Power System Operations and Control (EPE 609)
Lecture Set (8)
Load Frequency Control (LFC) and
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush
Department of Electrical Power Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Technology
Yarmouk University
e-mail: [email protected]
First Semester 2023/2024
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University 1
Basic Generator Control Loops
In an interconnected power system, load frequency control (LFC) and
automatic voltage regulator (AVR) equipment are installed for each
generator.
The reactive power is mainly dependent on the voltage magnitude (i.e.,
on the generator excitation).
The excitation system time constant is much smaller than the prime
mover time constant and its transient decay much faster and does not
affect the LFC dynamics.
Thus, the cross-coupling between the LFC loop and the AVR loop is
negligible, and the load frequency and excitation voltage control are
analyzed independently.
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
Tie-Lines
𝑷𝑳
𝑷𝒎 𝑷𝒆 ∆𝑷𝑮
∆𝑸𝑮
Local Loads
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
• The main objectives of LFC and AVR control are:
keeping the frequency uniform
Adjusting the voltage,
Dividing the system load between the generators in an optimal and economicaly,
Adjust the power exchanged
Improve the quality of the supplied power,
Optimal power-sharing.
• The change created in the frequency and voltage of the system and the active and reactive power
of the communication lines must be eliminated by the production changes in the energy sources to
maintain the stability of the system.
• Small changes in active power depend on rotor angle changes and therefore frequency
• Reactive power mainly depends on voltage (generator excitation current).
• The time constant of the excitation system is much less than the time constant of the primary
stimulus and also its transient fluctuations are damped very quickly, so it does not influence the
load frequency dynamics. Therefore, the mutual effects between the LFC and the AVR loops can be
ignored; hence, the analysis of load frequency control and excitation voltage control can be
performed individually.
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
LFC and Modeling of Various Components
• The LFC objective is to control the frequency deviation by maintaining the real
power balance in the system.
• The main functions of the LFC are to maintain the constant frequency with
incremental load change, control the tie-line flows and distribute the load among
the participating generating units.
• The control (input) signals are the tie-line deviation ∆Ptie (measured from the
tie-line flows), and the frequency deviation ∆f (obtained by measuring the angle
deviation ∆δ).
• These error signals ∆f and ∆Ptie are amplified, mixed and transformed to a real
power signal, which then controls the valve position.
• Depending on the valve position, the turbine (prime mover) changes its output
power to establish the real power balance. For the analysis purpose, the model
for each block in Figure 2.2 is required.
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
Load Frequency Control (LFC)
Where
Tm : Mechanical torque
Te : Electrical torque
Pe : Electrical power
Pm : Mechanical power
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
Generator Model
Yarmouk University
The generated power and the electrical load constitute the power system.
Using the swing equation, the generator can be modeled by:
2𝐻 𝑑𝜔(𝑡)
Department of Electrical Power Engineering
= 𝑃𝑚 (𝑡) − 𝑃𝑒 (𝑡)
𝜔𝑠 𝑑𝑡
2𝐻 𝑑(𝜔 + ∆𝜔)
𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐬𝐦𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐬: = (𝑃𝑚 +∆𝑃𝑚 ) − 𝑃𝑒 + ∆𝑃𝑒
𝜔𝑠 𝑑𝑡
∆𝜔 𝑡
2𝐻 𝑑(∆𝜔(𝑡)) 2𝐻 𝑑 𝜔𝑠
= ∆𝑃𝑚 (𝑡) − ∆𝑃𝑒 (𝑡) 𝐨𝐫 = ∆𝑃𝑚 (𝑡) − ∆𝑃𝑒 (𝑡) ( 𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝐢𝐧 𝐩. 𝐮. )
𝜔𝑠 𝑑𝑡 1 𝑑𝑡
𝑑(∆𝜔(𝑡))
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush
2𝐻 = ∆𝑃𝑚 (𝑡) − ∆𝑃𝑒 (𝑡) +
𝑑𝑡 1
∆𝑃𝑚 (s) ∆𝜔(s)
2𝐻𝒔
𝑑(∆𝜔(𝑡)) 1
= (∆𝑃𝑚 (𝑡) − ∆𝑃𝑒 (𝑡))
𝑑𝑡 2𝐻 −
1
∆𝜔 𝒔 = (∆𝑃𝑚 (𝒔) − ∆𝑃𝑒 (𝒔)) ∆𝑃𝑒 (s)
2𝐻𝒔
Electrical Load Model
The load on the system is composite consisting of frequency independent component (∆𝑃𝐿 )
and a frequency dependent component (∆𝑃𝑓 ). The load can be written as:
𝑷𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 + 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
∆𝑃𝑒 =∆𝑃𝐿 + ∆𝑃𝑓 (not sensitive to frequency) (Sensitive to frequency)
∆𝑷𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 = ∆𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 + ∆𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
∆𝑃𝑒 is the change in the load. (not sensitive to frequency) (Sensitive to frequency)
∆𝑃𝐿 is the frequency independent load component.
𝑷𝒆 = 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
∆𝑃𝑓 is the frequency dependent load component.
∆𝑃𝑓 = 𝐷 ∆𝜔
Where, D is called frequency characteristic of the load
(also called as damping constant) 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐂𝐚𝐡𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝
𝑫=
expressed in percent change in load. 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲
For 1% change in frequency. If D=1.5%, then a 1% change in frequency causes
1.5% change in load. The combined generator and the load (constituting the
power system) can then be represented as shown
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠)
+ −
1 + 1
∆𝑃𝑚 (𝑠) ∆𝜔(𝑠) ∆𝑃𝑚 (s) ∆𝜔(𝑠)
2𝐻𝒔 2𝐻𝒔
−
+ −
𝐷 𝐷
∆𝑷𝒇 = 𝑫 ∆𝝎
+
∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠)
∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠)
−
+ 1
∆𝑃𝑚 (𝑠) ∆𝜔(𝑠)
2𝐻𝒔 + 𝑫
The simplified block diagram representation of the generator and load
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
Turbine (Prime mover) Model
The turbine (source of mechanical power) can be modeled as a first order lag as shown
𝐺𝑇 (𝒔)
1
∆𝑃𝑉 (s) ∆𝑃𝑚 (s)
1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝑇
nonreheat model
block diagram representation of the Turbine
∆𝑃𝑚 (s) 1
𝐺𝑇 (𝒔)= =
∆𝑃𝑉 (s) 1+𝒔 𝜏𝑇
∆𝑃𝑉 is the incremental change in governor valve position (p.u).
𝐺𝑇 (𝒔) is the Transfer Function (TF) of the turbine.
∆𝑃𝑚 is Incremental change in mechanical power (p.u).
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
Governor Model
Hydraulic
Amplifier
Governor can modeled as shown: + ∆𝑃𝑔 (s) ∆𝑃𝑉 (s)
1
∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s)
1 + 𝒔𝜏𝑔
The output of the governor is given by:
− 1
1 ∆𝜔(s)
𝑅
∆𝑃𝑔 𝒔 = ∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝒔 − ∆𝜔(𝒔)
𝑅 Speed Droop
∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 is the reference set power.
∆𝜔/𝑅 is the power given by governor speed characteristic.
𝑅 is the speed droop.
The hydraulic amplifier transforms this signal ∆𝑃𝑔 into valve/gate position corresponding to a
power ∆𝑃𝑉 .
1
∆𝑃𝑉 𝒔 = ∆𝑃𝑔 (𝒔)
1 + 𝒔𝜏𝑔
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
All the individual blocks can now be connected as shown to represent the
complete LFC loop.
∆𝑃𝐿 (s)
Governor Turbine Rotating Mass
+ ∆𝑃𝑔 (s) ∆𝑃𝑉 (𝒔) ∆𝑃𝑚 (s) + −
1 1 1
∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s) ∆𝜔(s)
1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝑔 1 + 𝒔𝜏 𝑇 2𝐻𝒔 + 𝑫
−
1
𝑅
Speed Droop
The block diagram representation of the LFC
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
Example: An isolated power station has the following parameters:
Turbine time constant 𝝉𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄 Governor time constant 𝝉𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Generator inertia constant 𝑯 = 𝟓𝒔𝒆𝒄 Governor S𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐑𝐞𝐠𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = 𝑹 𝒑. 𝒖.
𝟎.𝟖 %
The load varies by 0.8 % for 1 % change in frequency (i.e., 𝑫 = = 𝟎. 𝟖)
𝟏%
(1) Find the range of speed regulation (𝑹) for stable operation of the control system
(2) Draw the root locus of the C.E.
(3) If R=0.05 p.u, and the turbine rated power is 250 MW at nominal frequency of 60 Hz, and a sudden
load change 50 MW occurs (∆𝑷𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒑. 𝒖.), find the steady-state frequency deviation in Hz.
∆𝑃𝐿 (s)
Governor Turbine Rotating Mass
+ ∆𝑃𝑔 (s) ∆𝑃𝑉 (𝒔) ∆𝑃𝑚 (s) + −
1 1 1
∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s) ∆𝜔(s)
1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝑔 1 + 𝒔𝜏 𝑇 2𝐻𝒔 + 𝑫
−
1
𝑅
Speed Droop
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
Make ∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝒔) = 0 to see the effect of load changes only
∆𝑃𝐿 (s)
Governor Turbine Rotating Mass
∆𝑃𝑔 (s) ∆𝑃𝑉 (𝒔) ∆𝑃𝑚 (s) + −
1 1 1 ∆𝜔(s)
1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝑔 1 + 𝒔𝜏 𝑇 2𝐻𝒔 + 𝑫
1
𝑅
Speed Droop
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
∆𝑃𝐿 (s)
Governor Turbine Rotating Mass
+ ∆𝑃𝑔 (s) ∆𝑃𝑉 (𝒔) ∆𝑃𝑚 (s) + −
1 1 1 ∆𝜔(s)
∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s) 10 𝒔 + 𝟎. 𝟖
1 + 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒔 1 + 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒔
−
1
𝑅
Speed Droop
∆𝑃𝐿 (s)
∆𝑃𝑔 (s) ∆𝑃𝑉 (𝒔) ∆𝑃𝑚 (s) + −
1 1 1 ∆𝜔(s)
1 + 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒔 1 + 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒔 − 10 𝒔 + 𝟎. 𝟖
1
𝑅
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
+ 1
−∆𝑃𝐿 (s) ∆𝜔(s)
10 𝒔 + 0.8
−
1
𝑅(1 + 0.2 𝒔)(1 + 0.5 𝒔)
𝐺(𝒔)
0.1
−∆𝑃𝐿 (s) ∆𝜔(s)
+ 𝒔 + 0.08
−
∆ 𝒔 = 𝒔 + 0.08 𝒔 + 5 𝒔 + 2 + 𝐾 = 0 𝐻(𝒔)
𝐾
3 2
∆ 𝒔 = 𝒔 + 7.08 𝒔 + 10.56 𝒔 + 0.8 + 𝐾 = 0 0.2 × 0.5 (𝒔 + 5)(𝒔 + 2)
𝒔+5 𝒔+2
∆𝜔 𝒔 = − × −∆𝑃𝐿 (𝒔)
𝒔+0.08 𝒔+5 𝒔+2 +𝐾
𝒔+5 𝒔+2
−∆𝑃𝐿 (s) ∆𝜔(s)
𝒔 + 0.08 𝒔 + 5 𝒔 + 2 + 𝐾
∆ 𝒔 = 𝒔3 + 7.08 𝒔2 + 10.56 𝒔 + 0.8 + 𝐾 = 0 1
∆ 𝑠 =1+𝐾 =0
𝒔 + 0.08 𝒔 + 5 𝒔 + 2
73.965 − 𝐾 > 0
𝒔3 1 10.56
0.8 + 𝐾 >0
For 𝐾 = 73.965 (Marginally Stable):
𝒔2 7.08 0.8 + 𝐾 0 < 𝐾 < 73.965 𝑨(𝒔) = 7.08 𝒔2 + 74.765=0
𝒔1 73.965 − 𝐾 0 1 𝒔 = ±𝑗 3.25 (𝐂𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬 − 𝐎𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭)
0 < < 73.965
7.08 𝑅
∞ > 𝑅 > 0.135
𝒔0 0.8 + 𝐾 0
𝒋 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓
𝐾 = 73.965
𝐾 = −(𝒔3 + 7.08 𝒔2 + 10.56 𝒔 + 0.8)
𝑑𝐾
𝑑𝑠
= −(𝟑𝒔2 + 14.16 𝑠 + 10.56 = 𝟎 ;
𝒔 = −0.9284 (𝐛𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤 − 𝐚𝐰𝐚𝐲 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭)
𝝈𝒂
−2 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟖
−5
[ −0.08+ −5 + −2 −[0] 𝐾 = 73.965
𝜎𝑎 = = −2.36 𝑎 = 60𝑂 , −60𝑂 , 180𝑂 −𝒋 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓
3−0
𝑑𝐾
= −(𝟑𝒔2 + 14.16 𝑠 + 10.56 = 𝟎 ; 𝒔 = −0.9284 (𝐛𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤 − 𝐚𝐰𝐚𝐲 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭)
𝑑𝑠
𝒔+5 𝒔+2
∆𝜔(𝒔) = × −∆𝑃𝐿 (𝒔)
𝒔+0.08 𝒔+5 𝒔+2 +1/𝑅
𝒔+5 𝒔+2 0.2
∆𝜔(𝒔) = × −
𝒔+0.08 𝒔+5 𝒔+2 +1/𝑅 𝒔
𝒔+5 𝒔+2 +0.2
∆𝜔𝑠.𝑠. = lim 𝒔 ×−
𝑠→0 𝒔 + 0.08 𝒔 + 5 𝒔 + 2 + 1/𝑅 𝒔
(5)(2) 2
= × 0.2 = − = −0.0096 𝑝. 𝑢. = −0.0096 60 = 0.576 𝐻𝑧
0.08 5 2 + 1/0.05 20.8
∆𝜔(t): Frequency deviation in p.u.
8
0 𝑡 (𝑠𝑒𝑐)
−0.0096
−0.0150
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush Department of Electrical Power Engineering Yarmouk University
Automatic Generation Control (AGC): See Section 12.4 (Saadat’s Book, Example 12.3)
LFC: ∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s) is Fixed
AGC: ∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s) is Variable (AGC = LFC + I-Controller) Steady-Stater Error: Zero
∆𝑃𝐿 (s)
Governor Turbine Rotating Mass
+ ∆𝑃𝑔 (s) ∆𝑃𝑉 (𝒔) ∆𝑃𝑚 (s) + −
1 1 1 ∆𝜔(s)
∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s) 10 𝒔 + 𝟎. 𝟖
1 + 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒔 1 + 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒔
−
1
𝑅
Speed Droop
𝐾𝐼
𝒔
I-Controller
+ 1
− ∆𝑃𝐿 (s) ∆𝜔(s)
2𝐻 𝒔 + 𝐷
−
𝐾𝐼 1 1 1
+
𝒔 𝑅 1 + 𝜏𝑔 𝒔 1 + 𝜏𝑇 𝒔
𝒔 1+𝜏𝑔 𝒔 1+𝜏𝑇 𝒔
∆𝜔(s) = − ∆𝑃𝐿 (s)
𝑠 2𝐻 𝒔+𝐷 1+𝜏𝑔 𝒔 1+𝜏𝑇 𝒔 +𝐾𝐼 +𝒔/𝑅
∆ 𝒔 = 𝑠 2𝐻 𝒔 + 𝐷 1 + 𝜏𝑔 𝒔 1 + 𝜏 𝑇 𝒔 + 𝐾𝐼 + 𝒔/𝑅=0
∆𝜔(t): Frequency deviation in p.u.
8
0 𝑡 (𝑠𝑒𝑐)
−0.0160
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
Controls voltage and reactive power:
If 𝑸𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 ↑ then 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐠𝐞 ↓
If 𝑸𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 ↓ then 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐠𝐞 ↑
PT + Rectifier + Filter
Amplifier
Error Signal +
𝐺𝐴 (𝒔) Amplifier 𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇
𝐾𝐴
𝑽𝒆
− 𝑽𝒕
1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝐴
Filter
Exciter Exciter Sensor
𝐺𝐸 (𝒔) Rectifier 𝐺𝑠 (𝒔)
If Stabilizer
𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝑅
+ 𝑽𝒇 −
1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝐸 1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝑅
: mganetic flux Sensor
Generator SG
𝐺𝐺 (𝒔) +
𝐾𝐺 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝑷𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 + 𝒋 𝑸𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝑽𝒕 (𝒂𝒄)
1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝐺
−
All the individual blocks can now be connected as shown to represent the
complete AVR loop.
Amplifier Exciter Generator
+ 𝑉𝐸 (s) 𝑉𝑅 (𝒔) 𝑉𝐹 (s)
𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝑽𝑡 (s)
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s)
1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝐴 1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝑇 1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝐺
−
−
𝐒𝐭𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐳𝐞𝐫
𝐾𝑅
1 + 𝒔𝜏𝑅
Sensor
The block diagram representation of the AVR
Amplifier Exciter Generator
+ 𝑉𝐸 (s) 𝑉𝑅 (𝒔) 𝑉𝐹 (s)
𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝑽𝑡 (s)
𝑽𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s)
1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝐴 1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝑇 1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝐺
−
−
𝐾𝑅
1 + 𝒔𝜏𝑅
𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅 (1 + 𝒔𝜏𝑅 )
1 + 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅 Sensor
𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅 (1 + 𝒔𝜏𝑅 )
𝑽𝑡 (𝒔) = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝒔)
1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝐴 1 + 𝒔 𝜏 𝑇 1 + 𝒔 𝜏𝐺 1 + 𝒔𝜏𝑅 + 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅
𝑇(s)
1 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅
𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐚 𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐩 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝑽𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s)= ∶ 𝑽𝑡𝒔.𝒔 = 𝑽𝑡 ∞ = lim 𝑉𝑡 𝑡 = lim𝒔 𝑽𝑡 (𝒔) =
𝒔 𝑡→∞ 𝒔→0 1 + 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅
