Proximate Principles of Feed

Proximate principles are the basic nutritional components of food or feed that provide energy and are essential for
the maintenance, growth, and functioning of the body. In animal nutrition, these include carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats, which are the primary sources of energy and body-building materials.

Sometimes, the term is also used interchangeably with proximate composition, which refers to the routine analysis
of feed or food to determine its nutrient content.

The main proximate principles include:

1. Moisture (Water Content)

o Represents the amount of water present in the feed.

o Important for determining shelf life and storage stability.

2. Crude Protein (CP)

o Estimated from the nitrogen content (usually by the Kjeldahl method).

o Indicates the protein level required for growth, repair, and maintenance.

3. Ether Extract (Crude Fat)

o Represents the fat content in the feed.

o A source of energy and essential fatty acids.

4. Crude Fiber (CF)

o The indigestible portion of plant material (mainly cellulose and lignin).

o Important for digestive health and gut motility.

5. Nitrogen-Free Extract (NFE)

o Represents the digestible carbohydrates (sugars, starches).

o Provides quick energy.

6. Ash (Total Mineral Content)

o The inorganic residue left after burning the feed.

o Indicates total mineral content (calcium, phosphorus, etc.).

Summary Table:

Proximate Principle Description Nutritional Role

Moisture Water content Affects feed preservation and intake

Crude Protein Total protein content Tissue building and repair

Ether Extract Fat content Energy and essential fatty acids

Crude Fiber Indigestible plant material Gut health and digestion

Nitrogen-Free Extract Digestible carbohydrates Energy source

Ash Mineral content Bone development, metabolic functions

Proximate Principle Description Nutritional Role

Major Nutrients and Their Functions in Veterinary Nutrition

Nutrient Functions in Animals

- Regulates body temperature

- Aids digestion, absorption, and excretion
1. Water
- Transport of nutrients and waste
- Maintains fluid balance

- Primary source of energy

- Supports metabolic functions
2. Carbohydrates
- Helps in fat synthesis
- Provides dietary fiber (gut health)

- Essential for growth and repair of body tissues

3. Proteins - Formation of enzymes, hormones, antibodies
- Supports reproduction and lactation

- Concentrated source of energy (2.25× more than carbohydrates)

4. Fats (Lipids) - Provides essential fatty acids

- Aids in absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)
- Insulation and protection of organs

- Regulate metabolism and enzyme activity

5. Vitamins - Support immunity and reproduction
- Each vitamin has a specific role (see below)

- Essential for bone and teeth formation

6. Minerals - Regulate nerve and muscle function
- Important for enzyme systems and hormone function

Vitamins (Classified)

Fat-Soluble Vitamins:

Vitamin Functions

Vitamin A Vision, reproduction, immune function

Vitamin D Calcium-phosphorus metabolism, bone formation

Vitamin E Antioxidant, reproduction, muscle health

Vitamin K Blood clotting, bone health

Water-Soluble Vitamins:

Vitamin Functions

Vitamin B Energy metabolism, red blood cell formation, nerve function

Vitamin Functions

complex

Antioxidant, wound healing (less essential in most animals, but important in some species like
Vitamin C
guinea pigs and primates)

Important Minerals

Mineral Function

Calcium (Ca) Bone formation, muscle contraction, blood clotting

Phosphorus (P) Bone structure, energy metabolism

Magnesium (Mg) Enzyme activation, nerve transmission

Potassium (K) Muscle and nerve function, acid-base balance

Sodium (Na) Electrolyte balance, nerve transmission

Chloride (Cl) Acid-base balance, digestion

Iron (Fe) Hemoglobin synthesis, oxygen transport

Copper (Cu) Enzyme systems, iron metabolism

Zinc (Zn) Skin health, immune function, reproduction

Iodine (I) Thyroid hormone production

Conclusion

Proper nutrient balance is essential in veterinary care to:

 Prevent deficiency diseases

 Promote growth and production

 Support immunity and reproduction

 Enhance overall animal welfare and productivity

📘 Feed Ingredients for Ration Formulation – Livestock & Poultry

🔑 1. Energy Sources

These ingredients supply carbohydrates and fats for energy needs.

Ingredient Remarks

Maize (corn) Most common energy source; palatable

Sorghum (jowar) Cheaper alternative to maize

Barley Moderate energy, good for ruminants

Wheat High energy, limit in poultry

Ingredient Remarks

Broken rice Easily digestible energy source

Molasses Energy + palatability enhancer

Cassava (Tapioca) Root-based energy, high starch

Bajra (Pearl millet) Used in poultry and cattle feed

🔑 2. Protein Sources

Essential for growth, production (meat, milk, eggs), and tissue repair.

🌿 Plant-based Protein Sources:

Ingredient Remarks

Soybean meal High protein (45–48%), rich in lysine

Groundnut cake Common, affordable, moderate quality protein

Cottonseed cake Used for ruminants; contains gossypol

Sunflower cake Good protein source with fiber

Mustard/Rapeseed cake Moderate protein; bitter if not processed

Sesame cake Rich in methionine

Maize gluten meal High protein, used in poultry

Rice bran extraction Moderate protein and energy

🐟 Animal-based Protein Sources (used mostly in poultry feed):

Ingredient Remarks

Fish meal High-quality protein and calcium/phosphorus

Meat and bone meal Used in poultry (regulated use)

Blood meal High protein, less palatable

Poultry by-product meal Rich in protein, cost-effective

🔑 3. Fiber Sources (Mainly for Ruminants)

Ingredient Remarks

Wheat bran Moderate fiber and energy

Rice bran Rich in oil and fiber

De-oiled cakes Residual fiber content

Sugarcane bagasse Low nutritive value, high fiber

Dry fodder/hay Essential for rumen health

🔑 4. Mineral Sources

Mineral Common Source

Calcium Limestone, dicalcium phosphate (DCP)

Phosphorus DCP, bone meal

Salt (NaCl) Common salt

Trace Minerals Mineral mixture (commercial)

🔑 5. Vitamin Sources

Usually added in vitamin premixes, especially in poultry and high-yielding livestock diets.

Vitamin Group Form Used

Fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) Vitamin premix

Water-soluble (B-complex, C) Added via premix or water

🔑 6. Feed Additives (Optional/Supportive)

Additive Purpose

Probiotics Improve gut health, digestion

Enzymes Aid digestion (phytase, xylanase)

Antioxidants Prevent rancidity in fat/oil-rich feed

Coccidiostats Control coccidiosis in poultry

Growth Promoters Enhance FCR (used under regulation)

📌 Note:

 The proportion of ingredients in a ration depends on species, age, production stage, and cost.

 Balanced ration formulation requires nutrient requirement charts (e.g., NRC, ICAR standards).

 Ruminants can utilize high-fiber feed, while poultry and pigs need low-fiber, high-energy diets.

🐄🐓 Feeding of Livestock and Poultry – Detailed Overview

🔑 I. General Principles of Feeding Animals

 Provide balanced rations (right nutrients in proper proportions).

 Feed should be palatable, digestible, economical, and free from toxins.

 Meet nutrient requirements based on:

o Age
 o Body weight

o Physiological status (growth, pregnancy, lactation, production level)

 Ensure clean water availability at all times.

📘 II. Types of Feed

Type of Feed Examples Purpose

Roughages Green fodder, dry fodder, silage, hay Bulk, fiber, energy

Concentrates Grains, oil cakes, bran, molasses High energy/protein supplements

Supplements Mineral mixture, vitamin premix Prevent deficiencies

Additives Probiotics, enzymes, antibiotics (regulated) Growth promotion, gut health

By-products Brewer’s grains, sugar beet pulp, DDGS Cost-effective nutrition

🐄 III. Feeding of Livestock (Cattle and Buffalo)

1. Calves (0–6 months)

 Start with colostrum (first 3 days).

 Gradual transition to calf starter, green fodder, and milk replacers.

 Provide clean water.

2. Growing Heifers

 Balanced diet to ensure good body growth and future reproductive health.

 Green fodder + concentrate mix.

3. Lactating Animals

 High energy and protein requirement.

 Ration includes: roughages + concentrates + mineral mix.

 1 kg concentrate per 2–2.5 liters of milk produced.

4. Pregnant Animals

 Increased nutrients in the last trimester.

 Special attention to calcium, phosphorus, and protein.

5. Dry Animals

 Maintenance ration – mostly roughages.

 Avoid overfeeding to prevent obesity.

🐑🐐 IV. Feeding of Sheep and Goats

 Grazing animals – mostly feed on pasture.

 Supplement with concentrates during pregnancy and lactation.

  Provide salt licks and minerals.

 Avoid toxic plants while grazing.

🐖 V. Feeding of Pigs

Stage Feed Type

Piglets (up to 2 months) Milk, creep feed

Growers (2–6 months) Grower ration (protein-rich)

Finishers (6–8 months) Energy-dense ration

Breeding Sows/Boars Balanced diet, fiber-rich feed

 Feed conversion efficiency is high.

 Use kitchen waste, brewery waste (if allowed and properly processed).

🐓 VI. Feeding of Poultry (Layers and Broilers)

1. Broilers (Meat Production)

Age Group Feed Type Key Nutrients

Starter (0–3 wks) Starter mash/pellet High protein (22–23%)

Grower (3–6 wks) Grower feed Energy and protein

Finisher (6+ wks) Finisher feed Energy-rich

2. Layers (Egg Production)

Stage Feed Type Key Focus

Chick (0–8 wks) Chick mash Protein (20–22%)

Grower (8–18 wks) Grower mash Body development

Layer (18+ wks) Layer mash Calcium (for eggshells), energy

 Provide shell grit/limestone for calcium.

 Clean water and lighting schedule are essential.

VII. Feeding Techniques

 Ad libitum feeding: Feed is always available (common in poultry).

 Restricted feeding: Controlled amounts at set times.

 Total Mixed Ration (TMR): All feed components mixed and fed together.

 Silage and Hay Making: Preservation methods for off-season feeding.

🧠 VIII. Common Feeding Problems

  Deficiency disorders (e.g., milk fever, rickets)

 Overfeeding or underfeeding

 Poor feed quality or contamination

 Improper feed storage (mold, spoilage)

✅ IX. Importance of Good Feeding

 Improves productivity (milk, meat, eggs)

 Enhances reproductive performance

 Boosts immunity and health

 Reduces production costs

📘 Feed Supplements and Feed Additives

🔸 1. Feed Supplements

Definition:
Feed supplements are substances added to an animal's diet to supply essential nutrients that may be lacking in the
basic feed. These nutrients include minerals, vitamins, proteins, or energy sources.

Purpose:

 To improve the nutritional balance of the feed.

 To support growth, reproduction, and production (milk, eggs, meat).

 To prevent or correct deficiencies in the diet.

Examples of Feed Supplements:

Type Examples

Mineral Supplements Dicalcium phosphate (DCP), Salt (NaCl)

Vitamin Supplements Vitamin A, D, E premixes

Protein Supplements Soybean meal, Groundnut cake

Energy Supplements Molasses, Vegetable fat powder

🔸 2. Feed Additives

Definition:
Feed additives are non-nutritive substances added to animal feed to improve feed quality, palatability, digestibility,
animal health, and performance. These substances do not directly provide nutritional value but support feed
effectiveness and animal productivity.

Purpose:

 Improve feed utilization and efficiency.

 Enhance animal health and reduce disease risks.

 Preserve feed quality (prevent spoilage).

  Improve flavor or acceptability of feed.

Examples of Feed Additives:

Type Examples

Probiotics Lactobacillus spp. (improves gut health)

Enzymes Phytase, Xylanase (enhances digestion)

Antioxidants BHT (prevents fat rancidity)

Coccidiostats Amprolium (controls coccidiosis in poultry)

Flavors/Sweeteners Vanilla flavor, Saccharin (improves palatability)

🔸 3. Difference Between Feed Supplements and Feed Additives

Aspect Feed Supplements Feed Additives

Definition Add essential nutrients to the feed Improve performance without adding nutrients

Purpose Correct nutrient deficiencies Enhance feed efficiency, quality, and health

Nutritional Value Yes, they provide nutrients No, they do not provide direct nutrition

Examples Minerals, Vitamins, Proteins Enzymes, Probiotics, Antioxidants

Usage Used when feed lacks essential nutrients Used to support digestion, health, or preservation

✅ Summary:

 Feed supplements = Provide missing nutrients.

 Feed additives = Support better utilization and animal performance.

🐄🐓 Improvement of Farm Animals and Poultry

🔸 What Does "Improvement" Mean?

Improvement of farm animals and poultry refers to the scientific methods and management practices used to
enhance their:

 Productivity (milk, meat, eggs, wool, etc.)

 Reproductive efficiency

 Health and disease resistance

 Growth rate and body conformation

 Economic value and adaptability

🔸 Methods of Improvement

1️⃣ Genetic Improvement (Breeding Methods)

This involves selecting and mating animals to pass on superior traits to the next generation.
a. Selective Breeding:

 Choosing the best males and females for reproduction.

 Two types:

o Inbreeding: Mating animals of the same breed (to fix desired traits).

o Outbreeding: Mating animals of different breeds or unrelated lines (for hybrid vigor).

b. Crossbreeding:

 Mating animals of two different breeds to combine the best traits of both.

o Example: Crossing Jersey x Desi cow for higher milk yield and adaptability.

c. Artificial Insemination (AI):

 Semen from superior males is collected and used to inseminate females.

 Widely used for faster genetic improvement and disease control.

d. Embryo Transfer Technology (ETT):

 High genetic potential embryos are transferred to surrogate mothers.

 Increases the number of offspring from elite females.

2️⃣ Nutritional Improvement

 Providing a balanced diet as per the species, age, and purpose (milk/meat/egg production).

 Use of feed supplements and additives to improve growth and immunity.

3️⃣ Health Management

 Regular vaccination, deworming, and biosecurity to prevent diseases.

 Early detection and treatment of diseases improve animal longevity and productivity.

4️⃣ Housing and Management Practices

 Proper shelter with ventilation, space, hygiene, and comfort.

 Scientific management improves growth, fertility, and production.

5️⃣ Record Keeping and Performance Monitoring

 Keeping track of production, health, breeding, and feeding records helps in identifying high-performing
animals and culling low-performing ones.

🔸 Benefits of Animal Improvement

 Higher milk, meat, or egg yield.

 Better feed conversion efficiency.

  Improved resistance to diseases.

 Increased reproductive performance.

 Better adaptability to local conditions.

 Economic benefit to farmers.

✅ Conclusion

Improvement of farm animals and poultry is a combination of genetics, nutrition, health care, and management
practices. When done scientifically, it leads to sustainable livestock farming and higher productivity.

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improvement strategies for a specific species like dairy cattle, broilers, or layers?

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better productivity and profitability.

🐄🐔 Basic Strategies for Farm Animals and Poultry Improvement

1️⃣ Selective Breeding

 Choose animals with high genetic potential (good milk, egg, or meat producers).

 Use proven breeding males (bulls, boars, cocks) to improve offspring quality.

 Maintain records of pedigree and performance.

2️⃣ Balanced Feeding

 Provide nutritionally complete and balanced feed based on age, species, and purpose.

 Include roughages, concentrates, minerals, and vitamins.

 Use feed supplements and additives to enhance growth and health.

 Ensure clean, fresh drinking water at all times.

3️⃣ Disease Prevention and Health Care

 Implement routine vaccination and deworming programs.

 Maintain hygiene and sanitation in animal sheds and poultry houses.

 Follow biosecurity measures to prevent disease outbreaks.

 Quarantine new animals before mixing with the main herd/flock.

4️⃣ Proper Housing and Management

 Provide well-ventilated, clean, and spacious shelters.

  Ensure protection from extreme weather, predators, and pests.

 Follow species-specific management practices (like brooding in poultry, calving pens in cattle).

5️⃣ Scientific Breeding Techniques

 Use Artificial Insemination (AI) to improve genetics and avoid disease transmission.

 Adopt crossbreeding or hybrid breeding for higher productivity and adaptability.

 Apply Embryo Transfer Technology (ETT) for rapid multiplication of elite animals.

6️⃣ Record Keeping

 Maintain records for:

o Feeding

o Breeding

o Milk/Egg/Meat production

o Health and vaccination

o Growth and weight

 Helps in decision making and selection of high-yielding animals.

7️⃣ Culling and Replacement

 Cull (remove) unproductive, unhealthy, or old animals.

 Replace with young, high-performing stock to improve herd/flock efficiency.

8️⃣ Training and Farmer Awareness

 Regular training of farmers on:

o Modern animal husbandry practices

o Scientific feeding

o Disease management

o Breeding technologies

🐄🐓 Digestion in Livestock and Poultry

🔸 What is Digestion?

Digestion is the process by which animals break down feed into simpler substances (nutrients) that can be absorbed
and used for body functions like growth, milk/egg/meat production, reproduction, and maintenance.

🐄 1. Digestion in Livestock (Cattle, Sheep, Goats – Ruminants)

🔹 Ruminant Digestive System – Complex, 4-chambered stomach:

Stomach
Function
Compartments

Fermentation chamber; microbes digest fibrous feeds (like grasses, hay) and produce volatile
Rumen
fatty acids (VFAs).
Stomach
Function
Compartments

Reticulum Collects heavy objects; works with rumen in regurgitation (chewing cud).

Omasum Absorbs water and nutrients; filters digested feed.

Abomasum True stomach; secretes gastric juices and enzymes for digestion like in monogastrics.

🔹 Digestion Process in Ruminants:

1. Animal eats and feed goes to rumen → microbes start fermentation.

2. Animal regurgitates cud and chews it again for better breakdown.

3. Feed passes through reticulum → omasum → abomasum.

4. Nutrients are further digested and absorbed in the intestines.

5. Microbial protein, VFAs, amino acids, and minerals are absorbed and used for milk/meat production.

🐖🐑 2. Digestion in Non-Ruminants (Pigs, Horses, Rabbits, Poultry)

🔹 Monogastric Digestive System – Single-chambered stomach:

 Pigs and poultry have a simpler digestion system compared to ruminants.

 They depend more on enzymatic digestion rather than microbial fermentation.

🐓 3. Digestion in Poultry (Chickens, Ducks, Turkeys)

Poultry have a specialized but simple digestive system adapted for rapid digestion.

🔹 Major Digestive Organs in Poultry:

Organ Function

Beak and Mouth No teeth; feed is swallowed whole.

Crop Storage sac; softens feed before digestion.

Proventriculus Glandular stomach; secretes digestive enzymes.

Gizzard (Ventriculus) Muscular organ; grinds feed with help of grit (small stones).

Small Intestine Enzymes digest nutrients; absorption of proteins, fats, carbohydrates.

Caeca Limited fermentation of fiber.

Cloaca Common outlet for digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.

🔸 Key Differences Between Ruminant and Poultry Digestion

Feature Ruminants Poultry

Stomach Four chambers No stomach, but crop, proventriculus, gizzard

Digestion Microbial fermentation in rumen Enzymatic digestion mostly

Feature Ruminants Poultry

Fiber digestion Efficient Limited

Chewing Regurgitate and chew cud No chewing – feed swallowed whole

✅ Summary:

 Livestock (Ruminants) rely heavily on microbial fermentation for digesting fibrous feed.

 Poultry and pigs (Monogastrics) depend mainly on enzymes and mechanical digestion.

 Understanding digestion helps in formulating better feed for better productivity.

Aspect Hay Silage

Moisture Content 10–20% (low moisture) 50–70% (high moisture)

Preservation Method Sun drying (curing) Anaerobic fermentation (no oxygen)

Main Crops Used Grass, alfalfa, clover, legumes Grass, maize (corn), sorghum, alfalfa, legumes

When the crop is at optimal maturity, then Harvested earlier to retain nutrients and
Harvest Timing
dried moisture

Storage Bales (square or round), stored dry Silos (tower, bunker), wrapped bales, pit silage

Shelf Life Long (if kept dry and mold-free) Several months (if kept airtight)

Weather Highly weather-dependent (requires dry Less dependent on weather (can be made
Dependency weather) quickly)

Slightly lower due to nutrient loss during

Nutritional Value Higher (retains more energy and protein)
drying

Palatability Less palatable compared to silage More palatable, often preferred by livestock

Spoilage Risk Prone to mold if not dried properly Spoils quickly if exposed to air

Fermentation produces lactic acid for

Fermentation No fermentation involved
preservation

Higher (requires choppers, silos, wrapping

Cost of Preparation Relatively lower (basic machinery needed)
equipment)

Preferred for dairy cattle and high-production

Feeding Suitability Suitable for most livestock (esp. horses)
animals

Labor Requirement Moderate High (chopping, packing, sealing)

Transportability Easy to transport Heavier and bulkier due to moisture content

Classify and define different type of ration in livestock

In livestock management, rations refer to the amount and type of feed given to animals to meet their
nutritional requirements. Different types of rations are classified based on the animal's stage of life,
production purpose (e.g., growth, lactation, reproduction), and the nutritional content of the feed. Here are
the main types of rations in livestock:

1. Maintenance Ration

 Definition: This type of ration provides the nutrients required to maintain an animal’s body weight and basic
physiological functions (e.g., respiration, digestion, temperature regulation) without any growth or
production.
 Purpose: To keep the animal in a stable condition when there is no productive demand like milk production
or growth.
 Examples: Adult cattle that are not in lactation or pigs not in the growing stage.

2. Growth Ration

 Definition: This ration is designed to provide adequate nutrients for animals that are growing, allowing for
tissue development and weight gain.
 Purpose: To promote optimal growth rates in young animals.
 Examples: Rations for calves, lambs, or piglets that are in the growing phase.

3. Production Ration

 Definition: This type of ration is formulated to support animals that are actively producing, such as lactating
cows, laying hens, or breeding sows.
 Purpose: To support the animal’s productive output (milk, eggs, or offspring).
 Examples: Lactating dairy cows or broiler hens.

4. Reproduction Ration

 Definition: A ration designed to meet the nutritional needs of animals during the breeding season or
gestation period to ensure reproductive health, embryo development, and successful conception.
 Purpose: To improve fertility, support pregnancy, and ensure the health of the offspring.
 Examples: Rations for pregnant cows or sows to ensure healthy gestation and development of offspring.

5. Finishing Ration

 Definition: This ration is formulated for animals nearing market weight, focusing on maximizing weight gain
in a short period with a high-energy diet.
 Purpose: To ensure that the animal reaches its optimal market weight and muscle mass before slaughter.
 Examples: Cattle and pigs near market size being fed for finishing.

6. High-Energy Ration

 Definition: These rations are designed to provide a high concentration of energy, usually in the form of
carbohydrates and fats, to support high-producing or growing animals.
 Purpose: To promote high levels of production, weight gain, or performance.
 Examples: Rations for lactating dairy cows or growing pigs.

7. High-Protein Ration

 Definition: These rations are rich in protein, essential for the development of muscle mass, milk production,
and tissue repair.
 Purpose: To support muscle growth, repair, and reproductive health.
  Examples: Rations for young, growing livestock or high-producing dairy cows.

8. Supplementary Ration

 Definition: A supplementary ration is an additional feed given to animals to make up for deficiencies in the
primary diet. It may include vitamins, minerals, or other nutrients.
 Purpose: To correct deficiencies in the main diet and ensure balanced nutrition.
 Examples: Adding mineral supplements to the feed for cows or providing vitamin-rich feed additives.

9. Roughage Ration

 Definition: This ration consists mainly of fibrous materials, such as hay, silage, or pasture, that provide bulk
and aid in digestion.
 Purpose: To provide necessary fiber for proper rumen function and overall gut health in ruminants.
 Examples: Grazing cattle or sheep, hay or silage-based diets.

10. Complete Ration

 Definition: A complete ration is a balanced feed mixture that provides all the nutrients (energy, protein,
vitamins, and minerals) required by the animal, without the need for additional supplements.
 Purpose: To ensure that the animal receives all essential nutrients in one feed.
 Examples: Pelletized feed for poultry or formulated rations for pigs.

11. Concentrate Ration

 Definition: A concentrate ration is a feed that contains a high concentration of nutrients, especially energy
and protein, with low fiber content.
 Purpose: To provide energy and protein in a concentrated form, especially for animals in high production or
growth phases.
 Examples: Grains, protein meals, and other concentrated feed ingredients for pigs or poultry.

12. Total Mixed Ration (TMR)

 Definition: This is a complete and balanced mixture of forages, grains, protein, and other feedstuffs, all mixed
together to provide the animal with a uniform diet.
 Purpose: To simplify feeding management and ensure that animals receive a balanced diet in each mouthful.
 Examples: Commonly used in dairy cattle and some beef operations.

By understanding and appropriately formulating these different rations, livestock managers can ensure
animals receive the right nutrition for their specific needs, which supports optimal health, growth, and
productivity.