Introduction to Topology

IKHLAS MADIHA

Contents

1 Basic Concepts Concerning Sets 2

1.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Cartesian Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Finite and Infinite Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Countable and Uncountable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Topological Space 3
2.1 Definition of a Topological Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Interior, Exterior, and Boundary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Cluster Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4 Base and Subbase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.5 Separable Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Continuous Function 4
3.1 Continuous Function at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Identification of Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3 Homomorphic Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4 Metric Space 5
4.1 Definition of a Metric Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.2 Topology of Metric Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.3 Continuity of Functions Between Metric Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.4 Lipschitzian Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.5 Equivalent Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

5 Sequence on the Metric Space 6

5.1 Convergence in Metric Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.2 Cauchy Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.3 Complex Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.4 Fixed Point Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

6 Connected and Compact Space 7

6.1 Definition of Connected Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.2 Properties of Connected Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.3 Compact Space and Its Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1
Chapter 1: Basic Concepts Concerning Sets
1.1. Basic Definitions
A set is a collection of distinct objects, called elements, denoted as A = {a1 , a2 , . . . }.

• If x is an element of A, we write x ∈ A.

• If x is not an element of A, we write x ∈

/ A.

1.2. Cartesian Product

The Cartesian product of two sets A and B is defined as:

A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.

1.3. Finite and Infinite Sets

• A set A is finite if there exists a bijection f : A → {1, 2, . . . , n} for some n ∈ N.

• A set is infinite if no such bijection exists.

1.4. Countable and Uncountable Sets

• A set A is countable if there exists a bijection f : A → N.

• A set is uncountable if it is not countable. For example, the set of real numbers
R is uncountable.

2
Chapter 2: Topological Space
2.1. Definition of a Topological Space
A topological space is a pair (X, τ ), where X is a set, and τ is a collection of subsets
of X (called the topology) such that:

1. ∅, X ∈ τ ,

2. τ is closed under arbitrary unions, and

3. τ is closed under finite intersections.

2.2. Interior, Exterior, and Boundary Points

• The interior of a set A, denoted by int(A), is the largest open set contained in A.

• The exterior of A, denoted by ext(A), is X \ A, where A is the closure of A.

• The boundary of A, denoted by ∂A, is A \ int(A).

2.3. Cluster Points

A point x ∈ X is a cluster point of a set A ⊆ X if every neighborhood of x contains at
least one point of A \ {x}.

2.4. Base and Subbase

• A base B for a topology τ is a collection of open sets such that any open set in τ
can be written as a union of sets in B.

• A subbase is a collection of sets whose finite intersections generate a base.

2.5. Separable Space

A topological space (X, τ ) is separable if it contains a countable dense subset.

3
Chapter 3: Continuous Function
3.1. Continuous Function at a Point
A function f : (X, τX ) → (Y, τY ) is continuous at a point x ∈ X if for every neighbor-
hood V of f (x) in Y , there exists a neighborhood U of x in X such that f (U ) ⊆ V .

3.2. Identification of Continuous Functions

A function f : (X, τX ) → (Y, τY ) is continuous if the preimage of every open set in Y is
open in X:
f −1 (V ) ∈ τX for all V ∈ τY .

3.3. Homomorphic Spaces

Two topological spaces (X, τX ) and (Y, τY ) are homeomorphic if there exists a bijective,
continuous function f : X → Y with a continuous inverse f −1 .

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Chapter 4: Metric Space
4.1. Definition of a Metric Space
A metric space is a set X with a function d : X × X → R, called a metric, satisfying:

1. d(x, y) ≥ 0 (non-negativity),

2. d(x, y) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = y (identity of indiscernibles),

3. d(x, y) = d(y, x) (symmetry), and

4. d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) (triangle inequality).

4.2. Topology of Metric Spaces

The topology of a metric space is generated by open balls:

Br (x) = {y ∈ X | d(x, y) < r},

where r > 0 is the radius, and x ∈ X is the center.

4.3. Continuity of Functions Between Metric Spaces

A function f : (X, dX ) → (Y, dY ) is continuous if:

∀ϵ > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that dX (x, x′ ) < δ =⇒ dY (f (x), f (x′ )) < ϵ.

4.4. Lipschitzian Functions

A function is Lipschitzian if there exists L > 0 such that:

dY (f (x), f (y)) ≤ L · dX (x, y) ∀x, y ∈ X.

4.5. Equivalent Distance

Two metrics d1 and d2 on the same set X are equivalent if they generate the same
topology.

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Chapter 5: Sequence on the Metric Space
5.1. Convergence in Metric Spaces
A sequence {xn } in a metric space (X, d) converges to x ∈ X if:

∀ϵ > 0, ∃N ∈ N such that n ≥ N =⇒ d(xn , x) < ϵ.

5.2. Cauchy Sequences

A sequence {xn } is a Cauchy sequence if:

∀ϵ > 0, ∃N ∈ N such that n, m ≥ N =⇒ d(xn , xm ) < ϵ.

5.3. Complex Sequences

A sequence {zn } of complex numbers converges if both its real and imaginary parts
converge.

5.4. Fixed Point Theorem

A fixed point of a function f : X → X is a point x ∈ X such that f (x) = x. The
Banach fixed-point theorem guarantees the existence of a unique fixed point under certain
conditions.

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Chapter 6: Connected and Compact Space
6.1. Definition of Connected Space
A topological space X is connected if it cannot be expressed as the union of two disjoint,
non-empty open subsets.

6.2. Properties of Connected Spaces

• Continuous images of connected spaces are connected.

• The intermediate value theorem is an example of a result relying on connectedness.

6.3. Compact Space and Its Properties

A topological space X is compact if every open cover of X has a finite subcover. In
metric spaces, a set is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded (Heine-Borel
theorem).