fixed in position by a screw. It must be ensured
that the marking pin projects through the stem, about 3 mm and the end are sharp
enough to make a very fine line. A mortise gauge consists of two pins. In this, it is
possible to adjust the distance between the pins, to draw two parallel lines on the
stock.

Try ‐ square:-It is used for marking and testing the squareness and straightness of
Marking Gauge Mortise Gauge

planed surfaces. It consists of a steel blade, fitted in a cast iron stock. It is also used
for checking the planed surfaces for flatness. Its size varies from 150 to 300 mm,
according to the length of th e blade. It is less accurate
when compared to the try‐square used in the fitting shop

.
Try square
Compass and Divider:-Compass and divider, are used for marking arcs and circles
on the planed surfaces of the wood.
.
Scriber or Marking Knife:-It is used for marking on timber. It is made of steel
having one end pointed and the other end formed into a sharp cutting edge.

Bevel Square:-It is used for laying‐out and checking angles. The blade of the bevel is
adjustable and may be held in place by a thumb screw. After it is set to the desired
angle, it can be used in much the same way as a try‐square. A good way to set it to
the required angle is to mark the angle on a surface and then adjust the blade to fit
the angle

Compass & Divider Scriber & Bevel square

Holding Tools: -
Carpenter’s Vice :-it is used as a work holding device in a carpenter shop. Its one
jaw is fixed to the side of the table while the other is movable by means of a screw
and a handle. The Carpenter's vice jaws are lined with hard wooden' faces

C‐Clamp:-
Carpenter’s vice C-Clamp

It is used for holding small works (see figure above)

Bar Cramp:-
It is made of steel bar of T‐section, with malleable iron fittings and a steel screw. It is
used for
Holding wide works such as frames or tops.

Planning Tools:-
Planing is the operation used to produce flat surfaces on wood. A plane is a hand tool
used for
This purpose. The cutting blade used in a plane is very similar to a chisel. The blade of
a plane is fitted in a wooden or metallic block, at an angle.

Types of Planes:-
Jack Plane:-It is the most commonly used general purpose plane. It is about 35 cm
long. The cutting iron (blade) should have a cutting edge of slight curvature. It is used
for quick removal of material on rough work and is also used in oblique planning.
Smoothing Plane:-
It is used for finishing work and hence, the blade should have a straight cutting edge.
It is about 20 to 25 cm long. Being short, it can follow even the slight depressions in
the stock, better than the jack plane. It is used after using the jack plane.
Rebate Plane:-
It is used for making a rebate. A rebate is a recess along the edge of a piece of wood,
which is
generally used for positioning glass in frames and doors.
Plough Plane:-
It is used to cut grooves, which are used to fix panels in a door. The following figure
shows the
various types of planes mentioned above.

Cutting Tools:-
Saws:-
A saw is used to cut wood into pieces. There are different types of saws, designed to
suit
different purposes. A saw is specified by the length of its toothed edge.

Types of Saws:

Cross‐Cut Saw or Hand Saw

It is used to cut across the grains of the stock. The teeth are so set that the saw kerf
will be wider than the blade thickness. This allows the blade to move freely in the cut,
without sticking
Rip Saw-It is used for cutting the stock along the grains. The cutting edge of this saw
makes a steeper angle, i.e., about 60° whereas that of crosscut saw makes an angle
of 45° with the surface of the stock.

Tenon Saw-It is used for cutting the stock either along or across the grains. It is used
for cutting tenons and in fine cabinet work. However, it is used for small and thin cuts.
The blade of this saw is very thin and so it is stiffened with a thick back steel strip.
Hence, this is sometimes called as back‐saw. In this, the teeth are shaped like those
of cross‐cut saw.

Compass Saw-It has a narrow, longer and stronger tapering blade, which is used for
heavy works. It is mostly used in radius cutting. The blade of this saw is fitted with an
open type wooden handle.

Types of saws

Chisels: Chisels are used for cutting and shaping wood accurately. Wood chisels
are made in various blade widths, ranging from 3 to 50 mm. They are also made in
different blade lengths. Most of the wood chisels are made into tang type, having a
steel shank which fits inside the handle.These are made of forged steel or tool steel
blades.has a narrow, longer and stronger tapering blade, which is used for heavy
works. It is mostly used in radius cutting. The blade of this saw is fitted with an open
type wooden handle.

Types of chisel
Types of Chisels:-
Firmer Chisel -The word 'firmer' means 'stronger' and hence firmer chisel is stronger
than other chisels. It is a general purpose chisel and is used either by hand pressure
or by a mallet. The blade of a firmer chisel is flat, as shown in figure.
Dovetail Chisel-It has a blade with a beveled back, as shown in Figure, due to which
it can enter sharp comers for finishing, as in dovetail joints.

Mortise Chisel-It is used for cutting mortises and chipping inside holes, etc. The
cross‐section of the mortise chisel is proportioned to withstand heavy blows during
mortising. Further, the Cross section is made stronger near the shank
M R C E T ENGINEERING WORKSHOP MANUAL B.TECH 1ST YEAR

DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINE
Carpentry joint:-

Introduction:-Joint, in carpentry, junction of two or more members of a farmed

structure is called carpentry joint.
Types of carpentry joint:-
1) Butt joint:-A butt joint is made up of one piece of stock butted against another&
affixed with a glue of some kind. It is a very weak joint.

2) Biscuit joiner:-A biscuit joiner I a woodworking tool used to join two pieces of
wood together.
3) Bridle Joint:-
4) Dado join:-
5) Dovetail joint:-
6) Finger Joint:-
7) Mortise & Tenon joint:
8) Pocket –hole joinery:-
8) Rabbet joint:-
9) Tongue groove joint:-
 Types of carpentry joints

Butt Joint:-One of the most simple joints, this is simply putting the ends of two pieces together. It joins
the end grain of one piece to the long grain of another and the two pieces are glued together. These joints
typically only use glue to hold the pieces together, so they are fairly weak and can be broken just using your
hands.

Biscuit Joint:-A reinforced version of the butt joint, this joint uses a “biscuit” to connect the two pieces. A
biscuit is an oval-shaped piece usually made with compressed wood and is placed in corresponding mortises
(the hole cut out in the wood) in each piece of wood. Glue is then used to secure the pieces.

Bridle Joint:-This joint is similar to a mortise and tenon, but with more open holes in the wood. The end
of one piece of wood is cut into a tenon shape and the other piece of wood is cut into a mortise, so that the
two pieces that can be fitted together to form a corner. This joint can be used to create legs or to help create
frame pieces when it’s being shaped. This is a strong joint with good durability. The T-bridle is a variation
in which one piece is connected to the middle of the second instead of the end.

Dado (Joinery):-Use this joint when you need to put up shelves. A slot is cut into the surface of the wood
— a dado is cut perpendicular to the grain and a groove is put parallel to the grain. The slot can either go
through the entire surface of the piece of wood or stop just before it goes through.

Dovetail Joint:-This joint is commonly used when putting together drawers and entails each piece to have
a series of pins and tails that interlock together. The pins and tails have a trapezoid shape to increase
durability and strength. Glue the pieces together and there’s no need for fasteners.

Finger Joint:-Similar to the dovetail joint, the finger joint also has a series of pins along an edge that are
interlocked together using glue. The difference is that the finger joint pins are straight instead of angled.
This joint isn’t as strong as the dovetail, but it is fairly easy to make with a table saw, wood router, or a jig.

Lap Wood Joint:- One of the more popular joints used in woodworking, the lap wood joint combines two
pieces of wood by cutting away half the thickness of the pieces. This joint is typically used when the two
pieces have the same thickness. The portion of wood cut away will fit into the corresponding cutout on the
other piece.

Mortise and Tenon:-One of the strongest and another popular joint, the mortise and tenon is used to
attach two pieces of wood at a 90-degree angle. The mortise part of the joint is a hole or cavity cut into one
piece of wood. A tenon is the negative of the mortise hole, protruding from the second piece of wood. The
tenon is typically around ⅓ the thickness of the piece of wood. Reinforce this joint using glue and it will be
strong and long-lasting.

Pocket Hole:- Rather than butting two pieces of wood together with glue, the pocket-hole joint goes one
step further. This is another popular and strong joint that uses a pocket hole that is cut into one piece of
wood with another pilot hole that allows a screw to be driven into the adjoining piece of wood. Our Castle
pocket hole machine makes it easy to make a pocket joint. Our low-angle pocket and pilot hole make the
joint stronger and there’s less chance of the pieces shifting.

Rabbet Joint:- The rabbet joint is simple and straightforward. A cut is made into the end of a piece of
wood to create a “step.” This joint is in a variety of woodworking projects, including cabinets or glass
panes.

Tongue and Groove:-Commonly used in flooring, the tongue and groove joint is similar to the bridle
joint; instead, the grooves are cut into the length of the board instead of the end. A protruding groove on one
piece fits into a crevice of another, allowing the two pieces to fit together closely.

Pattern making

Introduction:-The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It can be said as a
model or the replica of the object to be cast except for the various allowances a pattern exactly resembles
the casting to be made. It may be defined as a model or form around which sand is packed to give rise to
a cavity known as mold cavity in which when molten metal is poured, the result is the cast object. When
this mould cavity is filled with molten metal, molten metal solidifies and produces a casting (product). So
the pattern is the replica of the casting

OBJECTIVES:
1. To prepare a wooden pattern for given object
2. To prepare a sand mould from the prepared pattern for casting a iron block
3. To melt and pour iron metal into the mould.
 Why wood is used for pattern material_
1) It is cheap and available in abundance.
2) It can be easily shaped into different forms & designs.
3) It is light in weight, repairable & reusable.
4) Good surface finish can easily be obtained by planning & casting.
5) It can be preserved for a long time by applying proper preservatives.

Commonly used wood for pattern making:-Pine, Deodar, teak, shish am

mahogany etc.

Other material used for pattern making:-metals (cast iron, brass, aluminum & its
alloys white metal), plaster plastics, Wax.

Different types of patterns:-

Single Piece:- These patterns are made in single piece. It is simplest type of pattern. It is used for
simple objects.

Split Pattern or Multi Piece Pattern: These patterns are made into two or more pieces. The first half of
pattern placed into cope and other half into drag. It is used for complex objects where removal of single
piece pattern from mould is impossible.
Cope and Drag Pattern:- These are two piece split pattern. It is used for large objects.

Match Plate Pattern:- Match plate pattern is a split pattern in which cope and drag section mounted on
opposite sides of a plate. The plate is known as match plate. These will make easy to cast any shape with
high production rate
Loose Piece Pattern:- When removal of pattern is impossible due to an extended surface at either upper
half or lower half, the extended part made as loose piece so this extended part can be removed first before
removal of whole pattern. This will make easy removal of pattern without effect on the cavity. These
patterns are known as loose piece pattern.
Gated Pattern:- These are simply more than one looses piece which are attached with a common gating
system. These are used for mass production. It is used to produce small size cavities into one mould.
Sweep Pattern:- These pattern are used for large rotational symmetrical casting. A sweep is a section of
large symmetrical object which is rotated along a edge into sand which make a large symmetrical mould.
These patterns makes easy pattern making work of large objects.
Skeleton Pattern:- These patterns used for large simple castings. In these patterns, skeleton like structure
made by using simple pattern sections. These will save both time and material.
Pattern allowances:- The pattern is always made somewhat larger than the final job to
be produced. This excess in dimensions is referred to as the pattern allowances.
There are mainly three categories of pattern allowances, namely,

i) Shrinkage allowance:- Shrinkage allowance is provided to take care of the contraction of a

casting. Machining operations are required to produce the finished surface of the final product
of the casting

ii) Machining allowance: - The excess in dimensions of the casting (and consequently in the
dimensions of the pattern) over those of the final job to take care of the machining is called
Machining allowance

iii) Draft or Taper Allowance: - Taper allowance is a positive allowance and is given on all the
vertical surfaces of pattern so that its withdrawal becomes easier. The normal amount of taper on
the external surfaces varies from 10 mm to 20 mmƒmt.

NOTE:-For pattern making tools are same as carpentry

 LABORATORY EXERCISE-1a/1b
(Carpentry/pattern making)

JOB TITLE:-To make a wooden joint in carpentry shop/pattern making.

 Different joints for carpentry shop /pattern making with dimensions

Work Chart
Sl Operations Sketch Used tools
No. Involved
Measuring Marking Cutting Holding
tool tool tools tool/devi
ce

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08
 Conclusion:-

Questions:-
1) What do you mean by a joint in a carpentry shop? Classify different types of joint in carpentry & their
use?
2) Write down common tools used in carpentry & pattern shop with their specification, functions with
proper sketch?
3) What is pattern? What are the common pattern materials?
4) What are the Advantage & disadvantage of wood as a pattern material? Why wood is seasoned for
use?
5) What do you mean by pattern allowances? Classified it with briefly discussions?

Reference books:-

Manufacturing technology (volume I&II) Tata McGraw Hill, Rao P.N

Process of Material of Manufacture 4 th edition; Roy A .Lindberg

Manufacturing science by A.Ghosh & A.K Mallick, Wiley Eastern

Workshop Technology (volume I&I), S.K Hazra, Chowdhury.

Work shop technology B.S Raghuwanshi, Dhanpat Rai & co.

 Welding shop
(Gas welding+ Arc welding)

WELDING:

Welding is the process of joining metals by melting the parts and then using a filler to form a joint.
Welding can be done using different energy sources, from a gas flame or electric arc or a laser or
ultrasound.

Now, it is extensively used in manufacturing industry, construction industry (construction of ships,

tanks, locomotives and automobiles) and maintenance work, replacing riveting and bolting, to a
greater extent.

TYPES OF WELDING:

• Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding:

The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and forced together by external
pressure. Example: Resistance welding.

• Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding

The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify. Example: Gas welding,
Arc welding.

CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES:

(i) Arc welding • Projection

• Carbon arc • Percussion
• Metal arc
• Metal inert gas
• Tungsten inert gas
• Plasma arc
• Submerged arc (iv) Thermit Welding
• Electro−slag (v) Solid State Welding
(ii) Gas Welding • Friction
• Oxy−acetylene • Ultrasonic
• Air−acetylene • Diffusion
• Oxy−hydrogen • Explosive
(iii) Resistance Welding (vi) Newer Welding
• Butt • Electron−beam
• Spot • Laser
• Seam (vii) Related Process
• Brazing • Oxy−acetylene cutting
• Soldering • Arc cutting
• Hard−facing
 OXY-FUEL WELDING/ GAS WELDING:- Oxy−fuel welding (commonly called oxyacetylene welding,
oxy welding, or gas welding) is a process that uses fuel gases and oxygen to weld metals. In Oxy−fuel
welding, a welding torch is used to weld metals. Welding metal results when two pieces are heated to
a temperature that produces a shared pool of molten metal. The molten pool is generally supplied
with additional metal called filler. Filler material depends upon the metals to be welded.

Torches that do not mix fuel with oxygen (combining, instead, atmospheric air) are not considered
ox fuel torches and can typically be identified by a single tank (Oxy−fuel welding generally
requires two tanks, fuel and oxygen). Most metals cannot be melted with a single− tank torch. As
such, single tank torches are typically used only for soldering and brazing, rather than welding.

APPARATUS:-The apparatus used in gas welding consists basically of an oxygen source (125
kgƒcm2) and a fuel gas source (Acetyelene−16 kgƒcm2), two pressure regulators (Oxygen− 1 kgƒcm2
and Acetylene− 0.15 kgƒcm2) and two flexible hoses (one of each for each cylinder), and a torch

PRESSURE REGULATOR:-The regulator is used to control pressure from the tanks by reducing p
essure and regulating flow rate. Oxy−gas regulators usually have two stages: The first stage of the
regulator releases the gas at a constant rate from the cylinder despite the pressure in the cylinder
becoming less as the gas in the cylinder is used. The second stage of the regulator controls the
pressure reduction from the intermediate pressure to low pressure. It is constant flow. The valve
assembly has two pressure gauges, one indicating cylinder pressure, and the other indicating
 hose pressure. Some oxy−gas regulators only have one stage, and one pressure gauge. With those
the gas flow gets less as the cylinder pressure drops.
GAS HOSES:-The hoses used are specifically designed for welding. The hose is usually a
double−hose design, meaning that there are two hoses joined together. The oxygen hose is green and
the fuel hose is red. The type of gas the hose will be carrying is important because the connections will
have different threads for different types of gas. Fuel gases (red) will use left−hand threads and a groove
cut into the nut, while the oxygen (green) will use right−hand threads. This is a safety precaution to
prevent hoses from being hooked up the wrong way. There are basically two types of connections that
can be used. The first is using a jubilee clip. The second option is using a crimped connector. The second
option is probably safer as it is harder for this type of connection to come loose. The hoses should also be
clipped together at intervals approximately 3 feet apart.

NON-RETURN VALVE:-Between the regulator and hose, and ideally between hose and torch on both
oxygen and fuel lines, a flashback arrestor and/or non−return valve should be installed to prevent
flame or oxygen−fuel mixture being pushed back into either cylinder and damaging the equipment
or making a cylinder explode.

The flashback arrestor (not to be confused with a check valve) prevents shock waves from
downstream coming back up the hoses and entering the cylinder (possibly rupturing it), as there
are quantities of fuelƒ oxygen mixtures inside parts of the equipment (specifically within the mixer
and blowpipeƒnozzle) that may explode if the equipment is incorrectly shut down; and acetylene
decomposes at excessive pressures or temperatures. The flashback arrestor will remain switched off
until someone resets it, in case the pressure wave created a leak downstream of the arrestor.

CHECK VALVE:-A check valve lets gas flow in one direction only. Not to be confused with a
flashback arrestor, a check valve is not designed to block a shock wave. The pressure wave could
occur while the ball is so far from the inlet that the pressure wave gets past before the ball reaches its
off position. A check valve is usually a chamber containing a ball that is pressed against one end by a
spring: gas flow one way pushes the ball out of the way, and no flow or flow the other way lets the
spring push the ball into the inlet, blocking it.
WELDING TORCH:

A welding torch head is used to weld metals. It can be identified by having only one or two pipes
running to the nozzle and no oxygen−blast trigger.

1) ROSE-BUD TORCH: A rose−bud torch is used to heat metals for bending, straightening, etc.
where a large area needs to be heated. It is called as such because the flame at the end looks like a
rose−bud. A welding torch can also be used to heat small area such as rusted nuts and bolts. In this
case, no filler rod is used with the torch.

2) INJECTOR TORCH: A typical Oxy−fuel torch, called an equal−pressure torch, merely mixes the two
gasses. In an injector torch, high pressure oxygen comes out of a small nozzle inside the torch
head so that it drags the fuel gas along with it, via venturi effect.
FUELS:

Fuel processes may use a variety of fuel gases, the most common being acetylene. Other gases that may
be used are propylene, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), propane, natural gas, hydrogen, and MAPP gas.

ACETYLENE: Acetylene is the primary fuel for oxy−fuel welding and is the fuel of choice for repair
work and general welding. Acetylene gas is shipped in special cylinders designed to keep the gas
dissolved.

The cylinders are packed with porous materials (e.g. kapok fiber, diatomaceous earth, or
(formerly) asbestos), then filled to around 50% capacity with acetone, as acetylene is acetone
soluble. This method is necessary because above 207 kPa (30 lbfƒin²) (absolute pressure)
acetylene is unstable and may explode. There is about 1700 kPa (250 lbfƒin²) pressure in the tank
when full. Acetylene when combined with oxygen burns at a temperature of 3200 ˚C to 3500 ˚C
(5800 ˚F to 6300 ˚F), highest among commonly used gaseous fuels. As fuel acetylene's primary
disadvantage, in comparison to other fuels, is high cost. As acetylene is unstable at a pressure
roughly equivalent to 33 feetƒ10 meters underwater, water submerged welding is reserved for
hydrogen rather than acetylene.

THE ROLE OF OXYGEN:-Oxygen is not the fuel: It is what chemically combines with the fuel to
produce the heat for welding. This is called 'oxidation', but the more general and more commonly
used term is 'combustion'. The heat is released because the molecules of the products of combustion
have a lower energy state than the molecules of the fuel and oxygen. The word "oxygen" is often
shorted to 'oxy', as in the term 'oxy−acetylene torch'. Oxygen is usually produced elsewhere by
distillation of liquefied air and shipped to the welding site in high pressure vessels (commonly called
"tanks" or "cylinders") at a pressure of about 21000 kPa (3000 lbfƒin² = 200 atmospheres). It is also
shipped as a liquid in Dewar type vessels (like a large Thermos jar) to places that use large amounts
of oxygen. It is also possible to separate oxygen from air by passing the air, while under pressure,
through a zeolite sieve which selectively absorbs the nitrogen and lets the oxygen (and argon) pass.
This gives a purity of oxygen of about 93%. This works well for
TYPES OF FLAME:-Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone surrounded by the
transparent blue envelope is called Neutral flame (It has a balance of fuel gas and oxygen) (32000c)
Used for welding steels, aluminum, copper and cast iron


 If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more pointed, while the envelope
becomes shorter and more fierce is called Oxidizing flame
 Has the highest temperature about 34000c
 Used for welding brass and brazing operation

 Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long white inner area (Feather)
surrounded by a transparent blue envelope is called Carburizing flame (30000c)

This flame has excess of fuel gas. This flame chemically reacts with metal & from metal carbide. Due to
this reason ,this flame does not used with metal which absorbs carbon. This flame has three regions. the
inner zone has white color, the intermediate zone which is red in color & outer zone blue in color. This
inner cone temperature is about 29000c This flame is used to weld medium carbon steel ,nickel etc.
ARC WELDING:- In this process a joint is established by fusing the material near the region of joint by
means of an electric arc struck between the material to be joined and an electrode. A high current low
voltage electric power supply generates an arc of intense heat reaching a temperature of approximately
3800OC. The electrode held externally may act as a filler rod or it is fed independently of the electrode. Due
to higher levels of heat input, joints in thicker materials can be obtained by the arc welding process. It is
extensively used in a variety of structural applications.

There are so many types of the basic arc welding process such as shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),
gas metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), submerged arc welding.

Arc Welding Equipment-1. Arc welding power sourceBoth direct current (DC) and alternating current
(AC) are used for electric arc welding process, each
having its particular applications. DC welding supply is
usually obtained from generators driven by electric motor
or if no electricity is available by internal combustion
engines. For AC welding supply, transformers are
predominantly used for almost all arc welding
where mains electricity supply is available. They have to step down the usual supply voltage (200-400
volts) to the normally open circuit welding voltage (50-90 volts). The following factors influence the
selection of a power source:
1. Type of electrodes to be used and metals to be welded
2. Available power source (AC or DC)
3. Required output
4. Duty cycle
5. Initial costs and running costs
6. Efficiency
7. Available floor space area and
8. Versatility of equipment

2. Welding cables:-Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source
through the electrode holder, the arc, the workpiece and back to the welding power source. These
are insulated copper or aluminium cables.
3. Electrode holder:-Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and conducting
current to it. These are usually matched to the size of the lead, which in turn matched to the
amperage output of the arc welder. Electrode holders are available in sizes that range from 150 to
500 Amps.

4. Welding Electrodes:-An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without
coatings. An arc is set up between electrode and workpiece. Welding electrodes are classified into the
following types

1. Consumable Electrodes
i. Bare Electrodes
ii. Coated Electrodes
2. Non-consumable Electrodes
i. Carbon or Graphite
Electrodes
ii. Tungsten Electrodes

Consumable electrodes are made up of different metals and

their alloys. The end of this electrode starts melting when
the arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece.
Thus consumable electrode itself acts as a filler metal. Bare
electrodes consist of a metal or alloy wire without any flux
coating on them. Coated electrodes have flux coating which
starts melting as soon as an electric arc is struck. This
coating on melting performs many functions like prevention of joint from atmospheric contamination, arc
stabilizers etc.
Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon, pure tungsten or
alloy tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding. But practically, the electrode
length goes on decreasing with the passage of time, because of oxidation and vaporization of the
electrode material during welding. The materials of non-consumable electrodes are usually copper coated
carbon or graphite, pure tungsten, thoriated or zirconiated tungsten.

Electrodes:-In arc welding, an electrode is used to conduct current through a work piece to fuse
two pieces together. Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable,in case of gas
metal are welding or shielded metal arc welding ,or non consumable, such as in gas tungsten arc
welding.
Electrode size:-Electrodes are commonly made in lengths 250 mm,300mm,450mm & diameters
are 1.6 mm,2 mm,2.5 mm,3.2 mm,4 mm,7 mm,8mm,& 9mm.
Function of coating: 1) To prevent oxidation.
2) Forms slags with metal impurities
3) It stabilizes the arc
4) Increases deposition of molten metal
5) Controls the cooling rate
6) Adds alloy elements to the joints.
7) Controls depth of penetration.
BIS specification & selection:-An electrode is specified by six digits with profile letter
‘M’.These six digits indicates the following matter:-
 M: It indicates that it is suitable for metal arc welding.
First Digit:-First digit may be from 1to 8, which indicates the types of coating on the electrode.
Second Digit:-It denotes the welding position for which welding electrodes is manufactured. It
varies 1 to 6.
Third Digit:-It denotes current to be used for electrodes.It is taken from 1to7.
Fourth Digit:-Fourth digit is from 1 to 8 Each digit represents the tensile strength of welded oint.
Fifth Digit :-it carries any numbers from 1 to 5.This digit denotes a specific elongation in
percentage of metal deposited.
Sixth Digit:-It carries any numbers from 1 to 5 which denotes impact strength of the joint.
Flux:-Arc electrode s are made of metalic wire called core wire,coated uniformly with a flux to
provide protective coating . Flux acts as insulator of electricity.
Function of Flux coating:- 1)It forms a gaseous shield around weld joint.
2) It cleans the surface to be welded.
3) It forms a slag over the weld .The slage helps in controlling the
following. A) Reduce rate of cooling b) improve mechanical properties.c) Reduce blow holes.d)
reduce porosity e)Reduce chance of crack formation.
4) It helps in the use of a.c current.
5) It prevent overheating of electrodes.
6) It provides flexibility & strength to the coating.
7) It speeds up welding operation by increasing the rate of cooling.
8) It increase the fluidity of electrode
10) It prevents in preventing of under cooling.
.
5. Chipping hammer:-Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by
striking.

6. Wire brush

Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.

7. Hand Screen

8. C- clamp for holding the welding job.

9. Protective clothing:-The operator wears the protective

clothing such as apron to protect the from the exposure of
direct heat to the body.
MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING:

Manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is the oldest and
most widely used process being used for fabrication. The arc is struck between a flux covered
stick electrode and the work piece. The work pieces are made part of an electric circuit, known as
welding circuit. It includes welding power source, welding cables, electrode holder, earth clamp
and the consumable coated electrode. Figure below shows details of welding circuit.

GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) OR METAL INERT GAS WELDING (MIG):Metal inert
gas welding (MIG) or more appropriately called as gas metal arc welding (GMAW) utilizes a
consumable electrode and hence, the term metal appears in the title. There are other gas shielded arc
welding processes utilizing the consumable electrodes, such as flux cored arc welding (FCAW) all of
which can be termed under MIG. The typical setup for GMAW or MIGwelding process is shown in
he Figure. The consumable electrode is in the form of a wire reel which is fed at a constant rate,
through the feed rollers. The welding torch is connected to to gas supply cylinder which provides the
necessary inert gas. The electrode and the work−piece are connected to the welding power supply.

Fig.: Schematic diagram of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

 Fig.: Schematic diagram of Metal inert gas welding (MIG)
TIG WELDING:
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) or Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) welding is the arc welding process in which arc
is generated between non consumable tungsten electrode and work piece. The tungsten electrode
and the weld pool are shielded by an inert gas normally argon and helium. Figures show the
principle of tungsten inert gas welding process.

Fig.: Schematic diagram of Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)

TIG welding can be used in all positions. It is normally used for root passes during welding of thick
pipes but is widely being used for welding of thin walled pipes and tubes. This process can be easily
mechanized i.e. movement of torch and feeding of filler wire, so it can be used for precision welding in
nuclear, aircraft, chemical, petroleum, automobile and space craft industries. Aircraft frames and its
skin, rocket body and engine casing are few examples where TIG welding is very popular.
 RESISTANCE WELDING:
Resistance welding processes are pressure welding processes in which heavy current is passed for short
time through the area of interface of metals to be joined. These processes differ from other welding
processes in the respect that no fluxes are used, and filler metal rarely used. All resistance welding
operations are automatic and, therefore, all process variables are preset and maintained constant. Heat is
generated in localized area which is enough to heat the metal to sufficient temperature, so that the
parts can be joined with the application of pressure. Pressure is applied through the electrodes.

The heat generated during resistance welding is given by following expression:

H=I2RT
Where, H is heat generated, I is current in amperes, R is resistance of area being welded,
T is time for the flow of current.
The process employs currents of the order of few KA, voltages range from 2 to 12 volts and times
vary from few ms to few seconds. Force is normally applied before, during and after the flow of
current to avoid arcing between the surfaces and to forge the weld metal during post heating. The
necessary pressure shall vary from 30 to 60 N mm depending upon material to be welded and other
welding conditions. For good quality welds these parameters may be properly selected which shall
depend mainly on material of components, their thicknesses, type and size of electrodes.
TECHNIQUES OF WELDING:
PREPARATION OF WORK:
Before welding, the work pieces must be thoroughly cleaned of rust, scale and other foreign
material. The piece for metal generally welded without beveling the edges, however, thick work
piece should be beveled or veed out to ensure adequate penetration and fusion of all parts of the
weld. But, in either case, the parts to be welded must be separated slightly to allow better
penetration of the weld.

Before commencing the welding process, the following must be considered

a) Ensure that the welding cables are connected to proper power source.
b) Set the electrode, as per the thickness of the plate to be welded.
c) Set the welding current, as per the size of the electrode to be used.

Table. Electrode current Vs electrode size Vs plate thickness.

Plate thickness, mm Electrode size, mm Electrode current range, amp

1.6 1.6 40 − 60
2.5 2.5 50 − 80
4.0 3.2 90 − 130
6.0 4.0 120 − 170
8.0 5.0 180 − 270
25.0 6.0 300 − 400

NOTE: While making butt welds in thin metal, it is a better practice to tack−weld the pieces
intervals to hold them properly while welding.

STRIKING AN ARC:

The following are the stages and methods of striking an arc and running a bead
a) Select an electrode of suitable kind and size for the work and set the welding current at a proper
value.
b) Fasten the ground clamp to either the work or welding table.
c) Start or strike the arc by either of the following methods−
i) STRIKE AND WITHDRAW:
In this method the arc is started by moving the end of the electrode onto the work with a slow
sweeping motion, similar to striking a match.
ii) TOUCH AND WITH DRAW:
In this method, the arc is started by keeping the electrode perpendicular to the work and touching
or bouncing it lightly on the work. This method is preferred as it facilitates restarting the
momentarily broken arc quickly. If the electrode sticks to the work, quickly bend it back and forth,
pulling at the same time. Make sure to keep the shield in front of the face, when the electrode is
freed from sticking.
d) As soon as the arc is struck, move the electrode along, slowly from left to right, keeping at 15º
to 25º from vertical and in the direction of welding.

Strike and withdraw Touch and withdraw

Figure: striking an arc

WEAVING:

A steady, uniform motion of the electrode produces a satisfactory bead. However, a slight weaving
or oscillating motion is preferred, as this keeps the metal molten a little longer and allows the gas
to escape, bringing the slag to the surface. Weaving also produces a wider bead with better
penetration.

TYPES OF JOINTS:

Welds are made at the junction of the various pieces that make up the weldment. The junctions of
parts, or joints, are defined as the location where two or more numbers are to be joined. Parts
being joined to produce the weldment may be in the form of rolled plate, sheet, pipes, castings,
forgings, or billets. The five basic types of joints are listed below.

Figure: Types of welding joints.

A butt joint is used to join two members aligned in the same plane (fig. view A). This joint is
frequently used in plate, sheet metal, and pipe work. A joint of this type may be either square or
grooved.
Corner and tee joints are used to join two members located at right angles to each other (fig. views
B and C). In cross section, the corner joint forms an L shape, and the tee joint has the shape of the
letter T. Various joint designs of both types have uses in many types of metal structures.
A lap joint, as the name implies, is made by lapping one piece of metal over another (fig. view D).
This is one of the strongest types of joints available; however, for maximum joint efficiency, you
should overlap the metals a minimum of three times the thickness of the thinnest member you are
joining. Lap joints are commonly used with torch brazing and spot welding applications.
An edge joint is used to join the edges of two or more members lying in the same plane. In most
cases, one of the members is flanged, as shown in the above figure, view E. While this type of
joint has some applications in plate work, it is more frequently used in sheet metal work. An edge
joint should only be used for joining metals 1ƒ4 inch or less in thickness that are not subjected to
heavy loads.

WELDING POSITIONS:
Depending upon the location of the welding joints, appropriate position of the electrode and hand
movement is selected. The figure shows different welding positions.

Figure: Welding positions

FLAT POSITION WELDING:

In this position, the welding is performed from the upper side of the joint, and the face of the weld
is approximately horizontal. Flat welding is the preferred term; however, the same position is
sometimes called down hand.

HORIZONTAL POSITION WELDING: In this position, Welding is performed on the upper side of an
approximately horizontal surface & against an approximately vertical surface.
VERTICAL POSITION WELDING
In this position, the axis of the weld is approximately vertical.
OVERHEAD POSITION WELDING
In this welding position, the welding is performed from the underside of a joint.
.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF ARC WELDING:

ADVANTAGES:
1. Welding process is simple.
2. Equipment is portable and the cost is fairly low.
3. All the engineering metals can be welded because of the availability of a wide variety of
electrodes.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Mechanized welding is not possible because of limited length of the electrode.
2. Number of electrodes may have to be used while welding long joints.
3. A defect (slag inclusion or insufficient penetration) may occur at the place where welding is
restarted with a fresh electro

Electrodes:-In arc welding, an electrode is used to conduct current through a work piece to fuse
two pieces together. Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable,in case of gas
metal are welding or shielded metal arc welding ,or non consumable, such as in gas tungsten arc
welding.
Electrode size:-Electrodes are commonly made in lengths 250 mm,300mm,450mm & diameters
are 1.6 mm,2 mm,2.5 mm,3.2 mm,4 mm,7 mm,8mm,& 9mm.
Function of coating: 1) To prevent oxidation.
2) Forms slags with metal impurities
3) It stabilizes the arc
4) Increases deposition of molten metal
5) Controls the cooling rate
6) Adds alloy elements to the joints.
7) Controls depth of penetration.
BIS specification & selection:-An electrode is specified by six digits with profile letter
‘M’.These six digits indicates the following matter:-
M: It indicates that it is suitable for metal arc welding.
First Digit:-First digit may be from 1to 8, which indicates the types of coating on the electrode.
Second Digit:-It denotes the welding position for which welding electrodes is manufactured. It
varies 1 to 6.
Third Digit:-It denotes current to be used for electrodes.It is taken from 1to7.
Fourth Digit:-Fourth digit is from 1 to 8 Each digit represents the tensile strength of welded oint.
Fifth Digit :-it carries any numbers from 1 to 5.This digit denotes a specific elongation in
percentage of metal deposited.
Sixth Digit:-It carries any numbers from 1 to 5 which denotes impact strength of the joint.
Flux:-Arc electrode s are made of metalic wire called core wire,coated uniformly with a flux to
provide protective coating . Flux acts as insulator of electricity.
Function of Flux coating:- 1)It forms a gaseous shield around weld joint.
2) It cleans the surface to be welded.
 3) It forms a slag over the weld .The slage helps in controlling the
following.a) Reduce rate of cooling b) improve mechanical properties.c) Reduce blow
holes.d)reduce porosity e)Reduce chance of crack formation.
4) It helps in the use of a.c current.
5) It prevent overheating of electrodes.
6) It provides flexibility & strength to the coating.
7) It speeds up welding operation by increasing the rate of cooling.
8) It increase the fluidity of electrode
10) It prevents in preventing of under cooling.

.
SAFETY MEASURES:

 Proper protection should be worn at all times, including protecting the eyes against glare and
flying sparks.
 More than 1ƒ7 the capacity of the cylinder should not be used per hour. This causes the acetylene
to rapidly come out of solution, like carbon dioxide bubbles violently fizzing from a fizzy soft drink
that has just shaken.
 Acetylene is dangerous above 15 psi pressure. It is unstable and explosively decomposes.
 Proper ventilation when welding will help to avoid large chemical exposure.

SAFETY WITH CYLINDERS:-When using fuel and oxygen tanks they should be fastened securely
upright to a wall or a post or a portable cart. An oxygen tank is especially dangerous for the reason that
the oxygen is at a pressure of 21 MPa (3000 lbfƒin² = 200 atmospheres) when full, and if the tank falls
over and its valve strikes something and is knocked off, the tank will effectively become an extremely
deadly flying missile propelled by the compressed oxygen, capable of even breaking through a brick wall.
For this reason, never move an oxygen tank around without its valve cap screwed in place. On
oxyacetylene torch system there will be three types of valves, the tank valve, the regulator valve, and the
torch valve. There will be one of them for each gas. The gas in the tanks or cylinders is at high pressure.
Oxygen cylinders are generally filled to approximately 2200 psi. The regulator converts the high pressure
gas to a low pressure stream suitable for welding. Never attempt to directly use high pressure gas.
Application:-1) It is used to join thin metal plates
2) It can used to join both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
3) Gas welding mostly used in fabrication of sheet metal. It is widely used
in automobile and aircraft industries.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:1 ) It is easy to operate and dose not required high skill operator.
2) Equipment cost is low compare to other welding processes like MIG, TIG etc.
It can be used at site.
3) Equipment’s are more portable than other type of welding.
4) It can be used as gas cutting.
Disadvantages:-
 1) It provides low surface finish. This process needs a finishing operation after welding.
2) Gas welding have large heat affected zone which can cause change in mechanical properties
of parent material.
3) Higher safety issue due to naked flame of high temperature.
4) It is Suitable only for soft and thin sheets.
5) Slow metal joining rate.
6) No shielding area which causes more welding defects.
.
) Reduce rate of cooling b) improve mechanical properties.c) Reduce blow holes.d) reduce
porosity e)Reduce chance of crack formation.
4) It helps in the use of a.c current.
5) It prevent overheating of electrodes.
6) It provides flexibility & strength to the coating.
7) It speeds up welding operation by increasing the rate of cooling.
8) It increase the fluidity of electrode
 10) It prevents in preventing of under cooling.
.

5. Chipping hammer

Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by striking.

6. Wire brush

Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.

7. Hand Screen

Hand screen is used for protection of eyes and supervision of

weld bead.

9.C- clamp For holding the welding job.

8. Protective clothing

The operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to protect the body from the exposure of
direct heat to the body.

MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING:

Manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is the oldest and
most widely used process being used for fabrication. The arc is struck between a flux covered
stick electrode and the work piece. The work pieces are made part of an electric circuit, known as
welding circuit. It includes welding power source, welding cables, electrode holder, earth clamp
and the consumable coated electrode. Figure below shows details of welding circuit.

GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) OR METAL INERT GAS WELDING (M G):
 Metal inert gas welding (MIG) or more appropriately called as gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
utilizes a consumable electrode and hence, the term metal appears in the title. There are other gas
shielded arc welding processes utilizing the consumable electrodes, such as flux cored arc welding
(FCAW) all of which can be termed under MIG. The typical setup for GMAW or MIG
welding process is shown in he Figure. The consumable electrode is in the form of a wire reel
which is fed at a constant rate, through the feed rollers. The welding torch is connected to the
gas supply cylinder which provides the necessary inert gas. The electrode and the work−piece are
connected to the welding power supply.
 Fig.: Schematic diagram of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

Fig.: Schematic diagram of Metal inert gas welding (MIG)

TIG WELDING:

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) or Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) welding is the arc welding process in which arc
is generated between non consumable tungsten electrode and work piece. The tungsten electrode
and the weld pool are shielded by an inert gas normally argon and helium. Figures show the
principle of tungsten inert gas welding process.
 Fig.: Schematic diagram of Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)

TIG welding can be used in all positions. It is normally used for root passes during welding of
thick pipes but is widely being used for welding of thin walled pipes and tubes. This process can
be easily mechanized i.e. movement of torch and feeding of filler wire, so it can be used for
precision welding in nuclear, aircraft, chemical, petroleum, automobile and space craft industries.
Aircraft frames and its skin, rocket body and engine casing are few examples where TIG welding
is very popular.

RESISTANCE WELDING:

Resistance welding processes are pressure welding processes in which heavy current is passed for short
time through the area of interface of metals to be joined. These processes differ from other
welding processes in the respect that no fluxes are used, and filler metal rarely used. All resistance
welding operations are automatic and, therefore, all process variables are preset and maintained
constant. Heat is generated in localized area which is enough to heat the metal to sufficient
temperature, so that the parts can be joined with the application of pressure. Pressure is applied
through the electrodes.

The heat generated during resistance welding is given by following expression:

H=I2RT

Where, H is heat generated, I is current in amperes, R is resistance of area being welded,

T is time for the flow of current.

The process employs currents of the order of few KA, voltages range from 2 to 12 volts and times
vary from few ms to few seconds. Force is normally applied before, during and after the flow of
current to avoid arcing between the surfaces and to forge the weld metal during post heating. The
necessary pressure shall vary from 30 to 60 N mm depending upon material to be welded and
other welding conditions. For good quality welds these parameters may be properly selected which
shall depend mainly on material of components, their thicknesses, type and size of electrodes.
TECHNIQUES OF WELDING:
PREPARATION OF WORK:
Before welding, the work pieces must be thoroughly cleaned of rust, scale and other foreign
material. The piece for metal generally welded without beveling the edges, however, thick work
piece should be beveled or veed out to ensure adequate penetration and fusion of all parts of the
weld. But, in either case, the parts to be welded must be separated slightly to allow better
penetration of the weld.

Before commencing the welding process, the following must be considered

d) Ensure that the welding cables are connected to proper power source.
e) Set the electrode, as per the thickness of the plate to be welded.
f) Set the welding current, as per the size of the electrode to be used.

Table. Electrode current Vs electrode size Vs plate thickness.

Plate thickness, mm Electrode size, mm Electrode current range, amp

1.6 1.6 40 − 60
2.5 2.5 50 − 80
4.0 3.2 90 − 130
6.0 4.0 120 − 170
8.0 5.0 180 − 270
25.0 6.0 300 − 400

NOTE: While making butt welds in thin metal, it is a better practice to tack−weld the pieces
intervals to hold them properly while welding.

STRIKING AN ARC:

The following are the stages and methods of striking an arc and running a bead
e) Select an electrode of suitable kind and size for the work and set the welding current at a proper
value.
f) Fasten the ground clamp to either the work or welding table.
g) Start or strike the arc by either of the following methods−
i) STRIKE AND WITHDRAW:
In this method the arc is started by moving the end of the electrode onto the work with a slow
sweeping motion, similar to striking a match.
ii) TOUCH AND WITH DRAW:
In this method, the arc is started by keeping the electrode perpendicular to the work and touching
or bouncing it lightly on the work. This method is preferred as it facilitates restarting the
momentarily broken arc quickly. If the electrode sticks to the work, quickly bend it back and forth,
pulling at the same time. Make sure to keep the shield in front of the face, when the electrode is
freed from sticking.
h) As soon as the arc is struck, move the electrode along, slowly from left to right, keeping at 15º
to 25º from vertical and in the direction of welding.

Strike and withdraw Touch and withdraw

Figure: striking an arc

WEAVING:

A steady, uniform motion of the electrode produces a satisfactory bead. However, a slight weaving
or oscillating motion is preferred, as this keeps the metal molten a little longer and allows the gas
to escape, bringing the slag to the surface. Weaving also produces a wider bead with better
penetration.

TYPES OF JOINTS:

Welds are made at the junction of the various pieces that make up the weldment. The junctions of
parts, or joints, are defined as the location where two or more numbers are to be joined. Parts
being joined to produce the weldment may be in the form of rolled plate, sheet, pipes, castings,
forgings, or billets. The five basic types of joints are listed below.

Figure: Types of welding joints.

A butt joint is used to join two members aligned in the same plane (fig. view A). This joint is
frequently used in plate, sheet metal, and pipe work. A joint of this type may be either square or
grooved.
Corner and tee joints are used to join two members located at right angles to each other (fig. views
B and C). In cross section, the corner joint forms an L shape, and the tee joint has the shape of the
letter T. Various joint designs of both types have uses in many types of metal structures.
A lap joint, as the name implies, is made by lapping one piece of metal over another (fig. view D).
This is one of the strongest types of joints available; however, for maximum joint efficiency, you
should overlap the metals a minimum of three times the thickness of the thinnest member you are
joining. Lap joints are commonly used with torch brazing and spot welding applications.
An edge joint is used to join the edges of two or more members lying in the same plane. In most
cases, one of the members is flanged, as shown in the above figure, view E. While this type of
joint has some applications in plate work, it is more frequently used in sheet metal work. An edge
joint should only be used for joining metals 1ƒ4 inch or less in thickness that are not subjected to
heavy loads.

WELDING POSITIONS:
Depending upon the location of the welding joints, appropriate position of the electrode and hand
movement is selected. The figure shows different welding positions.

Figure: Welding positions

FLAT POSITION WELDING:

In this position, the welding is performed from the upper side of the joint, and the face of the weld
is approximately horizontal. Flat welding is the preferred term; however, the same position is
sometimes called down hand.

HORIZONTAL POSITION WELDING: In this position, Welding is performed on the upper side of an
approximately horizontal surface & against an approximately vertical surface.
.
VERTICAL POSITION WELDING
In this position, the axis of the weld is approximately vertical.

OVERHEAD POSITION WELDING

In this welding position, the welding is performed from the underside of a joint.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF ARC WELDING:

ADVANTAGES:
4. Welding process is simple.
5. Equipment is portable and the cost is fairly low.
6. All the engineering metals can be welded because of the availability of a wide variety of
electrodes.
DISADVANTAGES:
4. Mechanized welding is not possible because of limited length of the electrode.
5. Number of electrodes may have to be used while welding long joints.
6. A defect (slag inclusion or insufficient penetration) may occur at the place where welding is
restarted with a fresh electro

Electrodes:-In arc welding, an electrode is used to conduct current through a work piece to fuse
two pieces together. Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable,in case of gas
metal are welding or shielded metal arc welding ,or non consumable, such as in gas tungsten arc
welding.
Electrode size:-Electrodes are commonly made in lengths 250 mm,300mm,450mm & diameters
are 1.6 mm,2 mm,2.5 mm,3.2 mm,4 mm,7 mm,8mm,& 9mm.
Function of coating: 1) To prevent oxidation.
2) Forms slags with metal impurities
3) It stabilizes the arc
4) Increases deposition of molten metal
5) Controls the cooling rate
6) Adds alloy elements to the joints.
7) Controls depth of penetration.
BIS specification & selection:-An electrode is specified by six digits with profile letter
‘M’.These six digits indicates the following matter:-
M: It indicates that it is suitable for metal arc welding.
First Digit:-First digit may be from 1to 8, which indicates the types of coating on the electrode.
Second Digit:-It denotes the welding position for which welding electrodes is manufactured. It
varies 1 to 6.
Third Digit:-It denotes current to be used for electrodes.It is taken from 1to7.
Fourth Digit:-Fourth digit is from 1 to 8 Each digit represents the tensile strength of welded oint.
Fifth Digit :-it carries any numbers from 1 to 5.This digit denotes a specific elongation in
percentage of metal deposited.
Sixth Digit:-It carries any numbers from 1 to 5 which denotes impact strength of the joint.
Flux:-Arc electrode s are made of metalic wire called core wire,coated uniformly with a flux to
 provide protective coating . Flux acts as insulator of electricity.
Function of Flux coating:- 1)It forms a gaseous shield around weld joint.
2) It cleans the surface to be welded.
3) It forms a slag over the weld .The slage helps in controlling the
following.a) Reduce rate of cooling b) improve mechanical properties.c) Reduce blow
holes.d)reduce porosity e)Reduce chance of crack formation.
4) It helps in the use of a.c current.
5) It prevent overheating of electrodes.
6) It provides flexibility & strength to the coating.
7) It speeds up welding operation by increasing the rate of cooling.
8) It increase the fluidity of electrode
10) It prevents in preventing of under cooling.

Welding defects can be classified into two types as external and internal defects :
External Welding Defects:
1. Weld Crack
2. Undercut
3. Spatter
4. Porosity
5. Overlap
6. Crater

Internal Welding Defects:

1. Slag Inclusion
2. Incomplete Fusion
3. Necklace cracking
4. Incompletely filled groove or Incomplete penetration

External Welding Defects

The various types of external defects with their causes and remedies are listed below:

1. Weld Crack
This is the most unwanted defect of all the other welding defects. Welding cracks can be present at the
surface, inside of the weld material or at the heat affected zones.

Crack can also appear at different temperatures:

Hot Crack – It is more prominent during crystallization of weld joints where the temperature can
rise more than 10,000-degree Celsius.
Cold Crack – This type of crack occurs at the end of the welding process where the temperature is
quite low. Sometimes cold crack is visible several hours after welding or even after few days.
Causes Of Weld Crack:
1. Poor ductility of the given base metal.
2. The presence of residual stress can cause a crack on the weld metal.
3. The rigidity of the joint which makes it difficult to expand or contract the metals.
4. If there is high content on sulfur and carbon then also the cracks may appear.
5. Using hydrogen as a shielding gas while welding ferrous materials.

Remedies for Weld crack:

1. Using appropriate materials may decrease the chances of crack.
2. Preheating the weld and reducing the cooling speed joint helps in reducing crack.
3. Reduce the gap between the weld joints by using reasonable weld joints.
4. While welding releases the clamping force slowly which increases fill to capacity of welding
material.

2. Undercut

When the base of metal melts away from the weld zone, then a groove is formed in the shape of a
notch, then this type of defect is known as Undercut. It reduces the fatigue strength of the joint.

Causes of Undercut:
1. If the arc voltage is very high then this defect may occur.
2. If we use the wrong electrode or if the angle of the electrode is wrong, then also the defect may form.
3. Using a large electrode is also not advisable.
4. High electrode speed is also one of the reasons for this defect.

Remedies for Undercut:

1. Reduce the arc length or lower the arc voltage.
2. Keep the electrode angle from 30 to 45 degree with the standing leg.
3. The diameter of the electrode should be small.
4. Reduce the travel speed of the electrode.
 3. Spatter

When some metal drops are expelled from the weld and remain stuck to the surface, then this defect is
known as Spatter.

Causes Of Spatter:
1. High Welding current can cause this defect.
2. The longer the arc the more chances of getting this defect.
3. Incorrect polarity.
4. Improper gas shielded may also cause this defect.

Remedies for Spatter :

1. Reducing the arc length and welding current
2. Using the right polarity and according to the conditions of the welding.
3. Increasing the plate angle and using proper gas shielding.

4. Porosity

Porosity in the condition in which the gas or small bubbles gets trapped in the welded zone.

Causes of Porosity:
1. It occurs when the electrode is not coated properly.
2. Using a longer arc may also increase its chances.
3. Increased welding currents.
4. Rust or oil on the welding surface.

Remedies for porosity :

1. Proper selection of the electrode.
2. Decreasing the welding current.
3. Using smaller arc and slowing the process to allow the gases to escape.
4. Remove rust or oil from the surface and use a proper technique.
 5. Overlap

When the weld face extends beyond the weld toe, then this defect occurs. In this condition the weld
metal rolls and forms an angle less than 90 degrees.

Causes of Overlap:
1. Improper welding technique.
2. By using large electrodes this defect may occur.
3. High welding current

: Remedies for Overlap

1. Using a proper technique for welding.
2. Use small electrode.
3. Less welding current.

6. Crater
It occurs when the crater is not filled before the arc is broken, which causes the outer edges to cool
faster than the crater. This causes a stress and then crack is formed.

Causes of the crater:

1. Incorrect torch angle.
2. Use of large electrode:
3. Improper welding technique

Remedies for crater:

1. Using a proper torch angle may reduce the stress on the metal
2. Using a small electrode may also decrease the crater.
3. Use a proper technique.

Internal Welding Defects

The various types of internal welding defects with their causes and remedies are listed below:

1. Slag Inclusion
If there is any slag in the weld, then it affects the toughness and metal weldability of the given material.
This decreases the structural performance of the weld material. Slag is formed on the surface of the
weld or between the welding turns.

Causes Of Slag:
1. Slag is formed if the welding current density is very small, as it does not provide the required amount
of heat for melting the metal surface.
2. If the welding speed is too fast then also slag may occur.
3. If the edge of the weld surface is not cleaned properly then also slag may form.
4. Improper welding angle and travel rate of welding rod.

Remedies for Slag Inclusion:

1. Increase the current density
2. Adjust the welding speed so that the slag and weld pool do not mix with each other.
3. Clean the weld edges and remove the slags of previous weld layers
4. Have a proper electrode angle and travel rate.

2. Incomplete Fusion

Incomplete fusion occurs when the welder does not accurately weld the material and the metal pre
solidifies which leads to a gap which is not filled with the molten metal.

Causes of Incomplete fusion:

1. It occurs because of the low heat input.
2. When the weld pool is very large and runs ahead of the arc.
3. When the angle of the joint is too low.
4. Incorrect electrode and torch angle may also lead to incomplete fusion.
5. Unproper bead position.

Remedies for Incomplete Fusion:

1. Increasing the welding current and decreasing the travel speed helps in removing the chances of
incomplete fusion.
2. Reducing the deposition rate.
3. Increasing the joint angle.
4. Try to position the electrode and torch angle properly so that the edges of the plate melt away.
5. Positioning the bead properly so that the sharp edges with other beads can be avoided.

3. Necklace Cracking
It occurs in the use of electron beam welding where the weld does not penetrate properly.
Therefore, the molten metal does not flow into the cavity and results in a cracking known as “Necklace
Cracking”.
 Causes of Necklace Cracking:
1. Improper welding technique.
2. It occurs in materials such as nickel base alloys, stainless steel, carbon steels and Tin alloys.
3. Using high speed of electron beam welding

Remedies for Necklace Cracking:

1. Using a proper welding technique reduce the chances of necklace cracking.
2. Using proper materials for welding.
3. Using a constant speed during the welding process.
3. Improper welding technique

4. Incompletely Filled Groove or Incomplete Penetration

These defects occur only in the butt welds where the groove of the metal is not filled completely. It is
also called as incomplete penetration defect.

Causes of an Incomplete filled groove are:

1. Less deposition of the weld metal
2. Use of improper size of the electrode
3. Improper welding technique

Incomplete filledRemedies for Incomp groove are:

1. More deposition of the weld metal.
2. Use a proper size of the electrode.
3. By using a proper welding technique.

Therefore, we have listed all types of welding defects present during any manufacturing process.While
welding, it is very important to remove all the defects of welding present in the workpiece.
If there would be defects in the welding material, then in severe conditions the components of the
material would fail which may lead to loss of property and sometimes also life.
 LABORATORY EXERCISE-1A
(GAS WELDING)
1(a) Experiment number: - (b) Date of performance:-

2) Title of the experiment:-

3) Objective or aim:-

4) Theory of the experiment:-

5) Block Diagram of the job:-

6 ( a)Apparatus used:-

SL. NO INSTRUMENT TYPE RANGE QUANTITY REMARKS

6 (b) components used:-

SL.NO NAME OF THE TYPE/SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

COMPONENT

7) procedures:-
8) Experimental data/

SL. TYPE OF TYPE OF EDGE TYPES OF TYPES OF FILLER ROD PRESSURE in

NO. PREPARATION FLAME WITH SPECIFICATION
WELDING (kgf/cm2./psi)

Oxygen Acetylene
cylinder cylinder

9) Data/Table Analysis:-

10) Conclusion /Discussion:-

 LABORATORY EXERCISE-1B
(ARC WELDING)
1(a) Experiment number: - (b) Date of performance:-

2) Title of the experiment:-

3) Objective or aim:-

4) Theory of the experiment:-

5) Block Diagram of the job:-

6 ( a)Apparatus used:- V-Butt joint

SL. NO INSTRUMENT TYPE RANGE QUANTITY REMARKS

6 (b) components used:-

SL.NO NAME OF THE TYPE/SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

COMPONENT

7) Procedures: - 1) Edge of the given material is prepared to the required V-shape using grinding
machine. The machine is set to the required current (75 amps).
2) Place the two work pieces on the table with required position as shown in figure.
3) The work pieces are kept in the required position and tack welding is performed on the work
pieces.
4) First run of welding is done to fill the gap and penetration of the well-meant by holding the
electrode at about 700 and moving the electrode to another end uniformly.
5) Second run of welding is done with proper weaving and uniform movement.
6) The scale formed is chipped with chipping hammer.
7) Filing is done to remove any spatter around the weld.

8) Experimental data/

SL. TYPE OF TYPE OF EDGE VOLTAGE OF CURRENT OF TYPE OF REMARKS

NO. PREPARATION TRANSFORMAR TRANSFORMER TESTING
WELDING
(INSPECTION)
 9) Data/Table Analysis:-

10) Conclusion /Discussion:-

Questions:- 1) write down the working principle & classification of arc & gas welding?

2) What are the defects in welding?

3) What do you mean by edge preparation of welding?

4) What is the difference between TIG & MIG welding?

5) What are the function & specification of electrode?

6) What is flux? What is its function in welding process?

7) What are the safety precautions of gas welding?

Reference books:-

1) Workshop Technology (volume I&I), S.K Hazra, Chowdhury.

2) Work shop technology B.S Raghuwanshi, Dhanpat Rai & co.

3) Manufacturing technology (volume I&II) Tata McGraw Hill, Rao P.N

4) Manufacturing science by A.Ghosh & A.K Mallick, Wiley Eastern

5) Process of Material of Manufacture 4 th edition; Roy A .Lindberg

 CASTING
INTRODUCTION: Casting methods are universally used for the manufacture of a wide varity of product .Very
small to extremely heavy metal products can be made by casting process.
Classification of casting:-Casting may be classified as follows:-
1. Sand mould casting
2. Plaster mould casting
3. Metallic mould casting:- a) Gravity or permanent mould casting
b) Slush casting
c) Pressure casting
4. Centrifugal casting
5. Precision casting.
6. CO2 –mould casting.
7) Continuously Casting
.
Dicasting:- Die casting Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal under high
pressure into a mold cavity. The mold cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into shape
and work similarly to an injection mold during the process.

Investment & lost wax casting:-is an industrial process based on and also called lost-wax casting, one of the oldest
known metal-forming techniques .From 5,000 years ago, when bees wax formed the pattern, to today’s high-technology
waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys, the castings allow the production of components with accuracy,
repeatability, versatility and integrity in a variety of metals and high-performance alloys.
-Centrifugal casting:-Centrifugal casting or roto-casting is a casting technique that is typically used to cast thinwalled
cylinders. It is noted for the high quality of the results attainable, particularly for precise control of their metallurgy and
crystal structure.

Casting Defects:-It is an unwanted irregularities that appear in the casting during metal casting process.
There is various reason or sources which is responsible for the defects in the cast metal. Here in this section we will
discuss all the major types of casting defects. Some of the defects produced may be neglected or tolerated and some
are not acceptable, it must be eliminated for better functioning of the parts.

Types:-
Casting defects can be categorized into 5 types

1GaPorosity: Blowholes, open holes, pinholes

2. Shrinkage defects: shrinkage cavity
3. Mold material defects: Cut and washes, swell, drops, metal penetration, rat tail
4. Pouring metal defects: Cold shut, misrun, slag inclusion
5. Metallurgical defects: Hot tears, hot spot.
The various casting defects that appears in casting process are

1. Shift or Mismatch
The defect caused due to misalignment of upper and lower part of the casting and misplacement of the core at
parting line.
 Cause:
(i) Improper alignment of upper and lower part during mold preparation.
(ii) Misalignment of flask (a flask is type of tool which is used to contain a mold in metal casting. it may be square,
round, rectangular or of any convenient shape.)

Remedies
(i) Proper alignment of the pattern or die part, molding boxes.
(ii) Correct mountings of pattern on pattern plates.
(iii) Check the alignment of flask.

2. Swell
It is the enlargement of the mold cavity because of the molten metal pressure, which results in localised or overall
enlargement of the casting.

Causes
(i) Defective or improper ramming of the mold.

Remedies
(i) The sand should be rammed properly and evenly.

3. Blowholes:
When gases entrapped on the surface of the casting due to solidifying metal, a rounded or oval cavity is formed
called as blowholes. These defects are always present in the cope part of the mold.
Causes
(i) Excessive moisture in the sand.
(ii) Low Permeability of the sand.
(iii) Sand grains are too fine.
(iv) Too hard rammed sand.
(v) Insufficient venting is provided.

Remedies
(i) The moisture content in the sand must be controlled and kept at desired level.
(ii) High permeability sand should be used.
(iii) Sand of appropriate grain size should be used.
(iv) Sufficient ramming should be done.
(v) Adequate venting facility should be provided.

4. Drop
Drop defect occurs when there is cracking on the upper surface of the sand and sand pieces fall into the molten
metal.

Causes
(i) Soft ramming and low strength of sand.
(ii) Insufficient fluxing of molten metal. Fluxing means addition of a substance in molten metal to remove
impurities. After fluxing the impurities from the molten metal can be easily removed.
(iii) Insufficient reinforcement of sand projections in the cope.

Remedies
(i) Sand of high strength should be used with proper ramming (neither too hard nor soft).
(ii) There should be proper fluxing of molten metal, so the impurities present in molten metal is removed easily
before pouring it into the mold.
(iii) Sufficient reinforcement of the sand projections in the cope.

5. Metal Penetration
These casting defects appear as an uneven and rough surface of the casting. When the size of sand grains is larges,
the molten fuses into the sand and solidifies giving us metal penetration defect.

Causes
(i) It is caused due to low strength, large grain size, high permeability and soft ramming of sand. Because of this the
molten metal penetrates in the molding sand and we get rough or uneven casting surface.

Remedies
(ii) This defect can be eliminated by using high strength, small grain size, low permeability and soft ramming of
sand.

6. Pinholes
They are very small holes of about 2 mm in size which appears on the surface of the casting. This defect happens
because of the dissolution of the hydrogen gases in the molten metal. When the molten metal is poured in the mold
cavity and as it starts to solidify, the solubility of the hydrogen gas decreases and it starts escaping out the molten
metal leaves behind small number of holes called as pinholes.
Causes
(i) Use of high moisture content sand.
(ii) Absorption of hydrogen or carbon monoxide gas by molten metal.
(iii) Pouring of steel from wet ladles or not sufficiently gasified.

Remedies
(i) By reducing the moisture content of the molding sand.
(ii) Good fluxing and melting practices should be used.
(iii) Increasing permeability of the sand.
(iv) By doing rapid rate of solidification.

7. Shrinkage Cavity
The formation of cavity in the casting due to volumetric contraction is called as shrinkage cavity.

Causes
(i) Uneven or uncontrolled solidification of molten metal.
(ii) Pouring temperature is too high.
Remedies
(i) This defect can be removed by applying principle of directional solidification in mold design.
(ii) Wise use of chills (a chill is an object which is used to promote solidification in a specific portion of a metal
casting) and padding.

8. Cold Shut
It is a type of surface defects and a line on the surface can be seen. When the molten metal enters into the mold from
two gates and when these two streams of molten metal meet at a junction with low temperatures than they do not
fuse with each other and solidifies creating a cold shut (appear as line on the casting). It looks like a crack with
round edge.

Causes
(i) Poor gating system
(ii) Low melting temperature
(iii) Lack of fluidity

Remedies
(i) Improved gating system.
(ii) Proper pouring temperature.

9. Misrun
When the molten metal solidifies before completely filling the mold cavity and leaves a space in the mold called as
misrun.
Causes
(i) Low fluidity of the molten metal.
(ii) Low temperature of the molten metal which decreases its fluidity.
(iii) Too thin section and improper gating system.

Remedies
(i) Increasing the pouring temperature of the molten metal increases the fluidity.
(ii) Proper gating system
(iii) Too thin section is avoided.

10. Slag Inclusion

This defect is caused when the molten metal containing slag particles is poured in the mold cavity and it gets
solidifies.

Causes
(i) The presence of slag in the molten metal

Remedies
(i) Remove slag particles form the molten metal before pouring it into the mold cavity.
11. Hot Tears or Hot Cracks
when the metal is hot it is weak and the residual stress (tensile) in the material cause the casting fails as the molten
metal cools down. The failure of casting in this case is looks like cracks and called as hot tears or hot cracking.

Causes
(i) Improper mold design.

Remedies
(i) Proper mold design can easily eliminate these types of casting defects.
(ii) Elimination of residual stress from the material of the casting.

12. Hot Spot or Hard Spot:

Hot spot defects occur when an area on the casting cools more rapidly than the surrounding materials. Hot spot are
areas on the casting which is harder than the surrounding area. It is also called as hard spot.

Causes
(i) The rapid cooling an area of the casting than the surrounding materials causes this defect.

Remedies
(i) This defect can be avoided by using proper cooling practice.
(ii) By changing the chemical composition of the metal.

13. Sand Holes

It is the holes created on the external surface or inside the casting. It occurs when loose sand washes into the mold
cavity and fuses into the interior of the casting or rapid pouring of the molten metal.

Causes:
(i) Loose ramming of the sand.
(ii) Rapid pouring of the molten metal into the mold results in wash away of sand from the mold and a hole is
created.
(iii) Improper cleaning of the mold cavity.
Remedies
(i) Proper ramming of the sand.
(ii) Molten metal should be poured carefully in the mold.
(iii) Proper cleaning of the molten cavity eliminates sand holes.

14. Dirt
The embedding of particles of dust and sand in the casting surface, results in dirt defect.

Causes:
(i) Cursing of mold due to improper handling and Sand wash (A sloping surface of sand that spread out by stream of
molten metal).
(ii) Presence of slag particles in the molten metal.

Remedies:
(i) Proper handling of the mold to avoid crushing.
(ii) Sufficient fluxing should be done to remove slag impurities from molten metal.

15. Honeycombing or Sponginess

It is an external defect in which there is a number of small cavities in close proximity present in the metal casting.

Causes:
(i) It is caused due to dirt and scurf held mechanically in the suspension of the molten metal.
(ii) Due to imperfect skimming in the ladle.

Remedies
(i) Prevent the entry of dirt and scurf in the molten metal.
(ii) Prevent sand wash.
(iii) Remove slag materials from the molten metal by proper skimming in the ladle.

16. Warpage:
It is an accidental and unwanted deformation in the casting that happens during or after solidification. Due to this
defect, the dimension of the final product changes.

Causes:
(i) Due to different rates of solidification of different sections. This induces stresses in adjoining walls and result in
warpage.
(ii) Large and flat sections or intersecting section such as ribs are more prone to these casting defects.

Remedies
(i) It can be prevented by producing large areas with wavy, corrugated construction, or add sufficient rib-like shape,
to provide equal cooling rates in all areas.
(ii) Proper casting designs can reduce these defects more efficiently.

17. Fins
A thin projection of metal, not considered as a part of casting is called as fins or fin. It is usually occurs at the
parting of the mold or core section.

Causes:
(i) Incorrect assembling of mold and cores.
(ii) Insufficient weight of the mold or improper clamping of the flask may produce the fins.

Remedies

CASTING PROCEDURE

1. First the pattern is placed with its larger diameter side is on a mould board.
2. The drag section of the flask is set over the pattern on same board.
3. After powdering the pattern with lycopodium, talc or graphite, a 15 to 20 mm layer of
facing sand is riddled over the pattern.
4. The drag is then filled by layers of green sand mixture from 70 to 100 mm thick,
compacting each layer with rammer.
5. The top of the mould is rammed with the butt end of a rammer. The object of ramming
the sand is to consolidate it, there by preventing the cavity of the mould from being
enlarged by the metal.
6. After the sand is rammed a strickle is used to scrape off the excess sand level with the
top of the flask.
7. The mould is then vented by sticking it with a fine stiff wire at numerous places (The
vent holes should not reach the pattern by 15 to 20 mm as otherwise they may spoil the
mould. Moreover, the metal may run in to the vent holes during pouring. These vent holes
permit the escape of gases generated in the mould when the molten metal comes in contact
with moist sand).
8. A small amount of loose sand is sprinkled over the mould and bottom board is placed
on the top. The drag is rolled over, the moulding board is removed, and the upper surface
is sprinkled with parting sand (The parting sand is used to prevent the joints between the
halves of a mould from adhering to one another when the two parts of the moulding box
are separated).
9. The cope section of the flask is then assembled.
10. Tapered wooden pegs to serve as sprue and riser are placed in proper position as
shown in figure on the pattern which is riddled over with facing sand and then cope
is filled with green sand.
11. The operation of filling, ramming and venting of the cope proceed in the same manner
as in the drag.
12. A funnel shaped opening is scooped out at the top of the sprue to from the pouring
basin.
13. Next the cope is lifted off and placed on a board with the parting line upward.
14. An iron bar is now pushed down to the pattern and rapped sideways .So as to loosen
the pattern and prevents any sand from sticking to the pattern.
15. Next pattern is drawn out using draw spike.
16. Runners are cut in the cope according to the dimensions shown in fig.
17. Cut the gates in the drag according to the dimensions shown ( Use Top Gating
System).
18. If needed all the cavity edges are repaired.
19. Finally the mould is assembled, the cope being carefully placed on the drag so that the
flask pins fit into the bushes.
20. The mould is then ready for pouring.
21. Molten metal (Aluminium) is prepared in the high frequency electrical induction
furnace.
22. Take the molten metal from crucible in to the ladle.
23. Pour the molten metal from the ladle into the pouring basin so that the molten metal
will enter into the mould cavity through the sprue, runner and gate.
24. Allow the molten metal to solidify.
25. Then break the mould to obtain desired casting.
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Care must be taken to have proper alignment of the pattern as well as moulding
boxes.
2. Sand should be rammed properly and evenly.
3. The pattern should be rapped gently and with drawn carefully with out damaging
the mould cavity.
4. Care should be taken to avoid over cuts and corners.
5. Care should be taken while pouring the molten metal in to the cavity.

RESULT:

Correct assembly of the mold and cores.

(ii) There should be sufficient weight on the top part of the mold so that the two parts fit together
tightly.

(i) First the pattern is placed with its larger diameter side is on a mould board.
(ii) The drag section of the flask is set over the pattern on same board.
(iii) After powdering the pattern with lycopodium, talc or graphite, a 15 to 20 mm
layer of facing sand is riddled over the pattern.
(iv) The drag is then filled by layers of green sand mixture from 70 to 100 mm thick,
compacting each layer with rammer.
(v) The top of the mould is rammed with the butt end of a rammer. The object of
ramming the sand is to consolidate it, there by preventing the cavity of the mould
from being enlarged by the metal.
(vi) After the sand is rammed a strickle is used to scrape off the excess sand level with
the top of the flask.
(vii) The mould is then vented by sticking it with a fine stiff wire at numerous places
(The vent holes should not reach the pattern by 15 to 20 mm as otherwise they
may spoil the mould. Moreover, the metal may run in to the vent holes during
pouring. These vent holes permit the escape of gases generated in the mould when
the molten metal comes in contact with moist sand).
(viii) A small amount of loose sand is sprinkled over the mould and bottom board is
placed on the top. The drag is rolled over, the moulding board is removed, and the
upper surface is sprinkled with parting sand (The parting sand is used to prevent
the joints between the halves of a mould from adhering to one another when the
two parts of the moulding box are separated).
(ix) The cope section of the flask is then assembled.
(x) Tapered wooden pegs to serve as sprue and riser are placed in proper position as
shown in figure on the pattern which is riddled over with facing sand and then
cope is filled with green sand.
(xi) The operation of filling, ramming and venting of the cope proceed in the same
manner as in the drag.
(xii) A funnel shaped opening is scooped out at the top of the sprue to from the pouring
basin.
(xiii) Next the cope is lifted off and placed on a board with the parting line upward.
(xiv) An iron bar is now pushed down to the pattern and rapped sideways .So as to
loosen the pattern and prevents any sand from sticking to the pattern.
(xv) Next pattern is drawn out using draw spike.
(xvi) Runners are cut in the cope according to the dimensions shown in fig.
(xvii) Cut the gates in the drag according to the dimensions shown ( Use Top Gating
System).
(xviii) If needed all the cavity edges are repaired.
(xix) Finally the mould is assembled, the cope being carefully placed on the drag so that
the flask pins fit into the bushes.
(xx) The mould is then ready for pouring.
(xxi) Molten metal (Aluminium) is prepared in the high frequency electrical induction
furnace.
(xxii) Take the molten metal from crucible in to the ladle.
(xxiii) Pour the molten metal from the ladle into the pouring basin so that the molten
metal will enter into the mould cavity through the sprue, runner and gate.
(xxiv) Allow the molten metal to solidify.
(xxv) Then break the mould to obtain desired casting.
PRECAUTIONS:

a. Care must be taken to have proper alignment of the pattern as

well as moulding boxes.
b. Sand should be rammed properly and evenly.
c. The pattern should be rapped gently and with drawn carefully
with out damaging the mould cavity.
d. Care should be taken to avoid over cuts and corners.
e. Care should be taken while pouring the molten metal in to the cavity.

RESULT:
Welding defects can be classified into two types as external and internal defects :
External Welding Defects:
1. Weld Crack
2. Undercut
3. Spatter
4. Porosity
5. Overlap
6. Crater

Internal Welding Defects:

1. Slag Inclusion
2. Incomplete Fusion
3. Necklace cracking
4. Incompletely filled groove or Incomplete penetration

External Welding Defects

The various types of external defects with their causes and remedies are listed below:

1. Weld Crack
This is the most unwanted defect of all the other welding defects. Welding cracks can be present at the
surface, inside of the weld material or at the heat affected zones.

Crack can also appear at different temperatures:

Hot Crack – It is more prominent during crystallization of weld joints where the temperature can
rise more than 10,000-degree Celsius.
Cold Crack – This type of crack occurs at the end of the welding process where the temperature is
quite low. Sometimes cold crack is visible several hours after welding or even after few days.
Causes Of Weld Crack:
1. Poor ductility of the given base metal.
2. The presence of residual stress can cause a crack on the weld metal.
3. The rigidity of the joint which makes it difficult to expand or contract the metals.
4. If there is high content on sulfur and carbon then also the cracks may appear.
5. Using hydrogen as a shielding gas while welding ferrous materials.

Remedies for Weld crack:

1. Using appropriate materials may decrease the chances of crack.
2. Preheating the weld and reducing the cooling speed joint helps in reducing crack.
3. Reduce the gap between the weld joints by using reasonable weld joints.
4. While welding releases the clamping force slowly which increases fill to capacity of welding
material.

2. Undercut

When the base of metal melts away from the weld zone, then a groove is formed in the shape of a
notch, then this type of defect is known as Undercut. It reduces the fatigue strength of the joint.

Causes of Undercut:
1. If the arc voltage is very high then this defect may occur.
2. If we use the wrong electrode or if the angle of the electrode is wrong, then also the defect may form.
3. Using a large electrode is also not advisable.
4. High electrode speed is also one of the reasons for this defect.

Remedies for Undercut:

1. Reduce the arc length or lower the arc voltage.
2. Keep the electrode angle from 30 to 45 degree with the standing leg.
3. The diameter of the electrode should be small.
4. Reduce the travel speed of the electrode.

3. Spatter

When some metal drops are expelled from the weld and remain stuck to the surface, then this defect is
known as Spatter.

Causes Of Spatter:
1. High Welding current can cause this defect.
2. The longer the arc the more chances of getting this defect.
3. Incorrect polarity.
4. Improper gas shielded may also cause this defect.
 Remedies for Spatter :
1. Reducing the arc length and welding current
2. Using the right polarity and according to the conditions of the welding.
3. Increasing the plate angle and using proper gas shielding.

4. Porosity

Porosity in the condition in which the gas or small bubbles gets trapped in the welded zone.

Causes of Porosity:
1. It occurs when the electrode is not coated properly.
2. Using a longer arc may also increase its chances.
3. Increased welding currents.
4. Rust or oil on the welding surface.

Remedies for porosity :

1. Proper selection of the electrode.
2. Decreasing the welding current.
3. Using smaller arc and slowing the process to allow the gases to escape.
4. Remove rust or oil from the surface and use a proper technique.

5. Overlap

When the weld face extends beyond the weld toe, then this defect occurs. In this condition the weld
metal rolls and forms an angle less than 90 degrees.

Causes of Overlap:
1. Improper welding technique.
2. By using large electrodes this defect may occur.
3. High welding current
 : Remedies for Overlap
1. Using a proper technique for welding.
2. Use small electrode.
3. Less welding current.

6. Crater
It occurs when the crater is not filled before the arc is broken, which causes the outer edges to cool
faster than the crater. This causes a stress and then crack is formed.

Causes of the crater:

1. Incorrect torch angle.
2. Use of large electrode:
3. Improper welding technique

Remedies for crater:

1. Using a proper torch angle may reduce the stress on the metal
2. Using a small electrode may also decrease the crater.
3. Use a proper technique.

Internal Welding Defects

The various types of internal welding defects with their causes and remedies are listed below:

1. Slag Inclusion

If there is any slag in the weld, then it affects the toughness and metal weldability of the given material.
This decreases the structural performance of the weld material. Slag is formed on the surface of the
weld or between the welding turns.

Causes Of Slag:
1. Slag is formed if the welding current density is very small, as it does not provide the required amount
of heat for melting the metal surface.
2. If the welding speed is too fast then also slag may occur.
3. If the edge of the weld surface is not cleaned properly then also slag may form.
4. Improper welding angle and travel rate of welding rod.

Remedies for Slag Inclusion:

1. Increase the current density
2. Adjust the welding speed so that the slag and weld pool do not mix with each other.
3. Clean the weld edges and remove the slags of previous weld layers
4. Have a proper electrode angle and travel rate.
 2. Incomplete Fusion

Incomplete fusion occurs when the welder does not accurately weld the material and the metal pre
solidifies which leads to a gap which is not filled with the molten metal.

Causes of Incomplete fusion:

1. It occurs because of the low heat input.
2. When the weld pool is very large and runs ahead of the arc.
3. When the angle of the joint is too low.
4. Incorrect electrode and torch angle may also lead to incomplete fusion.
5. Unproper bead position.

Remedies for Incomplete Fusion:

1. Increasing the welding current and decreasing the travel speed helps in removing the chances of
incomplete fusion.
2. Reducing the deposition rate.
3. Increasing the joint angle.
4. Try to position the electrode and torch angle properly so that the edges of the plate melt away.
5. Positioning the bead properly so that the sharp edges with other beads can be avoided.

3. Necklace Cracking
It occurs in the use of electron beam welding where the weld does not penetrate properly.
Therefore, the molten metal does not flow into the cavity and results in a cracking known as “Necklace
Cracking”.
Causes of Necklace Cracking:
1. Improper welding technique.
2. It occurs in materials such as nickel base alloys, stainless steel, carbon steels and Tin alloys.
3. Using high speed of electron beam welding

Remedies for Necklace Cracking:

1. Using a proper welding technique reduce the chances of necklace cracking.
2. Using proper materials for welding.
3. Using a constant speed during the welding process.
3. Improper welding technique
 4. Incompletely Filled Groove or Incomplete Penetration

These defects occur only in the butt welds where the groove of the metal is not filled completely. It is
also called as incomplete penetration defect.

Causes of an Incomplete filled groove are:

1. Less deposition of the weld metal
2. Use of improper size of the electrode
3. Improper welding technique

Incomplete filledRemedies for Incomp groove are:

1. More deposition of the weld metal.
2. Use a proper size of the electrode.
3. By using a proper welding technique.

Therefore, we have listed all types of welding defects present during any manufacturing process.While
welding, it is very important to remove all the defects of welding present in the workpiece.
If there would be defects in the welding material, then in severe conditions the components of the
material would fail which may lead to loss of property and sometimes also life.
 Mechanical Engineering Department
LABORATORY EXERCISE-1A
(GAS WELDING)
1(a) Experiment number: - (b) Date of performance:-

2) Title of the experiment:-

3) Objective or aim:-

4) Theory of the experiment:-

5) Block Diagram of the job:-

6 ( a)Apparatus used:-

SL. NO INSTRUMENT TYPE RANGE QUANTITY REMARKS

6 (b) components used:-

SL.NO NAME OF THE TYPE/SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

COMPONENT

7) procedures:-

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8) Experimental data/

SL. TYPE OF TYPE OF EDGE TYPES OF TYPES OF FILLER ROD PRESSURE in

NO. PREPARATION FLAME WITH SPECIFICATION
WELDING (kgf/cm2./psi)

Oxygen Acetylene
cylinder cylinder

9) Data/Table Analysis:-

10) Conclusion /Discussion:-

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 Mechanical Engineering Department
LABORATORY EXERCISE-1B
(ARC WELDING)
1(a) Experiment number: - (b) Date of performance:-

2) Title of the experiment:-

3) Objective or aim:-

4) Theory of the experiment:-

5) Block Diagram of the job:-

6 ( a)Apparatus used:- V-Butt joint

SL. NO INSTRUMENT TYPE RANGE QUANTITY REMARKS

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 Mechanical Engineering Department

6 (b) components used:-

SL.NO NAME OF THE TYPE/SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

COMPONENT

7) Procedures: - 1) Edge of the given material is prepared to the required V-shape using
grinding machine. The machine is set to the required current (75 amps).
2) Place the two work pieces on the table with required position as shown in figure.
3) The work pieces are kept in the required position and tack welding is performed on
the work pieces.
4) First run of welding is done to fill the gap and penetration of the well-meant by
holding the electrode at about 700 and moving the electrode to another end uniformly.
5) Second run of welding is done with proper weaving and uniform movement.
6) The scale formed is chipped with chipping hammer.
7) Filing is done to remove any spatter around the weld.

8) Experimental data/

SL. TYPE OF TYPE OF EDGE VOLTAGE OF CURRENT OF TYPE OF REMARKS

NO. PREPARATION TRANSFORMAR TRANSFORMER TESTING
WELDING
(INSPECTION)

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9) Data/Table Analysis:-

10) Conclusion /Discussion:-

Questions:- 1) write down the working principle & classification of arc & gas welding?

2) What are the defects in welding?

3) What do you mean by edge preparation of welding?

4) What is the difference between TIG & MIG welding?

5) What are the function & specification of electrode?

6) What is flux? What is its function in welding process?

7) What are the safety precautions of gas welding?

Reference books:-

1) Workshop Technology (volume I&I), S.K Hazra, Chowdhury.

2) Work shop technology B.S Raghuwanshi, Dhanpat Rai & co.

3) Manufacturing technology (volume I&II) Tata McGraw Hill, Rao P.N

4) Manufacturing science by A.Ghosh & A.K Mallick, Wiley Eastern

5) Process of Material of Manufacture 4 th edition; Roy A .Lindberg

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Mechanical Engineering Department

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 Mechanical Engineering Department

Expt. No.: ME691/02

Title:

Measurement of tool – wear and evaluation of tool life in turning mild steel by HSS or carbide tool.
Objective:
To observe the advancement of tool wear band with machining time
To evaluate the tool life at the machining condition and to find out the Taylor’s Tool Life Equation.
Theory:

Tool life:
Useful life of a tool expressed in terms of time from start of a cut to termination point (defined by failure
criterion). Sometimes also expressed in terms of no. of the parts machined.
Tool failure criterion depends on
The requirements of the component being produced.
Type of Operation:
Roughing: force and power requirement.
Finishing: Surface finish & dimensional accuracy.
Taylor’s tool life equation:
VTn=C
V= Cutting speed T= Tool life.
n= Exponent for conditions tested. C= Taylor s constant.
Tool Wear:
For the purpose of controlling tool wear one must understand the various mechanisms of wear that
the cutting tool undergoes under different conditions.
The common mechanisms of cutting tool wear are:
Mechanical wear
Thermally insensitive type; like abrasion, chipping and delamination
Thermally sensitive type; like adhesion, fracturing, flaking etc.

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Thermo chemical wears
Macro-diffusion by mass dissolution

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 Mechanical Engineering Department
Micro-diffusion by atomic migration
Chemical wear
Galvanic wear
In diffusion wear the material from the tool at its rubbing surfaces, particularly at the rake surface
gradually diffuses into the flowing chips either in bulk or atom by atom when the tool material has
chemical affinity or solid solubility towards the work material. The rates of such tool wear increases
with the increase in temperature at the cutting zone.
Diffusion wear becomes predominant when the cutting temperature becomes very high due to high
cutting velocity and high strength of the work material.
Chemical wear, leading to damages like grooving wear may occur if the tool material is not enough
chemically stable against the work material and/or the atmospheric gases.
Galvanic wear, based on electrochemical dissolution, seldom occurs when both the work tool
materials are electrically conductive, cutting zone temperature is high and the cutting fluid acts as an
electrolyte.

Equipment and Apparatus:

Engine lathe, tool maker’s microscope, vernier caliper, tool holder and tool insert

Equipment and Apparatus:

Engine lathe, tool maker’s microscope, vernier caliper, tool holder and tool insert
Apparatus Details
Engine Lathe :
Make-
Specification:
Power rating-
Range of speed available-
Range of feed available-
Work piece: (i) Material:
Size: _
Working diameter:
Cutting tool:
Tool holder: _ Make-
Model-

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 Mechanical Engineering Department
Tool insert: Make-
Model- Specification-
Vernier Caliper: i) Make-
ii) Least count-
Tool makers microscope: i) Make-
ii) Model/ Specification-

Machining Parameters Selected:

Cutting velocity: i)…………..m/min, ii)…………..m/min. Feed:…………..mm/rev.
Depth of cut:…….mm, and environment: Dry

Assessment of tool life:

For R & D purposes, tool life is always assessed or expressed by span of machining time in minutes,
whereas, in industries besides machining time in minutes some other means are also used to assess
tool life, depending upon the situation, such as
No. of pieces of work machined
Total volume of material removed
Total length of cut. Measurement of tool wear: The various methods are:
By loss of tool material in volume or weight, in one life time – this method is crude and is generally
applicable for critical tools like grinding wheels.
By grooving and indentation method – in this approximate method wear depth is measured. Indirectly by
the difference in length of the groove or the indentation outside and inside the worn area.
Using optical microscope fitted with micrometer – very common and effective method.
Using scanning electron microscope (SEM) – used generally, for detailed study; both qualitative and
quantitative.
Talysurf, especially for shallow crater wear.

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 Mechanical Engineering Department
Procedure:

First select the job material and tool material also the geometry of cutting tool.
Select the machining parameters.
Calculate the cutting velocity and machining time.
Calculate the tool life.
Measurement of tool wears corresponding machining time.

Observation Table:

SI. Cutting Average tool flank wear, Vb (micron) Tool Remark

No. velocity, s
Vc life, T
Corresponding machining time, t (min)
(m/min.) (min.)
1 We
ar
Tim
e
2 We
ar
Tim
e

Conclusion:

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Expt. No.: ME691/03 Date
Title:
Measurement of average cutting temperature in turning under different speed – feed combinations.
Objective:
To observe the measurement of average cutting temperature in turning operation under the different
cutting condition.
Theory:
Sources and causes of heat generation and development of temperature in machining:
Those sources and causes of development of cutting temperature are:
Primary shear zone, where the major part of the energy is converted into heat
Secondary deformation zone, at the chip – tool interface where further heat is generated due to rubbing and
/ or shear
At the worn out flanks, due to rubbing between the tool and the finished surfaces.

The heat generated is shared by the chip, cutting tool and the blank. The apportionment of sharing
that heat depends upon the configuration, size and thermal conductivity of the tool – work material
and the cutting condition. The maximum amount of heat is carried away by the flowing chip. From 10
to 20% of the total heat goes into the tool and some heat is absorbed in the blank. With the increase in
cutting velocity, the chip shares heat increasingly.
Effect of the high cutting temperature on tool and job:

The effect of the high cutting temperature, particularly when it is high is mostly detrimental to both
the tool and the job. The major portion of the heat is taken away by the chips. But it does not matter
because chips are thrown out. So attempts should be made such that the chips take away more and
more amount of heat leaving small amount of heat to harm the tool and the job. The possible
detrimental effects of the high cutting temperature on cutting tool are
Rapid tool wear, which reduces tool life.

Plastic deformation.

Thermal flaking and fracturing due to thermal shocks.

BUE formation.

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Determination of cutting temperature:
The magnitude of the cutting temperature need to be known or evaluated to facilitate
Assessment of machinability which is judged mainly by cutting forces and temperature and tool life
Design and selection of cutting tools
Evaluate the role of variation of the different machining parameters on cutting temperature
Proper selection and application of cutting fluid
Analysis of temperature distribution in the chip, tool and job.
Tool work thermocouple

In a thermocouple two dissimilar but electrically conductive metals are connected at two junctions.
Whenever one of the junctions is heated, the difference in temperature at the hot and cold junctions
produce a proportional current which is detected and measured by a milli- voltmeter. In machining
like turning, the tool and the job constitute the two dissimilar metals and the cutting zone functions as
the hot junction. Then the average cutting temperature is evaluated from the mV after thorough
calibration for establishing the exact relation between mV and the cutting temperature.

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Role of variation of the various machining parameters on cutting temperature:
The magnitude of cutting temperature is more or less governed or influenced by all the machining
parameters like:
Work material: - specific energy requirement
Ductility
Thermal properties (λ, Cv)
Process parameters: - cutting velocity (VC)
Feed (so)
Depth of cut (t)
Cutting tool material: - thermal properties
wear resistance
Chemical stability
Tool geometry: - rake angle (γ)
Cutting edge angle (φ)
Clearance angle (α)
Nose radius (r)
Cutting fluid: - thermal and lubricating properties
Method of application
Control of cutting temperature:
It is already seen that high cutting temperature is mostly detrimental in several respects. Therefore, it
is necessary to control or reduce the cutting temperature as far as possible. Cutting temperature can be
controlled in varying extent by the following general methods:
Proper selection of material and geometry of the cutting tool(s)
Optimum selection of VC – so combination without sacrificing MRR
Proper selection and application of cutting fluid
Application of special technique, if required and feasible.
Equipment:

Lathe complete with slip ring

Mild-steel workpiece
Carbide cutting tool
Mill voltmeter

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Procedure:
Selection of cutting tools
Evaluate the role of variation of the different machining parameters on cutting temperature
Proper selection and application of cutting fluid
Analysis of temperature distribution in the chip, tool and job.

Observation Table:

Sl. No. Cutting speed, Feed, Temperature T

VC, (m/min) S0 (mm/rev) (0C)

Conclusion:

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Expt. No.: ME691/04 Date

Title:

Production of a straight toothed spur gear from a cast or forged disc.

Objective:

To produce a straight toothed spur gear.

To familiarize will milling machine using which the gear is produced.

Apparatus:

Steel rule, Milling cutter, Spanner, Mandrel, Dog carrier

Theory:

Milling is the machining process of using rotary cutters to remove material from a work piece
advancing (or feeding) in a direction at an angle with the axis of the tool. It covers a wide variety of
different operations and machines, on scales from small individual parts to large, heavy-duty gang
milling operations. It is one of the most commonly used processes in industry and machine shops
today for machining parts to precise sizes and shapes.
Main Components of milling machine:

Base, column, knee, saddle, table

Type of milling machine:

Plain milling machine, vertical milling machine, universal milling machine, simplex milling machine,
triplex milling machine
Type of Milling Cutter:

Plain milling cutter, slide milling cutter, arbor cutters, shank cutters, face cutters.

Procedure:

The raw blank is selected with reference to the number of teeth to be cut.
Indexing number is calculated to the position of the blank.
Gear blank is mounted on mandrel in milling machine.

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Centering of the blank is done by upward and cross feed.
The depth of the cut is calculated for the given module.

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Job Diagram:

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Expt. No.: ME691/05 Date

Title:
Measurement of surface roughness in turning under different conditions. Objective:
To observe the surface roughness during a machining operation.
Theory:
The final surface roughness obtained during a practical machining operation may be considered to be
the sum of two independent effects:
The ideal surface roughness, dependent only on the geometry of the tool and the feed used.
The natural surface roughness, a result of the irregularities in both the cutting operation and the machine
tool.
The ideal surface roughness represents the best possible surface finish that can be obtained for a
given tool shape and feed and can only be approached if built-up edge formation, chatter,
inaccuracies in the machine tool movements, etc. are eliminated.

Procedure:
Selection of cutting tools
Evaluate the role of variation of the different machining parameters.
Proper selection and application of cutting fluid
Analysis of surface roughness in the job.

Observation Table:

Sl. No. Cutting speed, Feed, Depth of cut, Surface Roughness

VC, (m/min) S0 (mm/rev) t(mm) Ra (µm)

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Conclusion:

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Expt. No.: ME691/06 Date

Title:
Producing a cast iron vee – block by machining.
Objective:
To prepare vee – block on a shaper.
Tool required:

Tool holder, shaping tool, centre punch, and hammer.

Material required: Cast iron work piece. Instrument required: -

Steel rule, vernier caliper, vernier height gauge, depth gauge, try- square

Procedure:

Work piece of required dimension to be cut on power hack saw.

The job is fixed in vice of shaper machine.

Top surface is machined first.

The Job surface is inverted and clamped tightly in the vice.

All the remaining surfaces are machined in sequence.

Then marking is done as per the drawing for making groove.

The groove is machined using round nose cutting tool.

For making the groove feed to the table and tool is given simultaneously.

The groove is shaped in different cuts to achieve the desired depth.

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Job Diagram:

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Expt. No.: ME691/07 Date

Title:

Geometrical and kinematic test of a centre lathe.

Procedure:

Levelling of the Machine Tool:

Before the various tests on any machine tool are carried out, it is very essential that it should be
installed in truly horizontal and vertical planes. In horizontal plane, both longitudinal and transverse
directions are equally important. If, say, any long lathe bed is not installed truly horizontal the bed
will undergo a deflection, thereby producing a simple bend and undesirable stresses will be
introduced. If the bed is not installed truly horizontal in transverse direction, twist will be introduced.
Thus the movement of the saddal can’t be in a straight line and true geometric cylinder can’t be
generated. For proper installation and maintenance of its accuracy, a special concrete foundation of
considerable depth must be prepared. Also this must be insulated from the surrounding floor by
introducing some form of damping. The level of the machine bed in longitudinal and transverse
directions is generally tested by a sensitive spirit level. The saddle is kept approximately in the centre
of the bed support feet. The spirit level is then placed, the ensure the level in the longitudinal
direction. It is then traversed along the length of bed and readings at various places noted down. For
test in transverse direction the level is placed on a bridge piece to span the front and rear guideways
and then reading is noted. It is preferable to take two readings in lon- gitudinal and transverse
directions simultaneously so that the effect of adjustments in one direction may also be observed in
the other. The readings in transverse direction reveal any twist or wind in the bed. It may be noted
that the two guideways may be perfectly levelled in longitudinal direction, but might not be parallel
to each other. This is revealed by the test in transverse direction.
The straightness of bed in longitudinal direction for the long beds can also be determined by other
methods, e.g., using straight edges, autocollimators or by taut wire method. But the test in transverse
direction can be carried out only by spirit level. It is desired that the front guideway should be convex
only as the cutting forces and the weight of carriage act downward on it. If the front guideways are
concave, then the effect will be cumulative. The tendency of the carriage, under cutting forces

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is to lift upwards from the rear and this is prevented by a gib placed underneath the guideways. With
the result, an upward force acts on the rear guideways ; which must, therefore, be made concave.
Transverse level may be in any direction, but no twist can be tolerated.
True Running of Locating Cylinder of Main Spindle:

Locating cylinder is provided to locate the chuck or face plate. However locating surface can’t be
threaded one as threads get worn out soon and thus introducing play in face plate or chuck. Thus
locating surface is cylindrical and this must run truly; for only then the face plate etc., can run truly.
The dial indicator is fixed to the carriage (or any other fixed member) and the feeler of the indicator
touches the locating surface. The surface is then rotated on its axis and indictor should not show any
movement of needle.
Axial Slip of Main Spindle and True Running of Shoulder Face of Spindle Nose:

Let us first distinguish between the axial play and the axial slip. Axial play means the indispensable
freedom of spindle movement in axial direction to prevent it from seizing by heating. The spindle is
supported between two bearings. Due to running of spindle, there will be a rise in temperature and
thermal expansion of spindle would be there. If no axial play is allowed, it would try to bend. Thus
there will be no adverse effect of axial play if the direction of cutting forces remains same. If the
direction of cutting force changes, there would be some error introduced due to movement of spindle
axially in either direction. Under such conditions, therefore, it is advisable to cut threads in one
direction only. Axial slip is defined as the axial spindle movement which follows the same pattern
and is due to the manufacturing error. Actually this test is meant to check this error. To test this feeler
of the dial gauge rests on the face of the locating spindle shoulder and the dial gauge holder is
clamped to the bed (Fig. 16.3). The locating cylinder is then rotated and the change in reading noted
down. The readings are taken at two diametrically opposite points. The total error indicated by the
movement of the pointer includes three main sources of errors. (i) Axial slip due to error in bearings
supporting the locating shoulder, i.e., the bearings are not perpendicular to the axis of rotation and
due to it a point on the shoulder will move axially in and out at diametrically opposite points. (ii)
Face of the locating shoulder not in a plane perpendicular to axis of rotation. Due to axial slip, in
screw cutting, the

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pitch will not be uniform due to periodic movement of the spindle. This, however, is not important
while turning.
True Running of Headstock Centre:

Headstock centre is live centre and the work piece has to rotate with this centre. If it is not true with
the axis of movement of the spindle, eccentricity will be caused while turning a work, as the job axis
would not coincide with the axis of rotation of main spindle. For testing this error, the feeler of the
dial indicator is pressed perpendicular to the taper surface of the centre and the spindle is rotated. The
deviation indicated by the dial gauge gives the trueness of the centre.
Parallelism of the Main Spindle to Saddle Movement:

This has to be checked in both vertical and horizontal planes. In this we require the use of mandrel.
An important precaution in the use of mandrels and dial indicator is mentioned here. The mandrel
must be so proportioned that its overhang does not produce appreciable sag, or else the sag must be
calculated and accounted for. The rigidity indicator set up is also very important and must be
carefully watched. Otherwise variations in readings are recorded by pointer may be solely due to
deflection of the indicator mounting in different positions and it becomes very difficult to detect and
isolate the spurious deflection from the true variations. If axis of the spindle is not parallel to bed in
horizontal direction, a tapered surface is produced. Any deviation from parallelism of spindle axis
from bed in vertical axis will produce a hyperboloid surface. For this test, a mandrel is fitted in the
taper socket of the spindle. Mandrel has a concentric taper shank which is close fit to the spindle nose
taper. The feeler of the dial indicator is pressed on the mandrel and the carriage is moved. The
indication in horizontal plane is given by dial (b) and in vertical plane by dial. In vertical plane the
mandrel should be rising towards the free end in order to counteract the weight of mandrel and job.
But for counter-acting cutting forces, it should be lower towards free end. In horizontal plane,
mandrel should be inclined in a direction opposite to the direction of tool pressure.
True running of taper socket in main spindle:

If the axis of tapered hole of the socket is not concentric with the main spindle axis, eccentric and
tapered jobs will be produced. To test it, a mandrel is fitted into the

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tapered hole and readings at two extremes of the mandrel are taken by means of a dial indicator.
Parallelism of tailstock guide ways with the movement of carriage:

Sometimes the job is held between head-stock and tail stock centre for turning. In that case the job
axis must coincide with the tailstock centre. If the tailstock guideways are not parallel with the
carriage movement there will be some offset of the tailstock centre and this results in taper turning.
To check the parallelism of tailstock mideways in both the planes i.e., horizontal and vertical, a block
is placed on the guideways and the feeler of the indicator is touched on the horizontal and vertical
surfaces of the block. The dial indicator is held in the carriage and carriage is moved. Any error is
indicted by the pointer of dial indicator.
Alignment of both the centres in vertical plane:

Besides testing the parallelism of the axes individually (main spindle axis and tailstock axis) it is-
necessary to check the relative position of the axes also. Both the axes may be parallel to carriage
movement but they may not be coinciding. So when a job is fitted between the centres, the axis of the
job will not be parallel to the carriage movement. This test is to be carried out in vertical plane only.
A mandrel is fitted between the two centres and dial gauge on the carriage. The feeler of the dial
gauge is pressed against the mandrel in vertical plane and the carriage is moved and the error noted
down.
Parallelism of tailstock sleeve taper socket to saddle movement:

A mandrel is put in the sleeve socket. The dial gauge is fixed on the tool post and plunger is pressed
against the mandrel and saddle is moved from one side to the other. This test is carried out in both the
horizontal and vertical planes.

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