LINEAR ALGEBRA
“THE STUDY OF MATH IS FOR THE
MIND LIKE SOAP FOR THE CLOTHES,
WHICH WASHES AWAY FROM THEM
DIRT AND CLEANS THE SPOTS AND
STAINS” (IBNE-E-KHALDUN)
• VECTOR SPACES
• SUBSPACES
• LINEAR COMBINATIONS
• LINEAR INDEPENDENCE
• LINEAR DEPENDENCE
• LINEAR TRANSFORMATION
1
LINEAR ALGEBRA
1. VECTOR SPACES
2. SUBSPACES
Theorem
Let U and W be subspaces of a vector space
V over F . Then U ∩ W is a subspace of V .
We shall note that, U ∪W may not be a
vector space. For instance, if we consider a
vector space R2 and subspace
U = {( a,0) : a ∈ R} and W = {( 0, a ) : a ∈ R}
then U ∪ W is not a subspace of R 2 because
(1,0) and (0,1) ∈ U ∪ W but
(1,0) + (0,1) = (1,1) ∉ U ∪ W .
2
LINEAR ALGEBRA
SUM OF TWO SUBSPACES
We develop a technique by which we can
construct a bigger subspace or a vector space. In
other words, we define the Sum Of Two
Subspaces as follows:
U + W = {u + w : u ∈ U and w ∈ W } , and
assert that it is a vector space over the field F .
LINEAR COMBINATION
Let V be a vector space over a field F and
S a subset of V . Let S = {v1 , v 2 ,..., v n } then
n
∑a v
i =1
i i for all ai ∈ F and v i ∈ S is called a
linear combination of elements of S .
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LINEAR ALGEBRA
LINEAR SPAN
The vector space
n
W = {∑ ai vi : ai ∈ F , vi ∈ S } is called a vector space
i =1
containing formal sums, sometimes it is called a
vector space spanned or generated by S . We
denote this vector space by 〈S 〉 . S is called the
generating set for V if and only if every
element of V can be expressed as a linear
combination of elements.
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LINEAR ALGEBRA
LINEAR DEPENENCE AND
INDEPENDENCE
n
If the combination ∑
i =1
a i v i = 0 and not all ai s
in F are zeros, then S is called linearly
n
dependent. On the other hand if ∑
i =1
a i v i = 0 and
all a s are zero, then
i S is called linearly
independent.
Example
Consider the vector space R over R . Then 3
(1,0,1), (1,−1,1), ( 2,−1,2) , (0,0,1) are linearly
dependent.
Example
Consider the vector space C over C . Then
{1 + i, i} is linearly dependent over C . If we
take a =1
1 and a 2 = −1 + i then
1(1 + i ) + ( −1 + i )(i ) = 1 + i − i − 1 = 0 which is true while
a , a ≠ 0 . Whereas, {1 + i , i} is linearly independent
1 2
over R because a(1 + i) + bi = a + (a + b)i = 0 which is
true only if a = b = 0 .
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LINEAR ALGEBRA
BASIS AND DIMENSION
A subset S = {v , v ,..., v } of a vector 1 2 n
space V over a field F is called a basis
of V if < s >= V and S is linearly
independent.
Example
The set {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)} forms a basis of R3
over a field R .
Example
Let M (R) = V be the vector space containing
2
all 2x2 matrices with elements from R , and let:
⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡0 1 ⎤ ⎡0 0 ⎤ ⎡0 0 ⎤
ρ11 = ⎢ ⎥, ρ12 = ⎢0 0⎥, ρ 21 = ⎢1 0⎥, ρ 22 = ⎢0 1⎥
⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Then S = {ρ11 , ρ12 , ρ 21 , ρ 22 } forms a basis of V over R .
Example
The set is a basis for RxR over
S = {(1.0), (0,1)} R
and {(1,0), (i,0), (0,1), (0, i)} is a basis of CxC over R .
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LINEAR ALGEBRA
Theorem
If [ ]
A = a ij ∈ M n (F ) and where
c j = ( a1 j , a 2 j ,..., a nj )
j = 1,2,..., n , then B = {c , c ,..., c } is linearly dependent
1 2 n
over F if and only if det( A) = 0 .
Corollary
The n rows of a matrix A ∈ M (F ) are n
linearly dependent over F if and only if
det( A) = 0 .
Theorem
Every basis of a finitely generated vector
space contains the same number of elements.
Example
A vector space R over R has dimension 3
3
because it contains a basis {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)} .
Example
Rn over R has dimension n.
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LINEAR ALGEBRA
Example
Cn over R has dimension 2n.
Example
M n (F ) over F has dimension n . 2
Example
M n (C ) over R has dimension 2n 2 .
Lemma
If {v , v ,..., v } is a linearly dependent set in a
1 2 n
vector space, then at least one of the v , s is a 1
linear combination of the vectors preceding it.
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LINEAR ALGEBRA
Theorem
Let V be a finitely generated vector space
over F , then
(i) every generating set for a vector space V
contains a basis of V ,
(ii) every linearly independent subset of V can
be extended to form a basis.
Example
M n (C ) over R has dimension 2n 2 .
Lemma
If {v , v ,..., v } is a linearly dependent set in a
1 2 n
vector space V over a field F , then at least one
of the v is a linear combination of the vectors
1
preceding it.
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LINEAR ALGEBRA
Theorem
Let V be a finitely generated vector space
over F , then
(iii) every generating set for a vector space V
contains a basis of V ,
(iv) every linearly independent subset of V can
be extended to form a basis.
Corollary
Let V be an n dimensional vector space
over a field F . Then
(i) any set of n linearly independent vectors
is a basis, and
(ii) any set of n vectors which generates V is a
basis.
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LINEAR ALGEBRA
Theorem
Let V be a finite dimensional vector
space over a field F and W ,W be 1 2
subspaces of V . Then dim(W + W ) = 2
dim(W1 ) + dim(W2 ) − dim(W1 ∩ W2 )
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