Practical Research 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE - To see if it relates to the previous finding

- Does it approve or disapprove previous study
● To increase the researcher’s understanding of the
underlying theories, principles, or concepts of the
research.
● Usefulness, relevance, importance or worthiness of
investigating the topic.
● To explain technical terms involved in the research
study.
● Statements concerning the current state of knowledge, - Define the terms involve
practice or description of the phenomena. - Definition in rrl can be different from the usage in
● Review of previous research. the study
- In a qualitative research, there is a need to justify
● To highlight the significance of the work with the kind
the need in conducting the study
of evidence it gathered to support the conclusion of the
- Point out that there are varied results of the study research.
conducted
Eg: correlation
● To avoid repeating previous research studies.
- If there are same results then it shouldn’t be
There is: positive relationship, or negative
conducted
relationship or negligible relationship.
- Identify the gaps ● To recommend the necessity of further research on a
certain topic.
● Issues underlying the trend or finding
● Counter-claiming - introduce opposing viewpoints or
pinpoint weaknesses How to write a coherent review of related literature
● Indicating gap - usually after the topic generalization
● The researcher’s interest in working on the problem
- Interest in working = justification to conduct the
study ● the paper should have a clearly stated argument,
● objective/ intent / purpose of the paper in the right of developed in such a way that all elements work
the gap identified together to communicate a well-reasoned account of
- align to objective and SOP argument
● Possible contribution of the paper
- Coherent = there should be no conflicting ideas
Characteristics of introduction: bwidm - Parallelism = start, presen tense and end in
present tense
● Brief, clear to the point.
- What’s the most important things? ● Describe review outline for the reader - introductory
paragraphs should include roadmap of where you are
- Things to find in rrls
going in paper
o Variables involved
o Important keywords ● Near the beginning, state what will and won’t be
o Methods or design covered
- 2 separate ideas – related literature ● Specify your point of view early
- Study conducted related to variable = Related ● Use transitions to help trace your argument (1st 2nd)
Study
● Written mostly in present tense Selecting the topic and the literature
● Includes citations
● Defines any specialized terms or abbreviations
- Use abbreviation after defining ● Present situation analyzed thoroughly
● May state the principal result or conclusion ● Look at own interest w/o losing professional interest
__________________________________________________ ● RL can further review a topic or open a new one
● Internet: powerful tool for rare or new topics
Literature Review ● Visits school libraries
● It is a process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating ● Discuss with classmates, teachers, etc.
what other researchers have written on a certain topic.
● NOT a summary of literature but an exposition of
background for further res
● To obtain background knowledge of the research. ● Selected literatures can be placed on various sections
- Researchers must be interested and know all of research study
about the variables ● An intelligent synthesis must be presented
● To relate the study to the current condition or situation ● Effective management of collected literature will
of the world. facilitate the analysis and synthesis
- Relevance of the study
● To show the capacity of the research work to introduce ● What are the main ideas and contributions that form
new knowledge. the core of the literature?
- Will it contribute to the study
● Which papers are important and which ones are not?
● To expand, prove, or disprove the findings of previous
● Have there been controversies in the cited studies and
research studies.
how have they been resolved?
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● What are the common assumptions made in the Types of Non-Experimental Research Design
articles/books being reviewed? ● Basic Library Research
● Are there important connections to other topics? o pure research whose purpose is to generate
● Has the emphasis been more empirical or theoretical? new knowledge on a subject.
Why is it so? ● Applied Research
o It is undertaken to seek solutions to
immediate problems that have been identified
● It delimits clearly the subject matter to be reviewed. by the researcher in a given setting
● It covers all important relevant literature.
● It is up-to-date.
● It provides an insightful analysis of the ideas and HISTORICAL DESIGN
conclusions in the literature.
● A critical investigation and analysis of events,
● It points out similarities and differences, and strengths developments and experiences of the past in relation
and weaknesses in the literature. to present situations, trends or practices. It uses
● It identifies gaps in the literature for future research. secondary sources and a variety of primary
● It clarifies the context for which the literature is documentary evidence, such as, diaries, official
important records,
Steps in conducting a review of literature: LAN
● Looking for relevant materials
● Actual reading DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
● Note taking (variable - facts - reference) ● The purpose of this design is to describe the status of
an identified variable such as events, people or
subjects as they exist.
o Most educational researchers utilize the
● Highlighting - Uses marks and Symbols (the marks aid descriptive method of research.
the researcher in discovering the similarities or o The lack of control variables make it less
contrasts of ideas) reliable in terms of actual hypothesis testing.
● Annotations - Remarks, ideas, and opinions the Statistical test may yield different results
researcher writes when applied to different samples of the
same population
o Unless the design is a normative survey
RESEARCH DESIGN - NON EXPERIMENTAL where the entire population is considered,
conclusions drawn from descriptive designs
Research Method
are at best tentative.
● This describes the researcher’s decisions regarding on
what, where, when, how much, by what means, an
DESCRIPTIVE NORMATIVE SURVEY
inquiry or a research study be conducted
● It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, o is an approach which attempts to establish
measurement and analysis of data. norms or standards based on a wide class of
● Refers to the overall plan and scheme for conducting survey data.
the study. (experimental and non experimental) o Data are collected from large number of
respondents to make generalizations or
norms based on the data collected
● A detailed explanation of the overall procedures to be o Survey Designs - are procedures in
conducted in the study (Research Design) quantitative research in which you administer
● Procedures and techniques to be used in gathering a survey questionnaire to a small group of
information (Data Collection Procedure) people (sample) to identify trends in
● A description of the target population, the location or attitudes, opinions, behaviors or
setting of the study and the procedure for choice of characteristics of a large group of people
samples or respondents (Sampling Design or (population)
Procedure)
● A description of tools and instrumentation and methods
to be used in processing and analyzing data CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH STUDIES
(Instrumentation and Data Analysis) o Also called explanatory research
o A researcher measures two variables,
understands and estimates the extent to
Non-Experimental Research which different variables are related to one
● This research is often known as “surveys” another in the population of interest with no
● researcher has less control over the subject and the influence from any extraneous variable
setting where it is conducted. o If there is a significant relationship between
two variables, it does not follow that one
variable causes the other. Correlation
implies prediction not causation.
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DESCRIPTIVE EVALUATIVE SURVEYS ● It examines complex phenomena in the natural setting
o it is concerned with the development, testing to increase understanding of them.
and evaluation of methods, procedures, ● It can also be designed as a comparative investigation
guidelines, and instruments. that shows relationships between two or among more
o Often it involves a group that is preselected than two subjects.
without any base group to compare the ● The methods used to study a case can be quantitative
results against. or qualitative.
o It is used to revise, modify existing programs ● Case studies are analysis of persons, groups, events,
or develop more effective programs, decisions, periods, policies, institutions or other
methods and procedures. systems that are studied holistically by one or more
method
Descriptive Evaluative Studies:
Longitudinal Studies RESEARCH DESIGN - EXPERIMENTAL
▪ it can extend over years or even
decades. Experimental Research Design
▪ The same individuals are observed over ● Is an inquiry on cause-and-effect relationships, and is
the study period. conducted in a specialized setting, such as laboratory,
▪ Establish the change in that criterion experimental unit or research center
measure over a period of time.
● The researcher controls and manipulates the
Descriptive Evaluative Studies: Cross- independent variables and randomly assigns the
sectional Studies subject to different conditions or situations.
▪ are designed to evaluate changes over
time by comparing at the same point in
time, different people representing
different stages in the development. ● Subjects are randomly assigned to experimental
treatments rather than identified in natural occurring
groups.
DESCRIPTIVE COMPARATIVE STUDIES ● All subjects are measured but only the experimental
group receives the treatment.
o A design used to compare two or more
groups of subjects and to conclude that one
is better than the other if a significant FOUR PROPERTIES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH,
difference exists. NAMELY: MCRV
o Attempts to identify and analyze the o Manipulation - The researcher subjects the
similarities and differences between respondents to a particular situation for a specific
variables purpose
o can be used to increase understanding o Control - The researcher imposes certain
between cultures and societies and create a conditions over the experimental situation such as
foundation for collaboration and the use of control group and experimental group
compromise. ▪ Control group - Subjects who are
o Characterized by observation and recording measured without any treatment given to
outcomes without manipulation. them.
▪ Experimental Group - Subjects who
FEASIBILITY STUDY receive the treatment.
o is a type of a study that tries to comprehend ▪ Treatment - the factor which is introduced
the capability of a business venture to work into the research investigation and the
successfully and establishing an researcher attempts to isolate the effects
organization or constructing facilities needed of such treatment by means of control
for the operation of a society or enterprise
o an evaluation of the practicality of a o Randomization - The researcher assigns subjects
proposed plan or method to a control or experimental group on a random
o it specifically tries to determine whether a basis, which means that every subject has an
study it is technically and financially feasible, equal chance of being assigned to any group.
makes good business sense, how easily or o Validity - Controlling the extraneous variables to
successfully a proposal could be completed ensure validity
and how profitable or unprofitable it might be

CASE STUDY ● also called the classic controlled experimental design.

● test units are randomly allocated to an experimental
● An in-depth study of a single case or limited number of group and a control group
typical, interconnected cases intended to interpret their ● 1st group - control group
behaviour relative to the occurrence of certain events
● 2nd group - experimental group
or phenomenon of interest to the discipline.
● Same pre test and same post test
● Typically seen in social and life sciences.
● Both groups are measured before and after the
experimental group is exposed to a treatment.
Practical Research 2
comparison of the post-test results or gains in scores are not able to randomly assign the subjects to groups
(pretest-posttest) for various reasons
● Threats:
o Maturation - aging of the subjects from the
pre-test to post-test period
o Test- wiseness - or memorizing the contents NON Randomized Control DESIGN
of the pre-test to score high score on post- o Is also known as “nonequivalent control group
test design”.
o Natural attrition - death of subjects or o Experimental and control group are selected
dropouts from the experiment without randomization
o Dependent variables are observed in both
groups before intervention
● it is the simplest type of pre-experimental design, o Experimental group receives treatment
where in only the experimental group is selected as the
study subjects
● Used for a population with a limited number of subjects.
● Subjects are measured before and after treatment is TIME SERIES DESIGN
administered o measure the effects of a treatment over a long
● Single Group design does NOT have experimental period of time.
group and control group o continue to administer the treatment and
● One group - pre-test post-test - Observe dependent measure the effects a number of times during
variables - administer treatment - posttest observation the course of the experiment
of treatment
● Data collected with this design is highly suspect, this is
more open to threats to internal validity such as the ADVANTAGES OF QUASI EXPERIMENT
Hawthorne effect (or test wiseness), maturation and o More practical and feasible to conduct
attrition. research.
o Where the sample size is small, and where
randomization & availability of control group
ADVANTAGES : CVS is not possible, this design is preferred.
o Comparison between performances by the o More suitable for real natural world settings
same subjects. than true experimental designs.
o Very simple and convenient to conduct in o Evaluate the impact of quasi independent
natural settings variables under naturally occurring
o Suitable for beginners conditions.
o In some cases hypotheses are practically
answered through this design.
DISADVANTAGES: IV 1. Explains and establishes causal relationships of
o inability to assess whether or not differences variables;
due to treatment or to confounding 2. Increases purity of observations;
extraneous variables (other things besides 3. Free from pressures of daily life when conducted in a
the treatment might have occurred between controlled unit
pretest and posttest
o Validity might be affected by history, attrition
and maturation.
DISADVANTAGES OF QUASI EXPERIMENT
o No control over extraneous variables
influencing the dependent variable.
● This design contains extra control groups which serve o The absence of a control group and absence
to reduce the influence of confounding variables of control over the research setting makes
o Pre test - treatment - Post test the result of this design less reliable and
o Pre test - no treatment - Post test weak
o treatment - Post test
o no treatment - Post test 1. Dangerous , particularly if human beings are used as
subject;
2. Difficult to create conditions;
3. Time Constraints;
● involves the manipulation of independent variables to
4. Non-cooperation of subjects;
observe the effect on dependent variables.
5. Generalization may not be reliable if done in an
● quasi experiment lacks at least one of the three
artificial setting.
cardinal characteristic (Randomization, Control)
● Quasi experimental designs are generally used to
establish the causality (effect of independent variable
on dependent variable) in situations where researchers
Practical Research 2
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Probability Sampling
● Every element in the target population or
universe[sampling frame] has equal probability of
● Procedure by which some members of a given being chosen in the sample for the survey being
population are selected as representatives of the entire conducted.
population.
● Scientific, operationally convenient and simple in
theory.
● Results may be generalized
● the larger group from which individuals are selected to
participate in a study
● the totality of elements to which the research findings
● A method of probability sampling in which every unit
may apply
has an equal non zero chance of being selected for the
sample.
● The most basic sampling technique.
● the representatives selected for a study whose ● Lotter Method and Tables of Random Numbers
characteristics exemplify the larger group from which
they were selected - Example: A researcher wants to study the effects of
social media on Grade 11 students in MHPNHS. He
wishes to use the random sampling technique in
choosing the members of his sample. If there are 1,000
Grade 11 students in the school, how many students
● process of selecting a representative portion of the
should be there in his sample? Discuss the steps he
population to represent the entire population. must take if he wishes to use the lottery method.

- USE SLOVIN FORMULA

● area or place which can be used during the sampling n= 𝑁 / 1+𝑁𝑒^2
process o n= no. of samples needed
o N= population size
o e= margin of error (for the margin of error,
use 5% or 0.05)
● a complete list of sampling of sampling units from
which the sample is drawn - n= 1,000 / 1+(1,000)( 0.052)
- n= 285.7 or 286 (round off kc tao pinaguusapan hays)
2. Assign a number to each member of the population.
In this problem, assign a number to each of the 1,000
● the scheme that specifies the number of samples students.
3. Write the nos. on pieces of paper with the same size
drawn from the population, the scheme of inclusion and
and shape. Fold the pieces of papers.
exclusion criteria for their choice and the sampling
4. Put all the folded pieces of paper in a bowl or box.
technique used
5. Without looking, randomly pick out 286 folded pieces
from the bowl or box.

- Example: A Grade 11 student wants to make a study

● To gather data about the population in order to make on the opinions of Grade 8 students concerning the use
an inference that can be generalized to the population of the Filipino language in the teaching of Mathematics.
There are 510 Grade 8 students in the school where
the study is to be conducted. If you were the student,
how are you going to do it by using a Table of Random
Numbers?
PROCESS OF SAMPLING: IISSE
● Identify the Target Population n= 510𝑥 0.10
● Identify the Respondent Population n= 51
● Specify inclusion and exclusion criteria
● Specify the sampling design 1. Bigay 3 digit numbers each of 510 students (3 digit
ang 510 so 3 digit need)
● Execute the Sampling Process 2. Select a starting number sa table of random numbers
Kung 4+ digit ‘yung number last three lang kukunin
pero dapat more than 510 or else omitted.
3. Continue doing this until 51 students are selected.
4. You can create your own Table of Random Numbers
by using a random number generator
Practical Research 2
● The defined target population is ordered and the 1st
unit of sample is selected at random and rest of the ● Used in large scale investigations
sample is selected according to position using a skip
interval (every kth item)

● The process of randomly selecting intact groups, not

- Example: In a group of 250 students, how will you individuals, within the defined population sharing
select a sample containing 71 students by using the similar characteristics
systematic sampling technique?
- EXAMPLE: A researcher wants to determine who
- Prepare a sampling frame by randomly arranging the
among the families in a small town are using the new
250 students.
detergent product. How is she going to do this using the
- Assign each student a number from 1 to 250.
cluster sampling technique?
K = N/n
1. Divide the population into clusters. Use barrios as clusters.
o K = Sample interval/ Skip interval
2. Not all the barrios of the town will be included in the sample.
o N = Population Size
Choose the final barrios by using either the simple random
o n = Sample SizeK = 250/71
sampling or a systematic sampling technique.
- K =3.52 or 4 (tao kaya niround off)
3. Not all families in each selected barrio will be included in the
study. Select the final families to be included in the sample by
using either a simple random sampling or systematic random
4. Select a number from the whole numbers between 0 sampling technique
and k+1 by simple random technique. (sooo between 0
and 5) This chosen value is called the random start.
5. Assume that the randomly selected number is 2. Use 2
as the starting number.
6. Select every 4th student from the sampling frame ● One special type of cluster sampling is called area
starting from the 2nd student. (sooo 2 6 10 14 etc) sampling, where pieces of geographical areas such as
districts, housing blocks or townships are selected.
● Area sampling could be one-stage, two-stage, or multi-
stage.
● is a method of probability sampling in which the ● Generally used by Govt. agencies and agricultural
population is divided into different subgroups called statistics.
strata (year, level, sex, age, etc.) and samples are Non probability Sampling
selected from each of them ● Every element in the universe [sampling frame] does
not have equal probability of being chosen in the
- Example: You want to interview 200 students in your sample.
school to determine their opinion on the new school
uniform. How are you going to choose your sample by ● Operationally convenient and simple in theory.
using stratified sampling if there are 1,200 students in ● Results may not be generalized
Grade 7; 1,100 in Grade 8; 1,050 in Grade 9; 940 in
Grade 10; 900 in Grade 11, and 810 in Grade 12?
-
● the process of including whoever happens to be
- Subdivide the population into several strata (n= N/1+Ne^2) available at the time…called “accidental” or
- “haphazard” sampling
Population Number of student Sample

Grade 7 1200 75 ● the process whereby the researcher selects a sample

based on experience or knowledge of the group to be
Grade 8 1100 68.75 sampled…called “judgment” sampling

Grade 9 1050 65.625

● the process whereby a researcher gathers data from
Grade 10 940 N individuals possessing identified characteristics and
quotas
Grade 11 900 N

Grade 12 810 n
● Intensity sampling: selecting participants who permit
Total 6000 Sample = 375
study of different levels of the research topic
- ● Homogeneous sampling: selecting participants who
- S = number of student / total population x n
are very similar in experience, perspective, or outlook
● Criterion sampling: selecting all cases that meet some
pre-defined characteristic
● Snowball sampling: relies upon respondent referrals of
others with like characteristics
Practical Research 2
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN SAMPLE DESIGN DATA ANALYSIS
• Research objectives
• Resources Kinds of Statistics
• Knowledge of target population
• Statistical analysis needs ● Statistics intended to organize and summarize
• Degree of accuracy numerical data from the population and sample.
• Time frame
• Research scope USES OF DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS:
o Measures and condenses data in frequency
Calmorin’s Formula distribution and graphic presentation.
o Measures of central tendency to describe the
mean, median or mode of the data gathered.
Ss = NV + [Se (1-p)] / Nse+ [ V (p(1-p)]

Ss = Sample size ● Concerned with population and the use of sample data
N = Total number of population to predict the future occurrences.
V = Standard Value (2.58) of 1% level of probability
with 0.99 reliability
Se = Sampling error
P = largest possible proportion (0.50) PURPOSE:
o To estimate population parameters using
Example: The total population is 500 and has a standard value sampling error, sampling distribution and
of 2.58 at 1% level of probability with 99% reliability. The sampling bias.
sampling error is 1% and the proportion of target error is 50% o Testing the null hypothesis

Ss = NV + [Se (1-p)] / Nse+ [ V (p(1-p)] Statistical tools for treatment of data

Ss =193.57 or 194

The sample size 194 represents the 500 subjects of the study ● Usually being used to present the profile of
respondents or variables been collected.

● Used to determine the order of decreasing magnitude

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE of variables
Steps in Data Collection: eced
1. Explain what tests and other measures will be used. ● To describe/ present the overall average
2. Clarify how the tasks will be performed; responses/perceptions of the respondents. (Include
3. Explained how the instruments will be administered; the interval and verbal interpretation)
and
4. Describe how the method of data collection such as
observations and interview will be carried out.

Methods of collecting data ● homogeneity and heterogeneity of variance of variable

● Use of already existing or available data. Pertinent
records, reports and other documents of an institution.
● compares the responses of two respondent groups
● Use of observers’ data. Gathered through actual
under investigation on a certain phenomenon.
observation and recording of events. For ethical
reasons, the subjects must be informed that they are
being observed. ● used to test mean differences among three or more
o Non-participant observer group by comparing variability between groups to
o Participant observer variability within groups.
● Use of self-reporting or the Reporting Approach. Uses
a specially prepared document intended to collect data
called “instruments”

● Used to correlate more than two variables.

Practical Research 2
● Questionnaire
o most frequently used where participants are
asked to answer a set of printed questions.
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTATION
● Interview Guide
Research Instrument o the researcher conducts one-on-one
dialogue with the subject, asks or reads
● These are prepared tools or devices by the researcher questions to elicit answers.
used to collect data needed or information, and
facilitate observation and measurement of variables, ● Anecdotal Records and other documentary materials
consistent with the purpose of the study. ● Mechanical instruments such as diagnostic machines,
microscope, weighing scale, and other devices.
● Thus, the instrument must:
o Suit the purpose of the study;
- Align and able to answer the SOP Types of question asked in interview
o Be able to gather data needed for testing the
hypothesis and answer questions raised in
the study; ● Interview schedule is used.
o Be valid, reliable and logically arranged; ● Questions are well sequenced, consistent with the
o Valid – answer what is intended to be problems raised in the study.
answered ● It allows little flexibility for the respondents’ reactions or
o Reliable – Consistent responses to questions.
o Logically Arrange – Easiest to most
difficult
o Easy to administer; ● The interview guide is used for informal interviews.
o One explanation ● Questions are so framed as to allow the researcher’s
o Scale of measurement is appropriate. flexibility in questioning the subject when the need
o Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio arises

The following must be contained: wcpna

Types of questions asks

DEVELOP ONE YOURSELF ● Respondents are given flexibility to answer questions

or specify indicators other than those listed in the
● identify the purpose of the instrument, review the
questionnaire.
literature, write the questions, and test the questions
with individuals /ask experts to validate ● More difficult to administer and
- Can contextualize ● Ex. Give your comments and suggestions to improve
- Validation = 5-7 experts the teaching and learning process in the Senior High
o If n<5, dapat perfect 1 ang validity index School Department
o 5<n, atleast 80%
PROJECTIVE QUESTIONS.
LOCATE ONE AND MODIFY IT ● Uses vague questions or stimulus and attempts to
● locate an existing instrument, obtain permission to project a person’s attitudes from the responses. May
change it, and make changes in it to fit your use word associations or sentence completion.
requirements
- ask the original author to validate the modified CAFETERIA QUESTIONS.
instrument ● Respondents are asked to respond according to their
own viewpoint
LOCATE ONE
● and use it in its entirety-obtain permission from the
original author Note: Validity index required
- fitted on the study, as long as it is with the ● Respondents answer a number of alternative
permission of the original author responses.

- 2 variables = 2parts DICHOTOMOUS ITEMS.

● Respondents choose between two-response
alternative

FIXED-ALTERNATIVE OR MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEMS.

● Respondents are allowed to choose from 2 to 5
- Cite the author, reliability index to standardized
alternatives

Contents RANK-ORDER QUESTIONS:

● Respondents are asked to rank answers from “most”
Types of research instrument to “least” important, reasonable or beneficial.
Practical Research 2

Characteristic of Good Question: ccrolb

● Can answer the research problems and focus on the
variables under study
● Clearly and briefly stated
● Responses are easy to interpret and tabulate
● Objective
● Language appropriate to the respondents
● Bear the researcher’s signature

● Trial version of the study.

● Research instruments are best assessed for their
validity and reliability by means of pre-test or dry-run
before the actual study.
● To whom: part of the population but will not participate
in the actual survey

● To determine the feasibility of the study.

● To validate the instrument.
● To ensure its efficiency and effectiveness.
● To check the reliability of the instrument.
● To ensure correct language.
● To revise the instrument if needed.

Criteria for evaluating instrument: rveos

● Reliability. Refers to the degree of consistency or
accuracy with which an instrument measures the
variables of the study.
● Validity. The degree to which an instrument measures
what it intends to measure.
● Efficiency. Refers to the capability of the instrument to
measure items within the given time frame.
● Objectivity. The instrument can gather factual and
impartial data
● Speed. Quick, fast and complete results are ensured
within the time frame allowed to obtain data