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AN INSIGHT INTO THE “KILLERS”-
VIRUSES THAT CAUSE EPIDEMICS
 AN INSIGHT INTO THE
“KILLERS”-VIRUSES THAT
CAUSE EPIDEMICS

Edited by:
Shiv Sanjeevi Sripathi
and Prerna Pandey

www.delvepublishing.com
An Insight into the “Killers”-Viruses that Cause Epidemics
Shiv Sanjeevi Sripathi and Prerna Pandey

Delve Publishing
224 Shoreacres Road
Burlington, ON L7L 2H2
Canada
www.delvepublishing.com
Email: [email protected]

e-book Edition 2021

ISBN: 978-1-77469-006-2 (e-book)

This book contains information obtained from highly regarded resources. Reprinted
material sources are indicated. Copyright for individual articles remains with the au-
thors as indicated and published under Creative Commons License. A Wide variety of
references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and
views articulated in the chapters are those of the individual contributors, and not neces-
sarily those of the editors or publishers. Editors or publishers are not responsible for
the accuracy of the information in the published chapters or consequences of their use.
The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or grievance to the persons or
property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or thoughts in the
book. The editors and the publisher have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all
material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission
has not been obtained. If any copyright holder has not been acknowledged, please write
to us so we may rectify.

Notice: Registered trademark of products or corporate names are used only for explana-
tion and identification without intent of infringement.

© 2021 Delve Publishing

ISBN: 978-1-77407-805-1 (Hardcover)

Delve Publishing publishes wide variety of books and eBooks. For more information
about Delve Publishing and its products, visit our website at www.delvepublishing.
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DECLARATION

Some content or chapters in this book are open access copyright free
published research work, which is published under Creative Commons
License and are indicated with the citation. We are thankful to the
publishers and authors of the content and chapters as without them this
book wouldn’t have been possible.
 ABOUT THE EDITORS

ShivSanjeevi Sripathi completed his Masters in Biotechnology from Mumbai

University in 2008. He was awarded for academic excellence in both his
Bachelors and Masters for securing second rank in Mumbai University in 2006
and first rank in his college: Kishinchand chellaram College. For his Masters
he secured first rank in his college KET’s V.G.Vaze College. He qualified
CSIR and NET and and TOEFL in September 2008. He then worked on a stem
cell project at the Specialized Centre for Cell Based Therapy (SCCT),KEM
Hospital at Mumbai on a project entitled, : Isolation & detection of stem cells
from Human Umbilical cord/ amniotic membrane” following which he worked
at Junior Research Fellow at Microbiology & Cell Biology Department, Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore from August 2009 to November 2011. The field
of work involved cloning of cell wall genes and transcription factors in E.coli
& M.smegmatis. As a writer, he has authored and co-authored 25 books with
Delve and Arcler International Press. He loves to read and share on interesting
aspects of life sciences in books. In his free time he loves to travel and explore
ancient customs and traditions.
Dr Prerna Pandey, a biotechnologist with several years of wet lab research
experience, has worked as a senior research fellow at International Center for
Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi. Her field of research
in PhD included isolation and molecular characterization of Geminiviruses,
genome sequencing, gene annotation, as well as gene silencing using the RNA
interference technology. She has published papers in peer-reviewed journals
in the field and has a submitted a number of annotated Geminiviral genome
sequences in the GenBank, including two novel ones. Prerna has also completed
her editing and proof-reading courses from SfEP, UK and now works as a
freelance scientific editor, writer and a subject matter expert. She has edited and
co-authored several books on a range of topics in Life-Sciences. When Prerna is
not busy with her assignments, she loves visiting historical places.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Contributors .......................................................................................xv

List of Abbreviations .................................................................................... xxi
Preface.................................................................................................. ....xxiii

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Viral Epidemics and How they Can be Handled ......... 1
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 2
1.2 Why Viral Epidemics ........................................................................... 2
1.3 We Are Interconnected ....................................................................... 4
1.4 Responding To Viral Epidemics............................................................. 4
1.5 Current Research: A Few Insights ......................................................... 9
1.6 Final Points ........................................................................................ 14
1.7 References ......................................................................................... 15

Chapter 2 Influenza: The Historic and Current Pandemic ....................................... 17

2.1 Concepts And Overview .................................................................... 18
2.2 The Viruses That Cause The Flu .......................................................... 22
2.3 Avian Influenza: Bridging Swine and Humans.................................... 25
2.4 Final Points ........................................................................................ 27
References ............................................................................................... 29

Chapter 3 COVID 19-The virus that locked the world down ................................... 31
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 32
3.2 The Virus ............................................................................................ 34
3.3 What Happens In The Human Body? ................................................ 35
3.4 Transmission ...................................................................................... 36
3.5 Symptoms .......................................................................................... 38
3.6 Diagnosis........................................................................................... 39
3.7 Treatment ........................................................................................... 39
 3.8 Prevention ......................................................................................... 41
3.9 References ......................................................................................... 43

Chapter 4 Zika Virus: From Uganda To Brazil ......................................................... 45

4.1 Basics ................................................................................................ 46
4.2 How Does The Disease Spread And Strike? ........................................ 47
4.3 Diagnosing The Disease ..................................................................... 48
4.4 Treatment ........................................................................................... 49
4.5 Testing For The Virus ........................................................................... 50
4.6 Prevention And Control Of The Spread Of The Virus .......................... 51
4.7 Final Points ........................................................................................ 52
4.8 References ......................................................................................... 53

Chapter 5 Dengue viruses: From the Tropics to a Global Health Challenge ............ 55
5.1 Dengue.............................................................................................. 56
5.2 The Virus ............................................................................................ 57
5.3 What Happens During The Bite And Disease? .................................... 57
5.4 Symptoms .......................................................................................... 58
5.5 Diagnosis And Treatment ................................................................... 61
5.6 Prevention ......................................................................................... 61
5.7 Final Points ........................................................................................ 62
5.8 References ......................................................................................... 63

Chapter 6 Ebola: From an Exotic Virus to an Epidemic ............................................ 65

6.1 The Virus and its Epidemics ................................................................ 66
6.2 The Spread ......................................................................................... 67
6.3 Symptoms .......................................................................................... 68
6.4 Treatment ........................................................................................... 69
6.5 Prevention ......................................................................................... 70
6.6 Final points ........................................................................................ 70
6.7 References ......................................................................................... 72

Chapter 7 It Takes a Community to Raise the

Prevalence of a Zoonotic Pathogen ......................................................... 73
Abstract ................................................................................................... 73
Introduction ............................................................................................. 74

x
 Ecology of Evolutionarily Successful Zoonotic Pathogens ......................... 78
Diluting Species....................................................................................... 80
Vector Amplifiers ..................................................................................... 81
Community Effects ................................................................................... 82
Summary And Conclusions ...................................................................... 82
References ............................................................................................... 83

Chapter 8 Multiple Control Strategies for

Prevention of Avian Influenza Pandemic ................................................ 89
Abstract ................................................................................................... 89
Introduction ............................................................................................. 90
Model Frame Work .................................................................................. 91
Existence of Control Problem ................................................................... 93
Numerical Results And Discussion........................................................... 97
Conclusion ............................................................................................ 105
Conflict of Interests ................................................................................ 105
References ............................................................................................. 106

Chapter 9 Prevalence, Severity and Mortality Associated with COPD and

Smoking in patients with COVID-19: A Rapid
Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis ................................................... 109
Abstract ................................................................................................. 110
Impact ................................................................................................... 111
Introduction ........................................................................................... 111
Results ................................................................................................... 114
Discussion ............................................................................................. 119
Conclusion ............................................................................................ 122
Acknowledgments ................................................................................. 122
Funding Statement ................................................................................. 123
References ............................................................................................. 124

Chapter 10 Impact of Self-Imposed Prevention Measures and Short-Term

Government-Imposed Social Distancing on Mitigating and Delaying
a COVID-19 Epidemic: A Modelling Study............................................ 131
Abstract ................................................................................................. 131
Author Summary.................................................................................... 133
Introduction ........................................................................................... 134

xi
 Methods ................................................................................................ 136
Results ................................................................................................... 144
Discussion ............................................................................................. 152
Acknowledgments ................................................................................. 155
References ............................................................................................. 157

Chapter 11 Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV):

Infection, Immunological Response, and Vaccine Development ........... 163
Abstract ................................................................................................. 163
Introduction ........................................................................................... 164
Mers-Cov Innate Immunity .................................................................... 165
Mers-Cov-Adaptive Immunity ................................................................ 170
Future Prospects .................................................................................... 177
Conflicts Of Interest ............................................................................... 178
Acknowledgments ................................................................................. 178
References ............................................................................................. 179

Chapter 12 Evolution of Knowledge, Awareness, and Practices regarding

Zika Virus from 2016 to 2017 ............................................................... 189
Abstract ................................................................................................. 189
Introduction ........................................................................................... 190
Study Design ......................................................................................... 191
Results ................................................................................................... 193
Discussion ............................................................................................. 206
Conclusion ............................................................................................ 210
Acknowledgments ................................................................................. 210
References ............................................................................................. 211

Chapter 13 What Factors Might Have Led to the Emergence of Ebola in

West Africa?.......................................................................................... 213
Abstract ................................................................................................. 214
Introduction ........................................................................................... 214
Ebola In Africa ....................................................................................... 216
Pathogen Spillover ................................................................................. 224
Social Conditions Enabling And Enhancing Human-To-Human
Transmission ................................................................................ 228
Ebola Forecasting, Detection Control, Education,
And Future Needs ........................................................................ 236

xii
Funding Statement ................................................................................. 241
References ............................................................................................. 242

Index ..................................................................................................... 253

xiii
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Shiv Sanjeevi Sripathi

Prerna Pandey

Dustin Brisson
Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Leidy Laboratories 209, 433 South
University Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6018, USA

Catherine Brinkley
Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Leidy Laboratories 209, 433 South
University Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6018, USA

Parris T. Humphrey
Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Leidy Laboratories 209, 433 South
University Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6018, USA
Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Arizona, BioSciences West room
310, 1041 E. Lowell St., Tucson, AZ, USA

Brian D. Kemps
Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Leidy Laboratories 209, 433 South
University Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6018, USA

Richard S. Ostfeld
Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Box AB, Millbrook, NY 12545, USA

Roman Ullah
Department of Mathematics, Bacha Khan University, Charsadda 24420, Pakistan
Department of Mathematics, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan 23200,
Pakistan

Gul Zaman
Department of Mathematics, University of Malakand, Chakdara 23101, Pakistan

Saeed Islam
Department of Mathematics, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan 23200,
Pakistan

xv
Jaber S. Alqahtani
UCL Respiratory, University College London, London, United Kingdom,
Department of Respiratory Care, Prince Sultan Military College of Health Sciences,
Dammam, Saudi Arabia,

Tope Oyelade
UCL Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, London, United Kingdom,

Abdulelah M. Aldhahi
UCL Respiratory, University College London, London, United Kingdom,
Respiratory Care Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Jazan University,
Jazan, Saudi Arabia,

Saeed M. Alghamdi
National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom,
Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia,

Mater Almehmadi
UCL Institute for Risk and Disaster, London, United Kingdom,

Abdullah S. Alqahtani
Department of Respiratory Care, Prince Sultan Military College of Health Sciences,
Dammam, Saudi Arabia,

Shumonta Quaderi
UCL Respiratory, University College London, London, United Kingdom,

Swapna Mandal
UCL Respiratory, University College London, London, United Kingdom,
Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom

John R. Hurst
UCL Respiratory, University College London, London, United Kingdom,

Alexandra Teslya
Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht,
Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Thi Mui Pham

Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht,
Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands

xvi
Noortje G. Godijk
Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht,
Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Mirjam E. Kretzschmar
Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht,
Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Martin C. J. Bootsma
Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht,
Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
Mathematical Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Ganna Rozhnova
BioISI—Biosystems & Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculdade de Ciências,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

Ayman Mubarak
Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University,
Saudi Arabia

Wael Alturaiki
Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences,
Majmaah University, Majmaah 11952, Saudi Arabia

Maged Gomaa Hemida

Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, King
Faisal University, Saudi Arabia
Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafresheikh University, Egypt

Quinton Katler
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The George Washington University Hospital,
Washington, DC, USA

Prachi Godiwala
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The George Washington University Hospital,
Washington, DC, USA

Charles Macri
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The George Washington University Hospital,
Washington, DC, USA

xvii
Beth Pineles
Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of
Maryland Medical Center, Baltimore, MD, USA

Gary Simon
Department of Internal Medicine, The George Washington University Hospital,
Washington, DC, USA

Aileen Chang
Department of Internal Medicine, The George Washington University Hospital,
Washington, DC, USA

Homa Ahmadzia
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The George Washington University Hospital,
Washington, DC, USA

Kathleen A. Alexander
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia,
United States of America,

Claire E. Sanderson
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia,
United States of America,

Madav Marathe
Department of Computer Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States
of America,
Network Dynamics and Simulation Science Laboratory, Virginia Bioinformatics
Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America,

Bryan L. Lewis
Network Dynamics and Simulation Science Laboratory, Virginia Bioinformatics
Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America,

Caitlin M. Rivers
Network Dynamics and Simulation Science Laboratory, Virginia Bioinformatics
Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America,

Jeffrey Shaman
Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mailman School of Public Health,
Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America,

xviii
John M. Drake
Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of
America,

Eric Lofgren
Network Dynamics and Simulation Science Laboratory, Virginia Bioinformatics
Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America,

Virginia M. Dato
Department of Biomedical Informatics, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America,

Marisa C. Eisenberg
Departments of Epidemiology and Mathematics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, United States of America,

Stephen Eubank
Network Dynamics and Simulation Science Laboratory, Virginia Bioinformatics
Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America,

xix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACE2 Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2

ADE Antibody-dependent enhancement
ADE Antibody-mediated disease enhancement
ADEM Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis
AIVs Avian influenza viruses
APCs Antigen-presenting cells
ARDS Acute respiratory distress syndrome
CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CDC Chikungunya virus
COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
CYD-TDV Tetravalent dengue vaccine
DCs Dendritic cells
DENV Dengue virus
DF Dengue fever
DHF Dengue hemorrhagic fever
DPP4 Dipeptidyl peptidase-4
DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo
dsRNAs Double-stranded RNAs
EBOV Zaire ebolavirus
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FL Fusion loop
HBV Hepatitis B virus
HCV Hepatitis C virus
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
HPAI Highly pathogenic AI
HPAIVs Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses
ICU Intensive care unit
KAP Knowledge, attitudes, and practice
LPAI Lowly pathogenic AI
MAPK Mitogen-activated protein kinase
MERS Middle East Respiratory Syndrome
MERS-CoV Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus
Mo-DCs Monocyte-derived dendritic cells
MVA vaccinia virus Ankara
NAT Nucleic acid testing
NPIs Non-pharmaceutical interventions
PHEIC Public Health Emergency of International Concern
PI3Ks phosphoinositide 3-kinases
PMD Para-menthane-diol
PRISMA Preferred Reporting in Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
PRNT Plaque reduction neutralization test
PRNT Plaque-reduction neutralization testing
PRRs Pattern recognition receptors
RBD Receptor binding domain
RIGI- Retinoic acid inducible gene-I-
RNA Ribonucleic acid
RT-PCR Reverse transcriptase PCR
SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
SARS-CoV-2 Acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
STRIVE Sierra Leone Trial to Introduce a Vaccine against Ebola
SUDV Sudan ebolavirus
TAFV Taï Forest ebolavirus
TIR- Toll/interleukin-1 receptor-
TLRs Toll-like receptors
TMPRSS2 Tran’s membrane serine protease
UAE United Arab Emirates
UN United Nations
US United States
WHO World Health Organization
WNV West Nile virus
WWI World War I

xxii
PREFACE

“There are only patterns, patterns on top of patterns, patterns that affect other
patterns. Patterns hidden by patterns. Patterns within patterns. If you watch
close, history does nothing but repeat itself”-Chuck Palahniuk.
This saying resonates with the occurrences of viral epidemics that strike the
world from time to time. While history says the earliest recorded the influenza
epidemic in 1500; we have heard of epidemics throughout history. Most of
these viral epidemics like the 1918 Spanish Flu to the 2002-03 SARS epidemic.
Let us not forget the H1N1, chikungunya virus (CHIKV), henipaviral diseases,
Lassa fever, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) virus, and the Middle
East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-Cov), Zika and Ebola virus
epidemics. While most of the world was celebrating New Year’s Eve, 31st
December 2019 reported the occurrence of a viral disease that spanned over
most of 2020 to become the COVID-19 epidemic. Apart from the loss of lives,
the virus has altered the economy and the way of life!
This book is the first of its kind: open its pages and delve into the world of the
living and non-living and their effects.
This book discusses the “killer” viruses in terms of their transmission, control,
and prevention. For a biologist, this is one concise book that presents data on
the go to get an idea of the major epidemics and the viruses behind them. For a
general reader, the book will open up a world of viruses-life forms considered
neither living nor non-living yet have caused periodic deaths and lockdown of
one of the most evolved forms of life-man!
An important point here is the points given under symptoms and treatment
cannot be used for diagnosis and therapeutics. They are to enable the reader to
understand what changes the virus brings as awareness is the first step towards
preventing such viral diseases. Interesting aspects have also been presented
such as the property of the influenza virus to undergo assortment and create
new viral particles that go on to cause the next epidemic.
Most of these viral diseases can be prevented, making the saying “prevention
is better than cure” hold true. While the search for vaccines is ongoing, the
dengue virus and Zika virus can be prevented by controlling mosquito vectors
while other viruses such as Coronavirus and influenza virus can be prevented
by following hygiene practices and adhering to the guidelines set forth by the
governments.
Incidentally, the book has been presented at the time when the COVID-19
epidemic is on. A vital point here is the requirement for cooperation among all
humans. At such delicate times, rather than dividing and falling, we can stand
together and overcome epidemics. This book also presents current research
concerning the treatment and prevention of viral diseases to add value and show
that hope should not be lost EVER.

xxiv
1
An Introduction to Viral Epidemics and
How they Can be Handled

Shivsanjeevi Sripathi
ShivSanjeevi Sripathi completed his Masters in Biotechnology from Mumbai University
in 2008. He was awarded for academic excellence in both his Bachelors and Masters
for securing second rank in Mumbai University in 2006 and first rank in his college:
Kishinchand chellaram College. For his Masters he secured first rank in his college
KET’s V.G.Vaze College. He qualified CSIR and NET and and TOEFL in September
2008. He then worked on a stem cell project at the Specialized Centre for Cell Based
Therapy (SCCT),KEM Hospital at Mumbai on a project entitled, : Isolation & detection
of stem cells from Human Umbilical cord/ amniotic membrane” following which he
worked at Junior Research Fellow at Microbiology & Cell Biology Department, Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore from August 2009 to November 2011. The field of work
involved cloning of cell wall genes and transcription factors in E.coli & M.smegmatis. As
a writer, he has authored and co-authored 25 books with Delve and Arcler International
Press. He loves to read and share on interesting aspects of life sciences in books. In his
free time he loves to travel and explore ancient customs and traditions.
2 An Insight Into the “Killers”-Viruses that Cause Epidemics

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Several factors of today considered as advancements contribute to the
occurrences of epidemics such as climate change, changes in ecology,
urbanization, and associated increases in travel. Epidemics, especially due
to viruses are seeing a rise that places global health at risk.
While human health is threatened by infectious disease outbreaks, one
cannot but help notice a rise in their occurrences. The 1918 Spanish influenza
that ravaged the world had no reported history. There was an outbreak of
yellow fever in the 1980s and also in 2015–2016 that affected Angola and
the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The new century began with the
2002-03 SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) epidemic followed
by the Ebola epidemic and the Zika virus epidemic. The years 2013 to 2016
saw an outbreak of the Ebola virus in Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia.
Another epidemic was due to the chikungunya virus (CHIKV), henipaviral
diseases, Lassa fever, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) virus, and
the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-Cov).
Of late, much in the news is the Coronavirus epidemic that has occupied
prime news and thoughts of people across the globe. The entire world has
been brought to a standstill due to this latest epidemic, not to mention the
global death toll and morbidity!
Challenges in understanding many viruses and hence, design effective
treatments have resulted in many curbs across the world: for example, in
order to check the spread of the H5N1 avian flu, millions of domestic and
wild birds were culled. Travel and tourism were brought to a halt due to
the SARS epidemic in South East Asian countries and Africa on account
of the Ebola virus. Due to the Zika virus, many Latin American countries
have asked citizens to keep pregnancies on hold as the virus damages the
nervous system of the fetus. The current COVID-19 virus epidemic has
brought global tourism and trade to a screeching halt (Nandy and Basak,
2017; Kraemer et al, 2019).

1.2 WHY VIRAL EPIDEMICS

There are several factors that have a fundamental effect on the states of
infectious diseases which in turn make it more difficult for prediction,
and these factors are excessive population growth owing to rapidly
altering demographics, and leading to deforestation, rampant urbanization,
globalization of trade and universality of travel and of course, climate
 An Introduction to Viral Epidemics and How they Can be Handled 3

change. The ecology of existing vectors, the increase and rampant spread
of drug-resistant infections and the ever-increasing vulnerability of large
populations to sudden zoonotic disease outbreaks, like MERS (Middle East
Respiratory Syndrome), Nipah, Ebola and so on, the ecology shows massive
shifts, for instance, the explosion of the range of the Aedes mosquitoes, as
well as the fact that the gamut of transmission is exacerbated by highly dense
urban networks that are interconnected globally, especially for viruses like,
Ebola, dengue, influenza and the SARS-CoV. It is when all these factors
interject and combine that the incidences of complex epidemics get fueled.
To quote the WHO (World Health Organization) Health Emergencies
Program Executive Director: “We are entering a very new phase of high-
impact epidemics. This is a new normal, I don’t expect the frequency of
these events to reduce.”
There are several communities that are the worst affected by epidemics
and the priority should be to make these communities the focal point of
the research by designating them as at-risk communities: since the local
populace are usually the first responders and are the most driven to response,
it is imperative that they are used in any form of response activities. The
approach should be well integrated, despite the scope being local health
agencies, communities that represent themselves as the regional health
authorities and the international organizations as well as the national public
health institutes. One of the most important roles is played by the World
Health Organization, as they can use their unique mandate to alter faulty
practices and facilitate the integration with global health practices while at
the same time being respectful of the contributions of others.
One of the biggest challenges to working together in the dire situations of
a viral outbreak is the vastly different basis of assumptions, varying cultures,
work ethics and practices, each one individually well accepted within that
particular community but maybe unacceptable elsewhere. But the crucial
aspect that will foster success is in the understanding and acknowledging
of the contribution of every party. The knowledge and awareness that in the
toolbox that is ever-expanding, individual skills and knowledge bases are a
very small part, has to be apparent to every participant. There is an urgent
need to understand how to cohesively offer support in multi-stakeholder
scenarios as well as the grassroots understanding that the actual path of
major trends in research and innovation actually influences the pattern of an
effective response to an epidemic (Bedford et al, 2019).
4 An Insight Into the “Killers”-Viruses that Cause Epidemics

1.3 WE ARE INTERCONNECTED

This concept denotes the symbiosis between human and animal ecosystems
and indicates as to how both are very tightly interconnected. This becomes
important in the context of environmental changes- be it man-made or
natural, bring about disruptions in the networks of pathogens, their hosts
and the vectors in very complex ways, and lead to the decline as well as the
emergence of an epidemic, endemic or zoonotic disease nearly impossible
to predict. As animal diseases can hamper food production and access, it
becomes a vital operation for One Health epidemic planning to monitor
the pools of viruses, parasites, and bacteria that are resident in wild and
domesticated animals. The US CDC or the United Nations (UN) Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) allow for early identification of such
zoonotic diseases to nip them in the bud (Bedford et al, 2019).

Figure 1.1. Interconnection between humans and the ecosystem.

1.4 RESPONDING TO VIRAL EPIDEMICS

Epidemics are a common enemy to all nations irrespective of borders. An
epidemic takes out and disables health care, trust in authorities, routine
health management, trade, travel, and vital commerce. This means that an
internationally cohesive unified societal central initiative is key in assuming
the broad risks and in the preparation and action response initiatives. There
 An Introduction to Viral Epidemics and How they Can be Handled 5

are the sprouts of seeds of such initiative starting to take root vis-à-vis
coordinated initiatives. As an example, the Pandemic Influenza Preparedness
Framework of the World Health Organization unifies nation-states, industry,
other stakeholders along with the WHO to deploy a cohesive collected pan-
global approach in the sphere of pandemic preparedness and response.
This brings with it a plethora of problems with regard to leadership,
management and there needs to be a stringent oversight in order to minimize
misconduct and issues in collaboration. Rampant or noticeable misuse and
misappropriation of funds, manpower, and allied resources will lead to loss
of goodwill among the people which in turn will prolong the epidemic/
pandemic/outbreak.
An example of fake news and misinformation can be cited to show that
high-income nations too are not immune to disruptions, due to distrust in
Public health Systems and Public Authorities. That being said, it is imperative
that the focus shifts from high-income nations so that there can be a median
representation pan-global and the ability of deployment of the skills in the
field in places where it is needed the most, as a result of successful global
collaboration.
Regional Health Care Centers and National Disease Control
Establishments should get total support with regard to expertise, governance,
amicable sharing of resources, and capacity. Along with the principal task
of protecting the population of the United States, the US-CDC (Center for
Disease Control) offers its expertise all over the world. This spurred the
European CDC to start offering its expertise in 2004, the Chinese CDC in
2015, and the African CDC in 2017. While there is no contesting the fact
that there is more room for work to be done, concerning sharing of data as
well as sharing of resources and facilities, the networking activities have
indeed bolstered all their work and has also yielded in the cultivation of
a very positive outlook towards these institutions in the eyes of the public
from the low and medium-income nations.
In the 1830s, when the cholera epidemic swept across the continent,
Europe witnessed several large scale riots: Medical equipment was
pillaged and medical professionals like doctors, pharmacists, and nurses
were murdered. Contemporarily, with regard to people who have not
had prior interactions with Public Health Authorities, and are interacting
with international teams only at the outset of an outbreak or pandemic,
an immediate distrust for the mechanism and the intentions sets in and
counterproductive activities start to happen in recovery and prevention
6 An Insight Into the “Killers”-Viruses that Cause Epidemics

initiatives against a “new” disease. Therefore, trust has to be earned on both

sides. The community is the center point for all public health initiatives.
Much before the outbreak, the outreach initiatives of the international teams
have to reach the people at large and convey the message of the public health
working for the benefit of the people, and the families of communities.
With the establishment of ground-level community monitoring of its
residents, early detection of epidemics becomes a greater possibility. The
knowledge base is first available only to the community when something
happens—communication streams will help community volunteers identify
occurrences and will have the tremendous advantage of being able to detect
the diseases early and contain them before a spread.
This can be from several angles within the community, can be
veterinarians who observe patterns in clusters of dead animals and birds,
forgotten and side-cast workers in critical care facilities, nurses and doctors
who are noticing patterns emerge in primary care; almost all of the major
outbreaks like the H1N1, SARS, MERS, Nipah, H5N1 influenza subtype A
were all initially observed by professionals in critical care facilities.
Another aspect is behavioral surveillance, which will be vital in responses
to outbreaks of diseases in the twenty-first century. When we respond to
the infectious disease outbreaks of the future, we will have to bear in mind
that human behavior will continue to be very important. An example is just
as how this surveillance was important in controlling the HIV epidemic to
facilitate the identification and management of high-risk groups of the HIV
infection. As an example several months went by before burial practices and
transmission in hospitals were found to be the principal contributors to the
rapid spread of the Ebola virus in West Africa in 2013.
Mobile phones, the internet, wireless internet, and social media are
emerging technologies that show promise of being a very positive source
for data in epidemiological studies, in assessing the mobility of populations
in the case of the Ebola epidemic or the real-time data of the incidence
of influenza. In the passage to precision public health, Machine Learning,
Artificial Intelligence, and predictive technology will give tremendous
boosts in the future as they post developments

1.4.1 Machine learning/AI (Artificial intelligence)

There have been numerous applications of Artificial Intelligence across
spectrums of society thanks to the increase by leaps and bounds in speeds
of computing as well as the tremendous progress in computer science. The
 An Introduction to Viral Epidemics and How they Can be Handled 7

existing process for detecting epidemics early is through sifting through

online databases to study the symptoms of the diseases so that early detection
is a possibility. Continued research can allow for AI to turn out reliable
detections the techniques will have to be more sophisticated than what has
been outlined (Shiv and Prerna, In press).

1.4.2 Other New Developments

In the case of Precision medicine, retracing the path of disease is performed
using genomic sequencing in order to arrive at the best possible course of
treatment for every individual. This idea by itself is very appealing in the
eye of Public Health as it involves directly driving tailormade solutions for
every individual.
The best demonstrator of the potential of this approach is in the two
areas in the United States that posed a risk of Zika outbreak in 2016. The
two areas measured were less than 5 km2, and rather than involve the entire
country, or even the state of Florida, all effort was focused on these specific
neighborhoods. This can be contrasted to the “entire nations at risk” approach
in 2016 in the case of Yellow fever (Dowell et al, 2016; Bedford et al, 2019).
Genomic epidemiology can monitor the evolution of a virus such as
Ebola in an epidemic. It has been shown that these can detect outbreaks
better than conventional epidemiology tools and hence is a vital addition to
the arsenal. For instance, in Nigeria in 2018, the Lassa fever outbreak was
proven to not be from a single Lassa virus variant, or human transmission
using real-time genomic sequencing. However, the rodent reservoir barriers
in migration as a result of major rivers across a vast geographical construct
proved that there was a vast viral discrepancy among the nature of the virus
(Siddle et al, 2018). The outbreak was contained thanks to these crucial
findings.
Along with genomic information, the data can also include satellite
imaging, mobile phone data, social media use data, and so on. For instance,
in a study released in 2019, epidemiological surveillance data, travel surveys,
parasite genetics were combined with anonymized mobile phone data to
measure the spread of malaria parasites in southeast Bangladesh (Chang et
al, 2019; Bedford et al, 2019).

1.4.3 Vaccines
There needs to be a wholehearted encouragement and support for research
and development of vaccines. For example, at the time of the Ebola outbreak
8 An Insight Into the “Killers”-Viruses that Cause Epidemics

in West Africa in between 2013-2015, there were already pre-clinical data

to support vaccine candidates that were actually ready for deployment, but
there were a lot of challenges in deploying the clinical trials especially,
considering that they needed to be done in a very time-sensitive manner in
order to make available. However, in 2015, Zika was officially recognized
as a pathogen that could lead to birth defects. Within a narrow span of two
and a half years, not one, but three Phase One clinical trials were reported.
International systems are allowing for amalgamating the economics and
logistics in terms of scaling up vaccine production in the case of a viral
epidemic.
An example is the International Coordinating Group that maintains
stockpiles of Yellow fever vaccines, oral vaccines for cholera, meningococcal
vaccines and so on to prevent delays due to scaling up of manufacturing
capacities during an epidemic
This also necessitates the need for pan-global initiatives with regards to
future outbreaks, over several years. In the same vein, preclinical research
should also be continual without hindrances in order to be ready for demand
during future therapeutic pipelines and vaccines in the future (Bedford et al,
2019).

1.4.4 Ethic
The PREVENT project received Welcome funding in 2016 to develop
and offer ethics guidance “at the intersection of pregnancy, vaccines, and
emerging and re-emerging epidemic threats”. This came in the footsteps
of the new finding of the correlation between children being born with
microcephaly and the occurrence of the Zika virus in pregnant mothers.
While the development of a vaccine was the obvious route, researchers
encountered a stumbling block where the risk to the unborn fetus was
assumed to be greater than potential benefits as a result of testing on
pregnant women. However, though the intention is noble there is a question
of consent from the mother.
PREVENT was able to develop rapidly (Bedford et al, 2019) a proper
guideline for the inclusion of pregnant women in the ongoing research for
Zika virus and has since offered an extended scope for “a roadmap for the
ethically responsible, socially just, and respectful inclusion of the interests
of pregnant women in the development and deployment of vaccines against
emerging pathogens.”(Hume and Lua, 2017).
 An Introduction to Viral Epidemics and How they Can be Handled 9

1.4.5 On the road to recovery

Also, all is not over with the end of a viral epidemic, as the survivors require
care for a long time after. About three thousand children affected with
microcephaly in Brazil are growing up who need special care. Microcephaly
is one of the side effects of the Zika virus attack during pregnancy. Since
most of these children will be growing up with very severe developmental
issues, it is imperative that the tracking of these families and offering medical
support will actually enhance our understanding of the Zika virus (Brickley
and Rodrigues, 2018).

Figure 1.2. Schematics of various aspects that when integrated together can al-
low for efficient handling of viral epidemics.

1.5 CURRENT RESEARCH: A FEW INSIGHTS

1.5.1 Vaccines
The modes of transmission as well as actions of these viruses that cause
epidemics are as different as cheese and chalk. This makes the development
of approaches to control or cure them a challenge. It is observed that in order
to any scientific system needs to begin at step one for each virus. Viruses
are initially virulent for a period of time following which there is either
10 An Insight Into the “Killers”-Viruses that Cause Epidemics

a drop in their virulence or the development of immunity in people. For

example, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the Zika as Public
Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) in February 2016 but
in November 2016, this term was removed and the virus was considered as
a public health challenge by the WHO.
Additionally, the mutation rate of viruses (RNA viruses) is high that
makes drugs developed against the initial strains of viruses ineffective in
the later stages. For instance, oseltamivir (marketed as Tamiflu), considered
effective against influenza shows resistant strains.
It is estimated that it takes 10-15 years and 1.8 billion $ to develop a
drug from the lab to a patient!
The development of an effective drug molecule necessitates screening
thousands of molecules and rigorous trials for the ones with promise.
While containment-based approaches are just one side of the coin, another
approach to address viral epidemics is vaccination. Vaccines are not new:
Louis Pasteur brought in the successful idea of smallpox vaccination in the
19th century.
The major advantages in the use of vaccines are saving them time and
development costs when compared with drugs (Chit et al, 2014). Vaccines
allow one’s own immune system to develop a response against the invading
pathogens.
The development of vaccines in the face of an epidemic faces challenges
in the form of transport, storing, and administering them across the affected
area(s). New approaches are the need of the hour given that there is the factor
of valuable time between identifying a pandemic agent and developing a
vaccine.
The concept of vaccinomics refers to the use of immunology, genetics,
and bioinformatics for efficient vaccine design. There is a wide range of
options here: subunit vaccines or peptide vaccines to exploring the antigen-
antibody interaction in the field of reverse vaccinology. This refers to tailor-
made approaches for a particular community or population rather than one
vaccine for the whole world.
Computerized tools are available to scan for antigenic segments on a
virus to develop peptide vaccines. Examples include:
• IEDB (Immune Epitope Database) Analysis Resource (http://
www.iedb.org/home_v3.php): can scan for and screen B-cell and
T-cell epitopes
 An Introduction to Viral Epidemics and How they Can be Handled 11

• PREDIVAC (http://predivac.biosci.uq.edu.au/): scans for HLA II

binding
• ABCPred (http://crdd.osdd.net/raghava/abcpred/): predicts B-cell
epitopes
• VaxiJen (http://www.ddg-pharmfac.net/vaxijen/VaxiJen/VaxiJen.
html): can predict subunit vaccines

1.5.2 Modeling
The characteristics and the spatio-temporal dynamics of pathogens are
described nowadays using empirical information and mathematical
modeling.
This facilitates the guiding of surveillance, the resources required to
tackle the disease, and the optimal use of resources.
Several aspects of epidemics have been inferred using phylogenetic
and photodynamic tools. Genomic data yields information of the founder
populations.
Such tools allow the study of how the disease was transmitted to new
locations or even how to examine the risk of cross-transmission.
The comparison of epidemiological data with that of genomic data can
allow for the quantification of incidences of the disease that may have been
missed in an area and details inclusive of the epidemic doubling time and the
basic reproductive number.
An example is the use of such analyses for the Zika Virus shown in
figure 1.3 below in blue arrows.
Spatial information can be used to predict disease. This mapping
allows explaining the area and landscape where the transmission occurs.
Amalgamating this data with that of the travel patterns of humans can yield
further information on the risk of disease, especially those carried by vectors
such as Zika or Yellow fever or dengue.
In figure 1.3 below, green arrows show the estimation of geographical
disease spreading.
As shown in ( c) in the figure below, the estimates of geographic spread
came out 6 months after the last case report that can , in turn, lead the
surveillance program implementation.
12 An Insight Into the “Killers”-Viruses that Cause Epidemics

Figure 1.3. Modeling techniques to understand the dynamics of an epidemic

(Kraemer et al, 2019).
Additionally, the features of how a disease is transmitted among humans
also require to be understood. This commonly involves the reproduction
number R (the average number of secondary infections generated by a
case). In the case of a large MERS-CoV outbreak in South Korea (2015),
the majority of infections were due to a small number of cases. Transmission
chains can be reconstructed using genomic data.
Models can also guide the prediction of the possibility of an outbreak
in the future in a given area. Coupled with real-time monitoring, there is an
update in the predictions when a data point is received. An example is https://
www.darpa.mil/news-events/2014-08-15 that predicted the chikungunya
virus in the Americas.
The spread of a viral epidemic can be predicted using several data
sources. A combination of epidemiological and genomic data can estimate
the epidemic reproductive number. Data from spatial, genomic and
 An Introduction to Viral Epidemics and How they Can be Handled 13

epidemiological spheres have been combined by using latest technologies

and interdisciplinary collaborations (as shown by red arrows in the figure
above). This guided the introduction of factors contributing to the spread of
Zika in the Americas. Spatial data coupled with phylogenetic analyses offer
insights into the factors behind the spread of viruses.

Table 1.1. The amalgamation of genomics and epidemiology has allowed the
monitoring of viral epidemics (Kraemer et al, 2019):

Characteristic of outbreak Date published Citation

(online)
Zika virus outbreak in the
Americas (2014-2017)

Geographic origin 24 March 2016 Faria et al., 2016 [2]

Geographic spread 14 January 2016 Bogoch et al., 2016 [52]
Number of cases 25 July 2016 Perkins et al., 2016 [23]
Integration of genomic/epide- 17 May 2016 Grubaugh et aL, 2017 [33]
miological/geographical data and Faria et al., 2017[38]
Ebola virus disease outbreak in
West Africa (2013-2016)
Geographic origin 12 September 2016 Gire et al., 2014 [53]
Geographic spread 2 September 2014 Gomes et al., 2014 [54]
Number of cases 8 September 2016 Fisman et al., 2014 [55]
Integration of genomic/epide- 12 April 2017 Dudas et al., 2017 [35]
miological/geographical data
Yellow fever outbreak in Cen-
tral Africa (2015-2016)
Geographic origin 20 September 2016 Grobbelaar et al., 2016 [56]
Geographic spread 22 December 2016 Kraemer et aL, 2016 [3]
Number of cases 16 January 2018 Zhao et al., 2018 [57]
Integration of genomic/epide- NA NA
miological/geographical data

Middle East Respiratory Syn-

drome outbreak (2012-2017)
Geographic origin 20 September 2013 Cotten et al., 2013 [58]
Geographic spread 17 July 2013 Khan et al., 2013 [59]
Number of cases 5 July 2013 Breban et al., 2013 [60]
Integration of genomic/epide- 16 January 2018 Dudas et al., 2018 [42]
miological/geographical data
14 An Insight Into the “Killers”-Viruses that Cause Epidemics

A 2016 published article screened 220 invertebrate species and discovered

1,445 RNA viruses, many of new families. They are capable of lateral gene
transfer, evolution, and host switching (Shi et al, 2016). This makes the
development of containment and treatment strategies to effectively combat
viral diseases. An important aspect of any response to an epidemic is rapid
response. An example is the Public Health Rapid Support Team to handle
Ebola within 48 hours in any part of the world. Rapid and efficient research
coupled with speedy delivery is the key to handling viruses that cause
epidemics (Nandy and Basak, 2017).

1.6 FINAL POINTS:

The 21st century epidemics pose some real challenges. Poverty, socio-
economic conflicts, irrational urbanization, adverse demographic transitions,
and climate change are going to be palpably contributing factors to future
epidemics. The two myths of epidemics need to be shattered, the first myth
that they have to be handled discretely and second myth that they are isolated
events. We need to dispel these myths and present a unified front even if we
are not able to accurately predict the next upcoming outbreak. The right
time, right volume and right intensity response strategy is then the name of
the game. Every response to an epidemic yields several learning points and
we need to build on those learning points and avoid negative outcomes in the
subsequent ones.There are countries with very little resource mobilized for
epidemiological study and research and therefore for a response as well, and
it is fitting that these countries decide on their priorities at the outset. The
problem with infectious diseases is that they have no sense of borders. The
COVID-19 epidemic is such an example. There needs to be a sea change
in the manner in which researchers and practitioners are being trained
in all fields with respect to current epidemic scenarios. We need to pull
down the artificial barriers between several disciplines, however disparate
they seem and work beyond narrow lanes of epidemiological studies to
multidisciplinary approaches to decipher how best to control and handle
future epidemics.A positive change needs to be done to the entire gamut of
the response infrastructure while a new generation of epidemiologists has to
be trained inculcating the skillsets, knowledge base as well as networking
capabilities so that they can readily access every tool available at their
disposal. It is with this multi-disciplinary approach and a comprehensive
and all-encompassing outlook that we can hope to defeat epidemics, protect
lives irrespective of what sacrifices and cost it entails (Bedford et al, 2019).
 An Introduction to Viral Epidemics and How they Can be Handled 15

1.7 REFERENCES
1. Nandy, A. and Basak, S.C. (2017). Viral epidemics and vaccine
preparedness. J Mol Pathol, Epidemiol. 2: S1.
2. Kraemer, M.U.G., Cummings, D.A.T., Funk, S., Reiner, Jr.R.C., Faria,
N.R., Pybus, O.G. and Cauchemez, S. (2019). Reconstruction and
prediction of viral disease epidemics. Epidemiol Infect, 147, e34, 1–7.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268818002881
3. Bedford, J., Farrar, J. and Ihekweazu, C. et al. (2019). A new twenty-
first century science for effective epidemic response. Nature, 575, 130–
136. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1717-y.
4. Gallagher, J. (7 June 2019). Large Ebola outbreaks new normal, says
WHO. BBC News.
5. ShivSanjeevi, S. and Prerna P. (2020). Artificial Intelligence. Delve
Publications. In Press.
6. Dowell, S. F., Blazes, D. and Desmond-Hellmann, S. (2016). Four
steps to precision public health. Nature, 540, 189–191.
7. Siddle, K. J. et al. (2018). Genomic analysis of Lassa virus during an
increase in cases in Nigeria in 2018. N. Engl J Med, 379, 1745–1753.
8. Chang, H.H. et al. (2019). Mapping imported malaria in Bangladesh
using parasite genetic and human mobility data. eLife, 8, e43481.
9. Charlton, H.K. and Lua, L.H.L. (2017). Platform technologies for
modern vaccine manufacturing. Vaccine, 35, 4480–4485.
10. Brickley, E. B. and Rodrigues, L. C. (2018). Further pieces of evidence
in the Zika virus and microcephaly puzzle. Lancet Child Adolesc
Health, 2, 162–164.
11. Chit, A., Parker, J., Halperin, S.A., Papadimitropoulos, M. and Krahn,
M., et al. (2014). Toward more specific and transparent research and
development costs: The case of seasonal influenza vaccines. Vaccine,
32, 3336-3340.
12. Shi, M., Lin, X., Tian, J. et al. (2016). Redefining the invertebrate
RNA virosphere. Nature, 540, 539–543. https://doi.org/10.1038/
nature20167.
2
Influenza: The Historic and Current
Pandemic

Shivsanjeevi Sripathi
ShivSanjeevi Sripathi completed his Masters in Biotechnology from Mumbai University
in 2008. He was awarded for academic excellence in both his Bachelors and Masters
for securing second rank in Mumbai University in 2006 and first rank in his college:
Kishinchand chellaram College. For his Masters he secured first rank in his college
KET’s V.G.Vaze College. He qualified CSIR and NET and and TOEFL in September
2008. He then worked on a stem cell project at the Specialized Centre for Cell Based
Therapy (SCCT),KEM Hospital at Mumbai on a project entitled, : Isolation & detection
of stem cells from Human Umbilical cord/ amniotic membrane” following which he
worked at Junior Research Fellow at Microbiology & Cell Biology Department, Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore from August 2009 to November 2011. The field of work
involved cloning of cell wall genes and transcription factors in E.coli & M.smegmatis. As
a writer, he has authored and co-authored 25 books with Delve and Arcler International
Press. He loves to read and share on interesting aspects of life sciences in books. In his
free time he loves to travel and explore ancient customs and traditions.
18 An Insight Into the “Killers”-Viruses that Cause Epidemics

2.1 CONCEPTS AND OVERVIEW

The term Influenza is derived from the word: Influential or to influence
in Latin. These are caused by three RNA viruses (A, B, and C) of the
family Orthomyxoviridae and genus influenza. The types A and B cause
both morbidity and deaths with the former showing a pandemic potential.
There are annual epidemics of “seasonal influenza” on account of the high
mutation rate of the genetic material of the virus. Between 28,000 and
111,500 deaths are reported in children less than 5 years across the globe due
to lower respiratory infections associated with influenza (Saunders-Hastings
and Krewski, 2016).
The subtypes of the influenza virus are differentiated on the basis of hem
agglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) that are glycoprotein antigens. Of the
identified 18 H subtypes and 11 N subtypes by the United States Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, human-to-human transmission is due to
H1, H2, and H3 types.
These seasonal influenza spells are caused by mutations in the genes
encoding the H and N antigens, known as antigenic drift that cause the virus
to evade the immune system. Another system is the antigenic shift that is
the formation of a new virus from the viral reassortment of two different
influenza viruses. A novel influenza strain that caused pandemics included
the H1N1 Spanish flu (1918), the H2N2 Asian flu (1957), the H3N2 Hong
Kong flu (1968), and the H1N1 swine flu (2009).

Figure 2.1. A chronology of the major influenza pandemics (Source: https://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_pandemic; Saunders-Hastings and Krewski,
2016; Moghadami, 2017; Kebkiba et al, 2017).
 Influenza: The Historic and Current Pandemic 19

Table 2.1. The features of influenza pandemics over the past 100 years

Strain Pandemic Years Approximate mortality

H1N1 Spanish flu 1918–1920 40–50 million
H2N2 Asian flu 1957–1958 1–2 million
H3N2 Hong Kong flu 1968–1970 500,000–2 million
H1N1 Swine flu 2009–2010 575,000

An early influenza epidemic was described in Greek writings of 412 BC.

Due to a lack of concrete data prior to 1500, the first influenza pandemic is
considered to be one in 1580. This originated in Asia to North Africa then
Europe and North America. In the 18th century, the first pandemic originated
in 1729 in Russia to Europe, and the globe. The next one started in 1781 in
China that later spread to Russia and Europe.
For the 19th century, the year 1830 saw a pandemic starting in China
that was on the similar lines of the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic. However,
the deaths were low though the illness rate was high. There was another one
that originated in 1889 in Russia that spread to Europe and North America
via sea and rail to cause the death of close to one million people across the
world!Considered the ‘greatest medical holocaust in history’, the Spanish
flu pandemic was caused by an H1N1 influenza strain. There were 3 waves:
the spring of 1918, the fall of 1918, and the winter of 1918–1919 of which
the second caused a huge loss of lives (40–50 million deaths). Apart from
affecting so many people, there was a shutdown of business and education
too. One interesting aspect of this pandemic strain was its high incidence in
previously healthy young people (18 and 40 years of age).

Figure 2.2. A grim scenario of the Spanish flu (Source: https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Spanish_flu).
20 An Insight Into the “Killers”-Viruses that Cause Epidemics

The Spanish flu pandemic is considered as a major health disaster given

its effects on health and mortality. While populations would have not had
contact with each other, World War I (WWI) brought countless people
together in contact. This is a distinguishing factor of this pandemic given
that trade routes and communication were the sources of spread of earlier
pandemics while the conditions prevailing in trench warfare in Europe
allowed for the transmission of the disease.

Figure 2.3. The Influenza ward at Walter Reed Hospital, in Washington, D.C.
during the pandemic (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_pandem-
ic).
As there were challenges in diagnosing the disease correctly and a
shortage of medical staff, the outbreak was addressed by non-pharmaceutical
interventions (NPIs). These ranged from closing schools, banning public
gatherings, using face masks and following etiquette while coughing and
sneezing. The following of such NPI practices lowered the peak of the
pandemics and associated deaths, especially in the later waves of the pandemic.

Figure 2.4. An advertisement published in 1918 an Oregon newspaper clip that

reads: “We appeal to your civil patriotism to co-operate with us in our effort
 Influenza: The Historic and Current Pandemic 21

to stamp out the Spanish Influenza or “Flu” Plague in Portland by wearing a

mask.” (University of Oregon).
Though the devastation brought by the Spanish flu was large: making
it the worst pandemic throughout history, there were developments in
medicine, international cooperation, and public health.
A new strain of influenza was detected in the Yunnan Province of China
in 1957 that later spread to the whole world. This Asian flu caused the loss of
between one and two million lives worldwide. This was the first pandemic
that was studied in global surveillance systems and labs.
An antigenic shift in the Asian influenza virus produced the H3N2 that
caused the Hong Kong flu. It was first reported in 1968 in Hong Kong and
majorly targeted younger populations. On the lines of the Asian flu, this
Hong Kong flu caused the loss of 500,000 and two million people across
the world.
We now look at the Swine Flu caused by the pH1N1/09 virus in 2009 that
was first reported in Mexico and the United States. The WHO declared it as
a pandemic in June 2009 with its spread due to air travel and trade. The virus
was the outcome of reassortment between 2 influenza viruses that targeted
pigs. The exact effects of this pandemic are yet to be comprehended. There
were high treatment costs coupled with a dip in the GDP by 0.5%–1.5% in
affected countries, school closure and losses to the airline industry due to
impaired tourism.

Figure 2.5. The spread and effects of the H1N1 pandemic of 2009 (Saunders-
Hastings and Krewski, 2016; Source: https://www.who.int/csr/don/2009_08_04/
en/).
22 An Insight Into the “Killers”-Viruses that Cause Epidemics

2.2 THE VIRUSES THAT CAUSE THE FLU:

The term Influenza is derived from the word: Influential or to influence in
Latin. These are caused by three RNA viruses (A, B and C) of the family
Orthomyxoviridae and genus influenza. They can affect birds and mammals
such as pigs, seals and humans. Type A viruses can infect many species but
Types B and C affect humans with Type C also affecting pigs.

Figure 2.6. The transmission of the Influenza virus across species (Source:
Short, Kirsty R et al. “One health, multiple challenges: The inter-species trans-
mission of influenza A virus.” One health (Amsterdam, Netherlands) vol. 1
(2015): 1-13. doi:10.1016/j.onehlt.2015.03.001).
Influenza viruses show the highest rate of attack in young people though
the mortality is high in the elderly. Complications due to the disease are
known to target the following populations:
• Infants (12-24 months) that are unvaccinated
• Women in the 2nd and 3rd trimesters of pregnancy
• Diabetes patients
• Patients with immunosuppressive disorders
• Patients with cognitive disorders
• Patients with cardiac disease
• Patients with cancer
• Patients with chronic kidney obstruction
• Patients with diseases involving abnormal hemoglobin
• Patients with lung diseases such as asthma or cystic fibrosis
 Influenza: The Historic and Current Pandemic 23

The major source of the infection is large particle droplets from an influenza
patient via coughing or sneezing. However, as these droplets are large and
travel short distances, close contact is required for the disease to spread.
Another source of spreading is touching contaminated surfaces (Moghadami,
2017).

Figure 2.7. The spread of influenza virus (Source: https://coryharow.word-

press.com/2015/11/18/influenza-virus-transmission-channels/).

2.2.1 Symptoms
In the case of uncomplicated influenza, following 1-2 days of incubation,
there is muscle pain (calf muscle pain especially in children) and even
the back or eye muscles. There are routine symptoms of respiratory tract
illnesses such as sore throat, nasal discharge, and dry cough. There is also a
headache, chills, and fever.
The major complication of influenza is pneumonia:
Primary Influenza Viral Pneumonia:
Post-the run of the flu, there is fever, shortness of breath, and bluish skin
and mucus membranes.
Secondary Bacterial Pneumonia:
The common causative agents are Staphylococcus aureus and
Streptococcus pneumonia that cause wet cough, shortness of breath, and
fever.
Other complications can include myocarditis and pericarditis that refer
to inflammation of the heart muscle and heart lining, respectively.
24 An Insight Into the “Killers”-Viruses that Cause Epidemics

2.2.2 Treatment
Treatment is deemed highly effective when the therapy is started in the
first 24 hours. Either children or adults who belong to the “risk category”
outlines above or those who require hospitalization should be administered
treatment.
Patients with the H1N1 virus of the 2009 pandemic were mainly
administered oseltamivir and zanamivir that are neuraminidase inhibitors.
The administration of an NAI within 48 hrs after the appearance of the
disease showed a lower chance of requiring ventilator support or dying.

Table 2.2. The recommended dosages and durations for treatment or prophy-
laxis (Moghadami, 2017):

Antiviral agent Treatment Details

Oseltamivir Treatment 75 mg twice daily for 5 days
Chemoprophylaxis 75 mg once daily for 7 days

Zanamivir Treatment 10 mg (two 5-mg inhalations) daily for 5

days
Chemoprophylaxis 10 mg (two 5-mg inhalations) once daily
for 7 days

Other approaches to treating the disease have also been explored to

overcome the limitations of resistance seen with anti-viral medications.
These include:
• Monoclonal antibodies such as those aimed at the conserved M2
protein (M2e)
• Using corticosteroids: Here there are conflicting reports with
some reports showing that corticosteroids were important during
the 2009 influenza in Europe (Linko et al, 2011) while the
administration of corticosteroids has been associated with higher
mortality (Rodrigo et al, 2015).

2.2.3 Vaccines
The annual vaccination against seasonal influenza is considered vital to
prevent influenza and its associated complications. As the virus is known
for its high rate of mutation to evade the immune system, new vaccines are
generated in accordance with the virus variants. Global surveillance data are
used to guide the correct selection of antigens for designing vaccines.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
Bedere Zaffer, carrying fifty-one guns. He died in London, on the
25th October, 1811, aged thirty-six years. The knowledge, decision,
and coolness which he displayed as an officer, won him the
confidence of all who served with him; the gaiety and cheerfulness
of his temper, the frankness of his disposition, and the warmth and
goodness of his heart, rendered him the delight of all who
approached him, and made his death an equal loss to private society
and to his country.”
On the left is a handsome monument of Governor Loten, consisting
of a single figure, representing Generosity, attended by a lion, who is
sustaining a medallion, with his portrait upon a pedestal, on which is
inscribed, in Latin, his great character, and the high offices he
exercised over the Dutch settlements in India, where he arrived in
the year 1732; married Henrietta Beaumont, August 24, 1733, who
died August 10, 1755. He returned to Europe in 1758, married in
England July 4, 1765, to Lætitia Cotes, of Cotes, in Staffordshire,
and died at Utrecht, May 25, 1789, ætatis eighty. The lower
inscription is the fifteenth Psalm, except the last verse, and
concludes—“Such was John Gideon Loten.”—Banks, sculptor.
Mrs. Mary Beaufoy.—The principal figure is represented in a devout
posture, with cherubs crowning her; on each side are Cupids
lamenting the early decay of virgin beauty; and underneath, the
arms of her family, quarterly, upheld by cherubs. The inscription on
the base:—“Reader! whoe’er thou art, let the sight of this tomb
imprint on thy mind, that young and old (without distinction) leave
this world; and therefore fail not to secure the next.” This lady was
only daughter and heiress of Sir Henry Beaufoy, of Guy’s Cliff, near
Warwick, by the Hon. Charlotte Lane, eldest daughter of George,
Lord Viscount Lansborough. She died July 12, 1705.—Grinling
Gibbons, sculptor.
“Robert Killigrew, of Arwenack, in Cornwall, Esq.; son of Thomas and
Charlotte; Page of Honour to Charles II.; Brigadier-General of Her
Majesty’s Forces; killed in Spain, in the battle of Almanza, April 14,
1707, ætatis suæ forty-seven. Militavit annis twenty-four.” A fine
piece of sculpture, cut out of one stone. The embellishments are
distinct and very picturesque, and the inscription modest and
soldierlike.—Bird, sculptor. In front of this monument Ben Jonson
was buried.
On a small tablet is the following inscription:—“In memory of Thomas
Banks, Esq., R.A., Sculptor, whose superior abilities in his profession
added a lustre to the arts of his country, and whose character as a
man reflected honour on human nature. His earthly remains were
deposited by his desire on the north side of the churchyard at
Paddington. His spirit is with God. He died Feb. 2, 1805, aged
seventy years.”
John Hunter.—The remains of this celebrated anatomist were
removed from the Church of St. Martin-in-the-Fields to the Abbey in
1859. “The Royal College of Surgeons of England have placed this
Tablet over the grave of Hunter, to record their admiration of his
genius as a gifted interpreter of the Divine power and wisdom at
work in the laws of organic life, and their grateful veneration for his
services to mankind as the founder of scientific surgery.” Born, 1728;
died, 1793.
Sir Robert Wilson and Lady.—A very fine brass beside that of Hunter.
He was born in 1777, died 1849.
Colonel James Bringfield.—This monument is ornamented with military
trophies, cherubs, &c., and surrounded by a mantling, enclosing a
table on which are written the deceased’s military preferments, the
manner of his death and burial, and the praises of his piety and
virtue. He was born at Abingdon, Equerry to Prince George of
Denmark, and Aid-de-Camp to the great Duke of Marlborough; was
killed by a cannon ball, as he was remounting his General on a fresh
horse, at the battle of Ramilies, on Whitsunday, May 12, 1706, and
was interred at Barechem, in the province of Brabant, aged fifty.
One of the windows in the north aisle of the nave of Westminster
Abbey has recently been filled with stained glass in memory of the
late Mr. Brunel. Along the bottom of the window (which consists of
two lights, each 23 feet 6 inches high, and 4 feet wide, surmounted
by a quatrefoil opening, 6 feet 6 inches across) is the inscription, “In
memory of Isambard Kingdom Brunel, Civil Engineer. Born April 9,
1806. Died September 15, 1859.” Over this are four allegorical
figures (two in each light): Fortitude, Justice, Faith, and Charity. The
upper part of the window consists of six panels, divided by a
pattern-work of lilies and pomegranates. The panels contain subjects
from the history of the Temple. The three subjects in the western
light represent scenes from the Old Testament: viz., the Dedication
of the Temple by Solomon, the Finding of the Book of the Law by
Hilkiah, and the Laying the Foundations of the Second Temple. The
subjects in the eastern light are from the New Testament: viz.,
Simeon Blessing the Infant Saviour, Christ Disputing with the
Doctors, and the Disciples pointing out to Christ the Buildings of the
Temple. In the heads of the lights are angels kneeling, and in the
quatrefoil is a representation of Our Lord in Glory, surrounded by
angels. The work was placed in the hands of Mr. R. Norman Shaw, of
the firm of Nesfield & Shaw, Architects, who prepared the general
design, arranged the scale of the various figures, and designed the
ornamental pattern work. The figure subjects were drawn by Mr.
Henry Holyday, and the whole design was executed in glass by
Messrs. Heaton, Butler, & Bayne, of Garrick Street, Covent Garden.
“To the memory of William Levinz, Esq., grandson of Sir Cresswell
Levinz, Knt., who was Attorney-General in the reign of Charles II.,
and afterwards one of the Justices of Common Pleas, from which
station he was displaced in the reign of James II. for opposing the
dispensing power, and was one of the counsel for the seven Bishops.
William Levinz, the son of Sir Cresswell, represented the county of
Nottingham in Parliament, as did his son, William Levinz, till the year
1747, when he was appointed a Commissioner of his Majesty’s
Customs, and in 1763, Receiver-General of the said revenue, in
which office he died, the 17th of August, 1765, aged fifty-two
years.”—R. Hayward, sculptor.
Heneage Twysden.—This monument is to the memory of a young hero
slain in the battle of Blarignies, in Hainault, while Aid-de-Camp to
John, Duke of Argyle, who commanded the right wing of the
confederate army. He was the seventh son of Sir William Twysden,
Bart., a youth of the greatest expectations, had not the fortune of
war put an early stop to his rising merit, in the twenty-ninth year of
his age, 1709. Above this are two small monuments to the memory
of two of his brothers, Josiah and John. Josiah was a Captain at the
siege of Agremont, in Flanders, and slain by a cannon shot, in 1708,
aged twenty-three. John was a Lieutenant in the Admiral’s ship
under Sir Cloudesly Shovel, and perished with him in 1707, aged
twenty-four.
John Woodward, M.D.—This is an elegant monument, and the figures
most admirably finished. The head of the deceased (who was
Professor of Physic in Gresham College) in profile, is very masterly,
and the lady that holds it inimitable. The inscription is a kind of
panegyric upon the great parts and learning of the deceased, which
entitled him to the distinction he received. He died in May, 1728,
aged sixty-three.—Scheemakers, sculptor.
Martha Price.—This monument is ornamented with festoons of fruit,
flowers, and foliage, and the inscription shows that she was the wife
of Gervase Price, Esq., who served Charles II. in the double capacity
of Sergeant-Trumpeter and Gentleman of the Bows. She died April 7,
1678.
Above is a monument to the memories of Captains Hervey and Hutt,
who were engaged in the naval action under Lord Howe. It is
principally composed of two colossal figures, Britannia and Fame,
placed one on each side a large vase, on which are portraits of the
deceased Captains. Britannia is decorating the vase with laurel, while
Fame is pointing to the names of the heroes engraven on the base
which supports the vase.—Bacon, jun., sculptor.
Beneath is the effigy of Anne, Countess Dowager of Clanrickard,
resting upon a tomb, and under it is the following inscription:—“Here
lies the Right Honourable Anne, Countess Dowager of Clanrickard,
eldest daughter of John Smith, Esq., who is interred near this place.
She married first, Hugh Parker, Esq., eldest son of Sir Henry Parker,
of Honington, in the county of Warwick, Bart., by whom she had the
present Sir Henry John Parker, Bart., three other sons, and three
daughters. By her second husband, Michael, Earl of Clanrickard, of
the kingdom of Ireland, the head of the ancient and noble family of
the Burkes, she had Smith, now Earl of Clanrickard, and two
daughters, Lady Anne and Lady Mary. She died January 1, 1732, in
her forty-ninth year.”
General Lawrence.—This monument was erected at the expense of the
East India Company, in memory of the man who, by the conquest of
Pondicherry, and the defence of Tritchinopoly, reduced the power of
the French in the East, and paved the way for one of the richest
empires that ever a trading people aspired to command, which,
however, was in the year 1783, in so lamentable a situation, wasted
by war, and oppressed by European plunderers, that, from being one
of the richest countries in the world, it became the most deplorable.
On the top is an admirable bust of the General, to which the genius
of the Company is pointing, while Fame is declaring his noble
exploits, at the same time holding in her hand a shield, on which is
written:—“For discipline established, fortresses protected,
settlements extended, French and Indian armies defeated, and
peace concluded in the Carnatic.” Close under the bust is written:
“Born March 6, 1697; died January 10, 1775.” On a table of beautiful
marble in relief, is represented the siege of a great city, and under it
is the word Tritchinopoly.—Tayler, sculptor.
Up high is a tablet to Colonel John Davis, President of the Council of
the Island of St. Christopher, who died December 13, 1725, aged
sixty-three.
Penelope Egerton.—The lady for whom this monument was erected,
was daughter of Robert, Lord Nedham, Viscount Kilmurray, and wife
of Randolph Egerton, of Bentley, in Cheshire, an eminent Loyalist,
Major-General of Horse to Charles I., and Lieutenant-Colonel to
Charles II.’s own troop of Guards. She died in child-bed, April 13,
1670.
A tablet placed high above to the memory of James Egerton, son of
Major-General Egerton, who died April 13, 1687, aged nine years.
The west window is filled with painted glass: the figures of Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob, Moses and Aaron, and the twelve Patriarchs; the
arms of Sebert, Edward the Confessor, Queen Elizabeth, George II.,
and Dean Wilcocks, Bishop of Rochester: date 1735.
In the window at the end of the North Aisle, is a figure in stained
glass (supposed to be Edward the Confessor), but the colours being
of water blue, no particular face can be distinguished.
In the window of the South Aisle, the figure is supposed to be that
of Edward the Black Prince.
 North-West Tower.

he Right Honourable Charles James Fox is represented on a

mattress, falling into the arms of Liberty. Peace (with the
olive branch and dove) is reclining on his knee. An African
thanking him for the part he took in the cause of Freedom. Born Jan.
24, 1749; died Sept. 13, 1806, aged fifty-seven.—Sir Richard
Westmacott, sculptor.
In the North-west Tower is a monument to Captain Montague. He fell
with Captains Hervey and Hutt in Earl Howe’s engagement, on the
1st of June, 1794, when a signal and important victory was obtained
over the French fleet. The King and Parliament, in consequence,
directed this monument to be erected. The Captain is represented
with his hand resting on his sword; Victory, alighting, is waving the
laurel crown over his head; a trophy of naval flags hangs over a
basso-relievo of prisoners behind; on the front of this pedestal is the
engagement; on the right side is Neptune’s trident, and a crown of
oak; on the left, a wreath of laurel containing the word
“Constitution;” the base is guarded by two lions.—Flaxman, sculptor.
On the right, upon a pedestal with appropriate emblems, is an
exceedingly animated and life-like bust of the Right Hon. Sir James
Macintosh, M.P., one of the most distinguished men of his time, and
who attained to great eminence in literature, philosophy, history, and
politics. He was born at Aldonric, on the banks of Lochness,
Scotland, on the 24th October, 1765; was knighted in 1804; in 1830
he was appointed to a seat at the Board of Control, and died 30th
May, 1832, regretted (it is said) with more sincerity, and admired
with less envy than any man of his age.—Theed, sculptor.
At the back is a monument sacred to the memory of the Honourable
George Augustus Frederick Lake, late Lieutenant-Colonel in his
Majesty’s twenty-ninth Regiment of Foot, who fell at the head of his
Grenadiers, in driving the enemy from the heights of Roliea, in
Portugal, on the 17th of August, 1808. This stone is erected to his
memory by the officers, non-commissioned officers, drummers, and
privates of the corps, as a testimony of their high regard and
esteem.—Smith, sculptor.
Beneath is a monument to the Right Hon. George Tierney, whose bust
is placed on a pedestal, with the following inscription:—“To the
memory of the Right Honourable George Tierney, born in 1762; died
in 1830. A man equally distinguished for the disinterested integrity of
his public conduct, and the unpretended virtues of his private life. In
Parliament he was long conspicuous for a style of oratory peculiarly
his own; plain, familiar, forcible, and persuasive, abounding in proofs
of natural shrewdness, and strokes of original learning, and
sustained throughout by an accurate knowledge of details, and an
unostentatious command of clear language. Without having obtained
the rewards of wealth or station, he secured the respect and esteem
of his contemporaries, by the consistency of his political principles,
and his unwearied activity in supporting them; by the simplicity of
his manners, and the benevolence of his character; and by an
unaffected reverence for religion. His surviving friends have raised
this monument, to be a testimony of their affection, and a reward of
his talents and virtues.”—Westmacott, jun., sculptor.
Next is a new monument to the memory of Henry Richard Vassal Fox,
Baron Holland, born November 23, 1773, and died October 22,
1840, aged sixty-seven. On the steps that lead up to the door of a
vault are three figures; on the left hand of the spectator is Genius,
with his old funeral emblem, the reversed torch; climbing the steps
to the right are, in rich combination, Literature and Science. A scroll
is in the hands of Literature, and that of Science rests upon her
wheel. Over the doorway of the tomb, the key-stone, enriched by a
coiling serpent (the old emblem of eternity), assists to support the
cornice, from which rise a rusticated pediment and pedestal; on the
latter is placed a colossal bust of the deceased Lord, and on either
side of the tomb are bassi-relievi, representing severally Charity and
Justice. The monument is twenty feet high, eleven feet six inches
wide, and has six feet of projection from the wall. The architectural
portions are of Sicilian marble. Without inscription.—Baily, sculptor.
On the left is a monument erected by the corps of Royal Engineers,
to the memory of Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Richard Fletcher, Knight and
Baronet, who, after highly-distinguished services, as Commanding
Royal Engineer, with the army under the Duke of Wellington, in the
Peninsular War, was killed at the storming of St. Sebastian, 1812, in
the forty-fifth year of his age.—Baily, sculptor.
Above is a tablet with naval trophies, sacred to the memory of Rear-
Admiral Sir George Hope, K.C.B., erected by several Captains in the
Royal Navy, who served under him as Midshipmen.—Turnerelli,
sculptor.
A small tablet to the memory of the Hon. Charles Banks Stanhope,
second son of Charles, Earl of Stanhope, and nephew of the Right
Hon. William Pitt, Major of the fiftieth Regiment of Foot, who in the
act of gallantly encouraging his men, fell by a musket-shot in the
battle of Corunna. This tablet is affectionately inscribed by his
afflicted sister, who can neither do justice to his virtues, nor
sufficiently deplore his loss. Born 3rd June, 1785; died 16th January,
1809.
William Horneck, Esq.—This monument is embellished with books,
plans, and instruments of fortification, alluding to the employment of
the deceased as Chief Engineer to the Royal Train. The inscription
informs us that he learned the art of war under the great Duke of
Marlborough. He died May 9, 1746, aged sixty-two.
Beneath, to the right, is a bust erected to Major James Rennell, who
died March 29, 1830, in his eighty-eighth year. His useful life, firm
character, and high talents, are amply exhibited in his works, and
need no other monument. This tablet, therefore, merely records,
that this celebrated man was buried near this spot.—Baily, sculptor.
Zachary Macaulay.—A bust on a pedestal; the inscription as follows:
—“In grateful remembrance of Zachary Macaulay, who, during a
protracted life, with an intense but quiet perseverance, which no
success could relax, no reverse could subdue, no toil, privations, or
reproach could daunt, devoted his time, talents, fortune, and all the
energies of his mind and body to the service of the most injured and
helpless of mankind; and partook for more than forty years in the
counsels and in the labours which, guided and blessed by God, first
rescued the British empire from the guilt of the Slave Trade, and
finally conferred freedom on 800,000 slaves; this tablet is erected by
those who drew wisdom from his mind, and a lesson from his life,
and who humbly rejoice in the assurance that, through the Divine
Redeemer, the foundation of all his hopes, he shares in the
happiness of those who rest from their labours, and their works do
follow them.” He was born at Inverary, North Britain, on the 2nd of
May, 1768, and died in London on the 13th May, 1838.—Weekes,
sculptor.

THE NAVE.
The Organ Screen was erected by the Dean and Chapter in 1831,
designed by Mr. Blore, Architect to the Abbey, and executed with
great precision. Four pilasters with decorated finials divide the
Screen into three compartments, the centre for the gate of entrance
to the choir from the west, the other two contain the monuments of
Sir Isaac Newton and Earl Stanhope; on each of the pilasters are
projecting pedestals, on which are the figures of Henry III. and his
Queen, Edward the Confessor, and his Queen, and Edward I. and his
Queen.
Sir Isaac Newton.—This is a grand and expressive monument, every
way worthy of the great man to whose memory it was erected, who
is sculptured recumbent, leaning his right arm on four folios, thus
titled—Divinity, Chronology, Optics, and Phil: Prin. Math: and
pointing to a scroll supported by winged cherubs. Over him is a large
globe, projecting from a pyramid behind, whereon is delineated the
course of the comet in 1680, with the signs, constellations, and
planets. On the globe sits the figure of Astronomy with her book
closed. Underneath the principal figure is a most curious bas-relief,
representing the various labours in which Sir Isaac chiefly employed
his time: such as discovering the causes of gravitation, settling the
principles of light and colours, and reducing the coinage to a
determined standard. The device of weighing the sun by the
steelyard has been thought at once bold and striking; and, indeed,
the whole monument does honour to the sculptor. The inscription on
the pedestal is in Latin, short, but fall of meaning; intimating that,
by a spirit nearly divine, he solved, on principles of his own, the
motions and figures of the planets, the paths of the comets, and the
ebbing and flowing of the sea; that he discovered the dissimilarity of
the rays of light and the properties of colours from thence arising,
which none but himself had ever thought of; that he was a diligent,
wise, and faithful interpreter of nature, antiquity, and the Holy
Scriptures; that by his philosophy he maintained the dignity of the
Supreme Being; and by the purity of his life, the simplicity of the
Gospel. The inscription concludes with a beautiful exclamation
—“How much reason mortals have to pride themselves in the
existence of such and so great an ornament to the human race!” He
was born December 25, 1642, and died March 20, 1726.—Rysbrack,
sculptor.
James, Earl Stanhope.—This monument, in which, likewise, the
principal figure leans upon his arm in a cumbent posture, holding in
his right hand a general’s staff, and in his left a parchment scroll. A
Cupid stands before him, resting himself upon a shield. Over a
martial tent sits a beautiful Pallas, holding in her right hand a javelin,
and in the other a scroll. Behind is a slender pyramid. On the middle
of the pedestals are two medals, and on each side of the pilasters
one. Under the principal figure is a Latin inscription, setting forth the
merits of this great man, as a soldier, a statesman, and a senator. In
1707, he concluded an advantageous treaty with Spain, and in the
same year was sent Ambassador to Charles III. In 1708, he took
Port-Mahon. In 1710, he forced his way to the gates of Madrid, and
took possession of that capital. In 1714, he impeached the Duke of
Ormond. In September, 1715, he was made Secretary at War. In
December, 1716, he was made Secretary of State. In 1717, he was
made First Commissioner of the Treasury, and Chancellor of the
Exchequer; and in July following created a Peer. In March, 1718, he
was a second time made Secretary of State. In 1720, he died, in his
forty-seventh year.—Rysbrack, sculptor.
“To the memory of Philip (second) Earl Stanhope, conspicuous for
universal benevolence, unshaken public integrity, and private worth.
Deep were his researches in philosophy, and extensive his ideas for
his country’s good. He was ever a determined supporter of the Trial
by Jury, of the freedom of Elections, of a numerous and well-
regulated Militia, and of the liberty of the Press. On the 7th day of
March, 1786 (and in the seventy-second year of his age), he
terminated an honourable life, spent in the exercise of virtue, in the
improvement of science, and in the pursuit of truth. In respectful
remembrance of him, the above lines are inscribed by his
affectionate son, Charles, Earl Stanhope.”
The Pulpit, in the Nave, is used only for the special evening services,
and is composed of variegated marbles interspersed with rich foliage
and some very tasteful mosaics, and around it are six excellent
figures of St. Paul, St. Peter, and the four Evangelists, and in a
medallion in front, a head of the Saviour surrounded with thorns,
and pointing upwards with his right hand from his left shoulder. The
following is painted on one side:—“This Pulpit is presented to the
Dean and Chapter of Westminster by a few friends, in grateful
commemoration of the Opening of the Nave for public worship and
preaching, in January, 1858. ‘As ye go, preach, saying the kingdom
of Heaven is at hand.’” (St. Matt., chap. 10, v. 7.)—Field, sculptor.
Robert Stephenson.—Nearly in front of the new pulpit, upon the floor,
is a brass figure of life-size upon a rich foliage diaper over the
remains of this eminent engineer, in addition to which has just been
erected a superb painted window illustrative of his fertile genius. He
died 12th October, 1859, aged fifty-six.
At the foot of R. Stephenson’s grave is a slab of black Irish marble
inlaid with brass, sacred to the memory of Sir Charles Barry, Knt.,
R.A. and F.S.A., and Architect of the New Palace of Westminster and
other buildings, who died a.d. 1860, aged 64 years, and lies buried
beneath this brass, which represents the Victoria Tower and the
Ground Plan of the Houses of Parliament.
Nearly opposite this slab is a granite tombstone, upon which is the
following inscription:—“Beneath this stone rest the remains of Colin
Campbell, Lord Clyde, who by his own deserts, through fifty years of
arduous service, from the earliest battles in the Peninsular War to
the Pacification of India, in 1858, rose to the rank of Field-Marshal
and the Peerage. He died lamented by the Queen, the army, and the
people, August the 14th, 1863, in the seventy-first year of his
age.”—Gaffin, fecit.
Field-Marshal Sir George Pollock, Bart., G.C.B., G.C.S.I., Constable of
the Tower. Died 6th October, 1872, aged 86 years. “O God the Lord,
the strength of my salvation, Thou hast covered my head in the day
of battle.”—Psalm cxl. 7.
A little to the west of the latter is the tombstone of Tompion and
Graham, the celebrated chronometer inventors. Tompion died 1713,
aged seventy-five. Graham died 1751, aged seventy-eight.
Beside Tompion is the grave of Livingstone, over which there is a
large black marble slab, with the following inscription: “Brought by
faithful hands over land and sea, here rests David Livingstone,
Missionary, Traveller, Philanthropist. Born March 19th, 1813; died
May 1st, 1873, at Chetamba’s village, Ulala. For 30 years his life was
spent in an unwearied effort to evangelize the Native races, to
explore the undiscovered secrets, to abolish the desolating slave
trade of Central Africa, where, with his last words, he wrote: ‘All I
can add in my solitude is, May Heaven’s rich blessing come down on
every one, American, English, or Turk, who will help to heal this
open sore of the world.’ ‘Other sheep I have which are not of this
fold; them also I must bring, and they shall hear My voice.’” The
Latin verses are from Lucan the Roman poet, who, in his “Pharsalia,”
describes the aspiration of Julius Cæsar to solve the problem, even
then before the world, of the causes and source of the Nile. The
verses may be thus translated:—So great is my love of truth that
there is nothing I would rather know than the causes of the river
that have lain hid through so many ages....
On the right of the West door, in the middle of a pyramid, is a large
medallion of brass, resting on a cherub below, and suspended by
another at the top. Round the medal is a Latin inscription, thus
translated:—“John Conduit, Master of the Mint.” This gentleman
succeeded his relation, the great Sir Isaac Newton, in that office,
and desired to be buried near him, as appears by a long Latin
inscription on the base. Died May 23, 1737, aged forty-nine.
Catherine, his wife, died Jan. 20, 1739, aged fifty-nine, and lies
interred in the same tomb.—Cheere, sculptor.
A stone arch has been turned over the west door, on which is
erected a monument, voted by Parliament to the memory of the
Right Hon. William Pitt. This illustrious statesman is represented
habited in the robes of Chancellor of the Exchequer. To the right of
the base of the statue, is History recording his speeches, whilst
Anarchy, on the left, lies subdued, and writhing in chains at his feet.
The Statues composing this group are nine feet in height.
Inscription:—“This monument is erected by Parliament to William
Pitt, son of William Earl of Chatham, in testimony of gratitude for the
eminent public services, and of regret for the irreparable loss of that
great and disinterested Minister. He died Jan. 23, 1806, in the forty-
seventh year of his age.”—Sir Richard Westmacott, R.A., sculptor.
On the left is a lofty pyramid of a bluish coloured marble, to the
memory of Sir Thomas Hardy, Knt., whose effigy is reclining upon a
tomb of elegant workmanship, with a naked boy on his left side
weeping over an urn. The inscription, a little history of the
deceased’s life, is here copied:—“Sir Thomas Hardy, to whose
memory this monument was erected, was bred in the Royal Navy
from his youth, and was made a Captain in 1693. In the expedition
to Cadiz, under Sir George Rook, he commanded the Pembroke; and
when the fleet left the coast of Spain to return to England, he was
ordered to Lagos Bay, where he got intelligence of the Spanish
galleons being arrived in the harbour of Vigo, under convoy of
seventeen French men-of-war. By his great diligence and judgment
he joined the English fleet, and gave the Admiral that intelligence
which engaged him to make the best of his way to Vigo, where all
the aforementioned galleons and men-of-war were either taken or
destroyed. After the success of that action, the Admiral sent him
with an account of it to the Queen, who ordered him a considerable
present, and knighted him. Some years afterwards he was made a
Rear-Admiral, and received several other marks of favour and
esteem from her Majesty, and from her Royal Consort, Prince George
of Denmark, Lord High Admiral of England. He died August 16,
1732, aged sixty-seven.”—Cheere, sculptor.
Captain James Cornewall.—This noble monument, which is thirty-six
feet high, has a large base and pyramid of rich Sicilian marble.
Against the pyramid is a rock (embellished with naval trophies, sea
weeds, &c.) in which are two cavities; in the one is a Latin epitaph;
in the other, a view of the sea-fight before Toulon, in bas-relief, on
the foreground whereof the Marlborough, of ninety guns, is seen
fiercely engaged with Admiral Navarre’s ship, the Real, of one
hundred and fourteen guns, and her two seconds, all raking the
Marlborough fore and aft. On the rock stand two figures; the one
represents Britannia, under the character of Minerva, accompanied
with a lion: the other figure is expressive of Fame, who, having
presented to Minerva a medallion of the hero, supports it whilst
exhibited to public view. The medallion is accompanied with a globe
and various honorary crowns as due to valour. Behind the figure is a
lofty spreading palm-tree (whereon is fixed the hero’s shield or coat
of arms), together with a laurel-tree, both which issue from the
naturally barren rock, as alluding to some heroic and uncommon
event. The inscription:—“Amongst the monuments of ancient merit
in this sacred Cathedral, let the name of James Cornewall be
preserved, the third son of Henry Cornewall, of Bradwarden Castle,
in the County of Hereford, Esq., who, from the very old and
illustrious stock of the Plantagenets, deriving a truly ancient spirit,
became a naval commander of the first eminence; equally and
deservedly honoured by the tears and applause of Britons, as a man
who bravely defended the cause of his country in that sea-fight off
Toulon, and being by a chain-shot deprived of both his legs at a
blow, fell unconquered, on the 3rd of February, 1743, in the forty-
fifth year of his age, bequeathing his animated example to his fellow
sailors as a legacy of a dying Englishman, whose extraordinary
valour could not be recommended to the emulation of posterity in a
more ample eulogy, than by so singular an instance of honour; since
the Parliament of Great Britain, by an unanimous suffrage, resolved
that a monument, at the public expense, should be consecrated to
the memory of this most heroical person.”—Tayler, sculptor.
 South Aisle.

t the back of Cornewall’s, is the monument to the Right

Honourable James Craggs, who was made Secretary at War
in April, 1717, and one of his Majesty’s Privy Council and
Secretary of State, in March, 1718. The statue of this gentleman,
large as the life, is finely represented as leaning on an urn, which
has upon it in golden characters, an inscription, showing that he was
principal Secretary of State, and a man universally beloved, which is
there particularly marked, because, as he was of low extraction,
being only a shoemaker’s son, it is the more admirable, that in the
high station to which his merit had raised him, he should escape
envy, and acquire the general esteem. He died February 16, 1720,
aged thirty-five. Upon the base of the monument is this epitaph,
written by Mr. Pope:—
“Statesman, yet friend to truth, of soul sincere,
In action faithful, and in honour clear!
Who broke no promise, serv’d no private end,
Who gained no title, and who lost no friend.
Ennobled by himself, by all approv’d,
Prais’d, wept, and honour’d, by the muse he lov’d.”
—Signor Guelphi, sculptor.
A statue of William Wordsworth, placed here by the friends and
admirers of the late Poet. Mr. Wordsworth was born at Cockermouth,
in Cumberland, on April 7, 1770, and died at Rydal Mount,
Ambleside, Westmoreland, on April 23, 1850. The statue is much
admired; and the meditative attitude in which the Poet is
represented, and the quiet and sacred spot in which it is placed,
apart from the crowd, and in a peaceful retirement of its own,
harmonize with and are expressive of, the tranquil tenour of his life,
and the thoughtful, sublime, and philosophic character of his works.
Next to this is a bust of Keble, by T. Woolner. It occupies the middle
of the three arcades on the west side of the South Tower, and
adjoins the monument of Wordsworth. It has a pedestal of alabaster
containing a black marble inscription panel, on either side of which is
a green marble pillar, between the carved capitals of which is seated
a vesica-shaped panel of alabaster, richly moulded, carved, and
studded with gems of blue fluor-spar within ovals of gilt beads.
Above this is placed a Calvary cross of alabaster with gemmed and
inlaid arms and trefoiled ends. The internal part of the vesica panel
is occupied with the white marble bust, life size, placed on an
enriched corbel of alabaster, on which corbel are inclined pillars
which support a trefoiled and gabled canopy overhanging the bust.
The total height of the work is nine feet, and its width three feet.
A small tablet to Henry Wharton, remarkable only by the great name
inscribed upon it, who was Rector of Chartham, in Kent; Vicar of the
Church of Minster, in the Isle of Thanet; Librarian to Archbishop
Sancroft, and one of the most voluminous writers of his years,
perhaps, in the world. He died March 3, 1694, aged only thirty-one,
and was an universally respected by the Bishops and clergy, that
Archbishop Tillotson, and several other Prelates, with a vast body of
clergy, the choir and King’s scholars, all in solemn procession,
attended his funeral, and joined in the anthems composed on this
occasion by the great Purcell.
Above this tablet of Wharton is a gallery, used by the Royal Family to
see the procession of the Knights of the Bath: they enter at Poets’
Corner door, and proceed round the West end, and up the North
Aisle, into Henry VII.’s Chapel, where the installation takes place.
In an oval frame is a half-length marble portrait of William Congreve,
Esq., placed on a pedestal of the finest Egyptian marble, and
enriched with emblematical figures alluding to the drama.
Underneath is this inscription in English:—“Mr. William Congreve,
died January 19, 1728, aged fifty-six, and was buried near this place,
to whose most valuable memory this monument is set up by
Henrietta, Duchess of Marlborough, as a mark how dearly she
remembers the happiness she enjoyed in the sincere friendship of so
worthy and honest a man, whose virtue, candour, and wit, gained
him the love and esteem of the present age, and whose writings will
be the admiration of the future.”—Bird, sculptor.
A bust of John Friend, M.D., on a pedestal of fine white veined
marble; and beneath is a long Latin inscription, setting forth his
great and distinguished acquirements. He was a physician of the first
rank for knowledge and experience; was no less successful in his
practice than ingenious in his writings. He was first educated at
Westminster School, and afterwards at Christ Church College,
Oxford, where his learning soon made him conspicuous. On his
leaving the University, and adopting the profession of physic, he was
chosen a member of the College of Physicians in London, and soon
after a Fellow of the Royal Society. His writings are lasting
monuments of his extensive genius. He died July 26, 1728.—
Rysbrack, sculptor.
Sir Lumley Robinson, Baronet.—This monument is neatly designed and
ornamented; the columns are supported by Death’s heads, and the
arms upon the base by a cherub. On the top was a vase, and, rising
to the pediments, enrichments of laurel branches, &c. The inscription
has nothing remarkable. He was of Kentwall Hall, in Suffolk, and
died August 6, 1684, aged thirty-six.—Settie, sculptor.
Thomas Sprat, D.D.—This monument seems to have been designed
principally for the sake of the inscriptions, which are in Latin.
Underneath are the arms of the deceased, and on the top his arms,
with those of the see of Rochester, quarterly, between enrichments
of books, &c. The first inscription informs you,—“That Dr. Sprat was
the son of a clergyman in Dorsetshire; and that he was educated at
Wadham College, Oxford; that he first applied himself to poetry, but
quitted that study to pursue the beauties of prose, and polish the
English language; that he was early made known to George, Duke of
Buckingham, and by him recommended to Charles I., who made him
a Prebendary of Westminster, and of Windsor; from which
preferments he soon rose to be Dean of Westminster, and Bishop of
Rochester; but at length, from his firm integrity to the Church and
Monarchy, was brought in danger of his life. He died in 1713, aged
seventy-seven.” The second inscription shows—“That the remains of
Thomas Sprat, A.M. (son of the Bishop), Archdeacon of Rochester, and
Prebendary of the Churches of Rochester, Winchester, and
Westminster, lie near those of his father. He died May 10, 1720, aged
forty-one.” The third inscription imports—“That John Friend, M.D., to
show his respect for those two worthy personages, had caused this
monument to be erected jointly to their memories.”—Bird, sculptor.
Dr. Joseph Willcocks.—Two angels holding a scroll, mitre, collegiate
cap, &c., bas-relief, exterior view of Westminster Abbey. On each
side are two beautiful figures of Faith and Hope. This Rev. Prelate
was Chaplain to the British Factory at Lisbon, afterwards Preceptor
to the Princess, and Prebendary of this Church; in 1721, consecrated
Lord Bishop of Gloucester; in 1721, translated to Rochester, also
made Dean of this Church, and of the most Honourable Order of the
Bath. He died March 9, 1756, aged eighty-three, and is buried in a
vault in the Ecclesiastical Court, with his wife Jane, daughter of John
Milner, Esq., Consul at Lisbon. She died March 27, 1725, aged
twenty-eight; with Ann, their daughter, who died in her infancy.—
Cheere, sculptor.
Above is a curious monument, sacred to the memory of Richard
Tyrrell, Esq., who was descended from an ancient family of Ireland,
and died Rear-Admiral of the White, 26th June, 1766. Devoted from
his youth to the naval service of his country, and being formed under
the discipline, and animated by the example of his renowned uncle,
Sir Peter Warren, he distinguished himself as an able and
experienced officer in many gallant actions, particularly on the 20th
of November, 1758, when commanding the Buckingham, of sixty-six
guns, and one hundred and seventy-five men, he attacked and
defeated three French ships of war; one of them was the Florin, of
seventy-four guns, and seven hundred men; but the Buckingham
being too much disabled to take possession of her, after she had
struck, the enemy, under cover of the night, escaped; during the
action he received several wounds, and lost three fingers of his right
hand. Dying on his return to England from the Leeward Islands,
where he had for three years commanded a squadron of his
Majesty’s ships, his body was, by his own desire, committed to the
sea, with the proper honours and ceremonies. On a piece of rock
—“The sea shall give up her dead, and every one shall be rewarded
according to his works.” The figures History, Navigation, and
Hibernia, are well cut; they are represented among the rocks, with
the sea above their heads, the Admiral himself ascending amidst
heavy clouds.—Nathaniel Read, sculptor.
On a pedestal stands the bust of Dr. Zachary Pearce. The features
bear a striking resemblance to those of the original. On each side
are the ensigns of his prelatical dignities; and underneath is a Latin
inscription, of which the following is a translation:—“Sacred to the
memory of the most Reverend Zachary Pearce, S.T.P., Bishop of
Rochester, Dean of this Church, and of the most Honourable Order
of the Bath. The seeds of learning, which were early sown at
Westminster School, he cultivated to maturity at Cambridge: how
rich the produce, both as a critic and divine, his works, already
printed and published, will abundantly show. At length, growing fond
of retirement, and earnestly desirous of leisure for elucidating the
Scriptures, he resigned the Deanery of Westminster, as he wished to
have done that of his Bishoprick, could it have been permitted.
Having lived to finish what was the wish of his heart,—his
Commentary on the Holy Evangelists and the Acts of the Apostles,—
he rested from his labours, June 29, 1774, aged eighty-four.”—Tyler,
sculptor.
“In memory of the Very Rev. William Buckland, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of
Westminster, and of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath,
formerly Canon of Christ Church, Oxford, Trustee of the British
Museum, First Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University
of Oxford; founder of the Museum of Geology, which he bequeathed
to that University. Endued with superior intellect, he applied the
powers of his mind to the honour and glory of God, the
advancement of science, and the welfare of mankind. Born March
12, 1784; died August 14, 1856, aged seventy-two. ‘For the Lord
giveth wisdom, out of his mouth cometh knowledge and
understanding.’—Prov. xi. ver. 6. Erected by his children.”—H.
Weekes, A.R.A., sculptor, 1859.
The next is a bust, highly finished, and emblems of sacred offices.
The Latin inscription is to the following purport:—“Sacred to the
memory of the Reverend John Thomas, LL.D., Bishop of Rochester,
Dean of this Collegiate Church, and of the most Honourable Order of
the Bath. Having passed through the school at Carlisle with
reputation, he proceeded to Oxford, to gather a more abundant
harvest of knowledge, where he became both the ornament and
patron of genius, good morals, and of polite, as well as of profound
learning. With increasing fame everywhere spreading itself, he did
honour to dignities by his merit, improved riches by bestowing them,
presided over the Church with wisdom, defended it by his authority,
regulated it by his example; ever active in duties, and unwearied in
attentions, added to the strictest economy; till, after a well-spent
life, himself exhausted, but not his patience, by a long and painful
illness, he resigned his soul to God, August 20, 1793, aged eighty-
one years. His nephew, G.A.T., A.M., to whose lot it fell to perform it,
offers this unavailing tribute, as a testimony, though small, of Duty
and Affection.”—Bust by Nollekens.
Katharine Bovey.—The principal figures here are Faith, with her book
closed, and Wisdom, lamenting the death of her patroness; between
which is a lady’s head in an amulet of black marble, curiously veined.
Over it is an English inscription, giving a character of the deceased,
who died January 21, 1727, in the fifty-seventh year of her age. Mrs.
Mary Pope, who lived with her near forty years in perfect friendship,
erected this monument to her memory.—Gibbs, sculptor.
Lord Viscount Howe.—The emblematic representation on this
monument is a figure of the Genius of the Province of Massachuset’s
Bay, in a mournful posture, lamenting the fall of this hero, and the
family arms, ornamented with military trophies. Beneath is the
following inscription, in large characters:—“The Province of
Massachuset’s Bay, in New England, by an order of the Great and
General Court, bearing date February 1, 1759, caused this
monument to be erected to the memory of George, Lord Viscount
Howe, Brigadier-General of his Majesty’s Forces in North America,
who was slain, July 6, 1758, on the march of Ticonderoga, in the
thirty-fourth year of his age; in testimony of the sense they had of
his services and military virtues, and of the affection their officers
and soldiers bore to his command.” He lived respected and beloved:
the public regretted his loss: to his family it is irreparable.
Beneath is a bust to the memory of John Ireland, D.D.—The Latin
inscription sets forth, that he was a native of Ashburton, Devon.
Having pursued his studies at Oriel College, in the University of
Oxford, he was, in 1802, enrolled amongst the Prebendaries of this
Church; and afterwards, in 1816, raised to the Deanery of the same.
Deeply sensible of the benefits that were divinely showered upon
him in early life, he sought in after years to prove that he was not
unmindful of them. Whilst still among the living, he annually gave
liberal prizes for the encouragement of youthful studies, both at
Oxford and in the Royal School at Westminster. He also, by his last
will, bequeathed a munificent pecuniary legacy, partly to endow a
Professorship of Theology at Oxford, partly towards the support of
needy students of Oriel College, and partly that some assistance
might be furnished for rightly educating his townsmen of Ashburton.
He died September 2, 1842, aged eighty.—Turnouth, sculptor.
A neat tablet erected to the memory of Dr. Robert Cannon, Dean of
Lincoln, and Prebendary of this Church, who died March 28, 1722,
aged fifty-nine.
Over the West Cloisters door is a most stately monument to the
memory of General George Wade. In the centre is a beautiful marble
pillar, enriched with military trophies highly finished. The principal
figures represent Fame preventing Time from defacing his military
honours. The whole is finely executed, and cannot be too much
admired. The General’s head is in a medallion; and the inscription
runs thus:—“To the memory of George Wade, Field Marshal of his
Majesty’s Forces, Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance, Colonel of his
Majesty’s Third Regiment of Dragoon Guards, Governor of Fort
William, Fort Augustus, and Fort George, and one of his Majesty’s
most Honourable Privy Council. He died March 14, 1748, aged
seventy-five.”—Roubiliac, sculptor.
A monument of General Sir James Outram, with the following
inscription:—“To the memory of Lieutenant-General Sir James
Outram, G.C.B., K.S.I., &c., a soldier of the East India Company,
who, during a service of 40 years in war and in council, by deeds of
bravery and devotion, by an unselfish life, by benevolence, never
weary of well-doing, sustained the honour of the British nation, won
the love of his comrades, and promoted the happiness of the people
of India. This monument is erected by the Secretary of State for
India in Council. Born January 29, 1803; died March 11, 1863.
Interred in this Abbey at the public cost, March 25, 1863.” Under the
bust is represented in high relief an exquisite sculpture of Lord Clyde
and Outram shaking hands, with General Havelock between them
and other figures in the background; and on each side two figures of
the Scinde and Bihil tribes, lamenting the death of their “great
friend.”—Noble, sculp.
Charles Herries, Esq., Colonel of the Light Horse Volunteers of
London and Westminster, died April 3, 1819, in the seventy-fourth
year of his age. So much was he respected, that the regiment
followed him to the grave with filial reverence; and as a lasting
tribute of honour to his memory, raised this record at his virtues and
their affection. The monument consists of a bust, a strong
resemblance; on the base is represented a female, seated on bales,
as the city of London, over whom a warrior is holding a shield; by
him stands his horse, which he seems ready to mount for defence.—
Chantrey, sculptor.
Carola Harsnet.—This tomb has two learned inscriptions upon it, one
in Hebrew, the other in Greek; and was erected to the memory of
the wife of Sir Samuel Morland, Baronet, who died in child-bed of
her second son, Oct. 10, 1674, in the twenty-third year of her age.
The inscriptions are thus translated:—“Blessed be the Lord, my wife
was precious! Blessed be thy remembrance, oh, virtuous woman!”
Thus far the Hebrew. The Greek thus:—“When I think on thy
mildness, patience, charity, modesty, and piety, I lament thee, oh,
most excellent creature! and I grieve exceedingly; but not like such
as have no faith, for I believe and expect the resurrection of those
who sleep in Christ.”—Stanton, sculptor.
A beautiful monument to John Smith, Esq. The design is a pyramid
and altar, on which sits a lady veiled, mournful, and disconsolate,
resting her right arm on a fine bust in relief. On the base is a Latin
inscription, setting forth his descent from the Smith’s in Lincolnshire:
and issue, viz., two daughters, Ann, the eldest, first married to
Henry Parker, Esq., son of Sir Harry Parker, of Warwickshire, and
afterwards to Michael, Lord Dunkellin, eldest son of the Earl of
Clanrickard; and Mary, the youngest, married to Edward Desboverie,
of Langford, in Wilts, Bart. John Smith died July 6, 1718.—Gibbs,
sculptor.
Above is a monument erected to the memory of James Fleming, Major-
General of his Majesty’s Forces, and Colonel of a Regiment of Foot,
who, having served forty-four years a commissioned officer, died
March 17, 1750, aged sixty-eight. At the top of a beautiful pyramid
of marble, is a medallion of this General, at the base of which are
the figures of Minerva and Hercules, employed in binding the
emblems of Wisdom, Prudence, and Valour together, as
characteristics of the hero. The decorations are military trophies.—
Roubiliac, sculptor.
Ann Filding.—This tomb, on which are two very learned inscriptions,
one in Hebrew, the other in Ethiopic, is erected to the memory of
the second wife of Sir Samuel Morland, Baronet. The Hebrew
inscription is to this effect:—“Oh, thou fairest among women! oh!
virtuous woman! the hand of the Lord hath done this! the Lord gave,
and the Lord hath taken away, and blessed be the name of the
Lord.” The Ethiopic inscription is thus translated:—“Come, lament
o’er this monument with a beloved husband, for thee; but in certain
hope that thou art united with Christ. This lady was truly religious,
virtuous, faithful, mild as a dove, and chaste; while she continued in
life, she was honoured, and is happy, through mercy, in death.” This
is one of Mr. Addison’s modest inscriptions, that has not, perhaps,
been three times read in more than threescore years. Under the
Ethiopic is this inscription:—“Ann, daughter of George Filding, Esq.,
and Mary, his wife, the truly loving (and as truly beloved) wife of
Samuel Morland, Knight and Baronet, died February 20, 1679/80,
ætatis nineteen.”—Stanton, sculptor.
Diana Temple.—This old-fashioned monument seems to have been
designed not for one person, but for all Sir William Temple’s family,
as appears by the inscription, written by Sir William himself, in which
is mentioned Diana Temple, who died at fourteen; Dorothy Osborn,
probably Sir William’s lady, aged sixty-six; William Temple, aged
seventy; and Martha Giffard, called Lady Giffard, Sir William’s sister,
aged eighty-four.
Sir Charles Harbord, Knight, and Clement Cottrell, Esq.—On the base
of this double monument is represented in relief, a dreadful sea-
fight; and on the top, in a wreath of laurel, this inscription:—“To
preserve and unite the harmony of two faithful friends who lost their
lives at sea together, May 28, 1672.” These two young gentlemen, of
the most promising expectations, both perished in the Royal James,
with the Earl of Sandwich, who commanded in her as Vice-Admiral
against the Dutch, in that memorable fight off the coast of Sussex,
in Charles the Second’s time. The Royal James being set on fire, Sir
Charles Harbord, First Lieutenant, though he might have saved
himself by swimming, yet out of pure affection to his worthy
Commander, chose to die with him. Young Cottrell was a volunteer;
and having returned to his ship unwounded, from being the first
man that had boarded a Dutchman of seventy guns, and pulled
down the ensigns of her with his own hands, perished also with his
friends. This gentleman understood seven languages, though but
twenty-two years of age. This moving story is recited at large on the
monument, but too long to copy.
Above is the monument of William Hargrave, Esq., Lieutenant-General
of his Majesty’s forces, Colonel of the Royal English Fusileers, and
Governor of Gibraltar, who having been fifty-seven years a
commissioned officer, died 21st January, 1750, aged seventy-nine.
The figure of Time is represented to have overcome Death; he is
breaking the dart of Death across his knee; the pyramid is destroyed
at the sound of the trumpet, the dead rising, and the crown of Death
is fallen to the ground.—Designed and executed by Roubiliac.
A fine bust to Sidney, Earl Godolphin, with a rich cravat. In 1661, he
was Groom of the Bedchamber to Charles II.; 1679, Commissioner
of the Treasury; in 1684, Secretary of State, and the same year
created Baron of Rialton, in Cornwall, by James II. After the
Revolution he was made First Commissioner of the Treasury, and
soon after Lord High Treasurer, which office, as his inscription shows,
together with that of Chief Minister, he held during the first nine
glorious years of Queen Anne’s reign. He died Sept. 15, 1712, aged
sixty-seven.—Bird, sculptor.
Colonel Roger Townshend.—Here is a sarcophagus, supported by two
Indians, on the front of which is represented in bas-relief, the fall of
this great commander, with his officers attending him in his dying
moments. This monument is decorated with military trophies, and
beneath is the following inscription.—“This monument was erected
by a disconsolate parent, the Lady Vicountess Townshend, to the
memory of her fifth son, the Honourable Lieutenant-Colonel Roger
Townshend, who was killed by a cannon-ball, July 25, 1759, in the
twenty-eighth year of his age, as he was reconnoitring the French
lines at Ticonderagoe, in North America. From the parent, the
brother, and the friend, his social and amiable manners, his
enterprising bravery, and the integrity of his heart, may claim the
tribute of affection. Yet, stranger, weep not! for though premature
his death, his life was glorious, enrolling him with the names of
those immortal Statesmen and Commanders, whose wisdom and
intrepidity, in the course of this comprehensive and successful war,
have extended the commerce, enlarged the dominion, and upheld
the majesty of these kingdoms, beyond the idea of any former
age.”—Eckstein, sculptor.
Above is a tablet to Mrs. Bridget Radley, wife of Charles Radley, Esq.,
Gentleman Usher and Daily Waiter of James II., who erected this
monument to her memory. She died November 20, 1769.
A monument to Sir John Chardin, Bart., and is very emblematical,
alluding to the travels of this gentleman, by which, as his motto
expresses, “he acquired his fame.” The globe, round which a number
of geographical instruments are represented, exhibits a view of the
different countries through which he travelled; and the motto
beneath refers to the dangers he providentially escaped, for which
he ascribes to God the glory. A journal of his travels into the Eastern
countries he has published—a book in high esteem.—Henry Cheere,
sculptor.
Beneath is a monument with this inscription:—“Sacred to the
immortal memory of Sir Palmes Fairborne, Knight, Governor of Tangier,
in the execution of which command he was mortally wounded by a
shot from the Moors then besieging the town, in the forty-sixth year
of his age, October 24, 1680.” The following is the epitaph, written
by Mr. Dryden:—
“Ye sacred reliques which our marble keep
Here, undisturb’d by wars, in quiet sleep,
Discharge the trust which (when it was below)
Fairborne’s undaunted soul did undergo,
And be the town’s Palladium from the foe!
 Alive and dead, these walls he did defend:
Great actions great examples must attend.
The Candian siege his early value knew,
Where Turkish blood did his young hands imbrue;
From thence returning, with deserv’d applause,
Against the Moors his well-flesh’d sword he draws,
The same the courage, and the same the cause.
His youth and age, his life and death combine,
As in some great and regular design,
All of a piece throughout, and all divine.
Still nearer heaven, his virtues shone more bright:
Like rising flames expanding in their height,
The martyr’s glory crowns the soldier’s flight.
More bravely British Gen’ral never fell,
Nor Gen’ral’s death was e’er reveng’d so well,
Which his pleas’d eyes beheld before their close,
Follow’d by thousand victims of his foes.
To his lamented loss, for times to come,
His pious widow consecrates this tomb.”
On a lofty dome is the deceased’s arms, with this motto, “Tutis si
Fortis.” Over it a Turk’s head on a dagger, by way of crest, which he
won by his valour in fighting against that people in the German war.
—Bushnall, sculptor.
Major Andre.—On a moulded panelled base and plinth stands a
sarcophagus, on the panel of which is inscribed:—“Sacred to the
memory of Major John André, who, raised by his merit, at an early
period of life, to the rank of Adjutant-General of the British Forces in
America, and employed in an important, but hazardous enterprise,
fell a sacrifice to his zeal for his King and country, on the 2nd
October, 1780, aged twenty-nine, universally beloved and esteemed
by the army in which he served, and lamented even by his foes. His
gracious Sovereign, King George III., has caused this monument to
be erected;” and on the plinth—“The remains of the said Major
André were deposited on the 28th November, 1821, in a grave near
this monument.” This is the third head now placed on General
Washington’s figure; several others are new, the originals, being so
well executed, were too great a temptation for the curious pilferer to
withstand. The projecting figures: one of them (with a flag of truce)
is presenting to General Washington a letter, which André had
addressed to his Excellency the night previous to his execution,
worded thus:—“Sir, buoyed above the terror of death, by the
consciousness of a life devoted to honourable purposes, and stained
with no action which can give me remorse, I trust that the request
which I make to your Excellency at this serious period, and which is
to soften my last moments, will not be rejected; sympathy towards a
soldier will surely induce your Excellency, and a military tribunal, to
adapt the mode of my death to the feelings of a man of honour; let
me hope, Sir, that if aught in my character impresses you with
esteem towards me,—if aught in my misfortunes mark me as the
victim of policy and not of resentment,—I shall experience the
operations of those feelings in your breast, by being informed I am
not to die on a gibbet. I have the honour to be, your Excellency,
John André, Adjutant of the British Forces in America.”—Van Gelder,
sculptor.
Against the organ gallery is the monument to Thomas Thynne, Esq.—
The principal figure is represented in a dying posture, and at his feet
a cherub weeping. It has this inscription:—“Thomas Thynne, of
Longleate, in Co. Wilts, Esq., who was barbarously murdered on
Sunday, the 12th February, 1682;” which murder was conspired by
Count Koningsmarck, and executed by three assassins, hired for that
purpose, who shot him in Pall-Mall, in his own coach. The motive
was to obtain the rich heiress of Northumberland in marriage, who,
in her infancy, had been betrothed to the Earl of Ogle, but left a
widow, and afterwards married to Mr. Thynne.—Quellin, sculptor.
Opposite, is a tablet of fine marble to General Strode, decorated with
military trophies, and bearing this inscription:—“Near this place lie
the remains of William Strode, Esq., Lieutenant-General of his
Majesty’s Forces, and Colonel of the sixty-second Regiment of Foot.
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